Institute of Tourism and Hospitality

(Moscow) (branch) FGOU VPO "RGUTiS"

Independent work

Wood in Russian folk crafts

Work completed:

Kharitonova Evgenia.

Supervisor:

Kiseleva Dina Akhmetzhanovna

Moscow 2010

1. Introduction

3. Types of woodcarving

3.1 Flat carving

3.1.1 relief carving

3.1.2 Contra-relief carving

3.1.3 Geometric thread

3.1.4 Contour thread

3.2 Sculptural or three-dimensional carving

3.3 Slotted or sawn thread

3.3.1 Flat-notched thread

3.3.2 Openwork (through) woodcarving

3.4 Root repair

4. Wooden architecture

5. Carving in the decor of household items

6. Vine weaving

7. Conclusion

8. List of used literature

1. Introduction

Folk art, as never before, attracts the attention of not only researchers, but also its lovers. The lively giving of antiquity was combined in folk art with the unfading poetry of life. “The level of culture of an epoch, as well as an individual person,” said A.S. Pushkin, “is determined by the attitude to the past.” Folk art is the past, living in the present, aspiring to the future with its dream of the unprecedented. Each center of folk art presents its own stylistic view of the artistic processing of material and technology: pottery, wood carving and painting, metal forging and openwork carving on tin, weaving, embroidery, lace-making. All this is preserved and lives in the Russian village, often making up the ethnographic living environment in the villages of many nationalities. I would like to dwell in more detail on such a kind of folk art as carving and painting on wood.

Artistic carving on a tree has been known since primitive times among almost all peoples in different parts of the Earth. With the constant improvement of labor tools, with the transition from stone cutters to metal tools, craftsmen mastered new technologies, more and more artistically advanced types of carving. Since ancient times, being one of the most important areas of folk art, carving still makes up a significant part of traditional artistic crafts.

Russia is the most forested country in the world (45% of the territory is covered with forests, mostly coniferous (taiga)). It is not surprising that arts and crafts are developed in many regions of our country. artistic processing wood. This fishery also exists in the western regions of Ukraine, in Belarus, Lithuania, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan.

2. Geographical centers of woodcarving

carving tree architecture relief

The village of Bogorodskoye is located in the Moscow region, Sergiev Posad district.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the village of Bogorodskaya became a large craft for wooden toys.

In the 1900s Moscow Zemstvo began a revival best traditions fishing. The most active work in this direction was carried out by the artist N.D. Bartram. He suggested using old engravings, lithographs, folk prints in carving. The creation of unique sculptural compositions dedicated to fairy tale, folklore, historical themes, everyday scenes of peasant urban life was encouraged. (P.F. Bondarenkov “The Battle of Yeruslan Lazarevich with the Serpent Gorynych”, F.D. Eroshkin “How mice buried a cat”, A.Ya. Chushkin and M.I. Sutulov “folk festivals”).

Before the First World War, a training and demonstration workshop was created with an instructor class in carving under the guidance of the sculptor K.E. Lindblat, and the leading carvers of the craft united in a handicraft toy-carving artel. However, the military operations that began soon after and the economic crisis that followed them led to the decline of the fishery.

In 1923, the artel "Bogorodsky carver" was organized. Along with the traditional products of the craft, the masters of the artel created products that reflected the new living conditions. (V.S. Zinin "Chapaevskaya Tochanka", A.A. Pronin "Red Convoy", N.A. Eroshkin "Collective Farm Brigade").

In the 1930s, Bogorodsk sculpture was enriched with genre plots of a narrative nature, based on fairy tales, captivating with the sincerity of the artistic language. (works by I.K. Sutulov, N.A. Eroshkin, V.T. Polinov). A qualitatively new turn begins in the 60s. The most famous masters are N.M. Maksimov, M.I. Smirnov, N.M. Shipeev and many others. The 70s and 80s were marked by the emergence of interest in the country's historical past and folk culture. The works of artists embody the optimistic festive understanding of life, characteristic of folk artists. Bogorodsk carving still occupies a significant place in the decorative arts. Bogorodsk craftsmen, passing on the traditions of their art from generation to generation, created original, unique toys.

Perfectly using the artistic expressiveness of the texture and color of wood, the craftsmen skillfully combine smooth surface treatment with shallow cuts and notches in the toy, with which they convey various details. Bogorodsk toys are characterized by plot, group compositions, genre scenes, masters often use fairy-tale and historical themes. Many toys are made moving, which enhances their expressiveness. They are made in the technique of sculptural carving. In the manufacture of used wood linden, alder and aspen.

You can get acquainted with the rich artistic traditions of craft on the example of the exhibits of the assortment room of the Bogorodsk Wood Carving Factory, where fascinating excursions are held for lovers of folk art.

Villages: Abramtsevo, Kudrino, Akhtyrka and pos. Khotkovo. (Sergiev Posad district).

Sergiev Posad region has been one of the largest centers in Russia for the artistic processing of wood for several centuries.

Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving, art craft woodcarving, formed at the end of the 19th century. in the vicinity of the Abramtsevo estate near Moscow Abramtsevo, an estate near the city of Zagorsk, Moscow Region; from 1843 - Aksakov's estate, from 1870 - S. I. Mamontov, from 1918 - a museum. In the park adjacent to the wooden manor house of the mid-18th century. carvers from the surrounding villages of Khotkovo, Akhtyrka, Kudrin, Mutovka worked. In 1890, one of the students of V. P. Vornoskov founded own production in his native village of Kudrin and began to work on orders from the Abramtsevo workshop.

A special style of ornamental carving was formed in the Kudrin workshop; successful combinations flat-relief carving with geometric, laid down the principles of the organic use of carved decor in utilitarian objects. In the first years of work, professional artists - V. I. Sokolov, S. V. Malyutin, employees of the Handicraft Museum, provided great assistance in the development of a special "Vornosk" style. The products of Vornoskov and his followers - ladles, caskets, barrels, salt shakers, decorative dishes and vases covered with rhythmic floral ornaments, are distinguished by a variety of toning, emphasizing the natural beauty of wood. The floral ornament is based not only on samples of carved peasant products and house decor, but also on the ornamental screensavers of old printed books. The development of the ornament of the Kudrin masters went from the connection of individual elements - twigs, curls, rosettes - to solid ornamental compositions covering the entire product. In 1922, the Vozrozhdenie artel was organized in Kudrin, which began to develop rapidly, in the mid-1930s. more than 120 people worked there. The products of the artel were in great demand, and were repeatedly awarded diplomas at Russian and international exhibitions. In 1936, a unique order was completed: the decoration of one of the entrances to the exhibition of folk art in the Tretyakov Gallery. This is the only work of Kudrintsy in the field of monumental art. In subsequent years, craftsmen and artists of different generations developed the craft - V. V. Vornoskov, M. V. Artemiev, A. I. Gulyaeva, Z. N. Borodulina, T. V. Alkhimovich, L. V. Barkan, N. N. and G. I. Simankin. At present, the fishing center is located in the city of CITY - a special territorial-administrative, socio-economic, socio-cultural form of existence of society, a kind of universal world history, which has always had stable signs, in Khotkovo, Sergiev Posad district, where the factory of carved art products. Masters of the Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving are trained by the Abramtsevo Art and Industrial College named after V. M. Vasnetsov.

The village of Akhtyrka near Khotkovo has been known since 1504. In Akhtyrka, a craft was developed - the artistic manufacture of household items, which began with a carpentry workshop in Abramtsevo. In 1931, an industrial collective farm was formed in Akhtyrka - a mixed artel with the Agriculture and handicraft. Artel made caskets, lockers, decorative plates, trays; children's chairs.

Sergiev Posad. Painting on wood with burning. It originated in the late 19th century, early 20th century. In Sergiev Posad, toys, caskets and boxes with the image of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the cities of the "Golden Ring" of Russia are produced.

It is here that such well-known production facilities as CJSC "Art Products and Toys", CJSC "AOFIS", CJSC "Sergiev Posadskaya Toy", PE "Shvedov", CJSC "Bogorodsky Carver", CJSC "Bogorodsk Factory of Artistic Wood Carving" are located. whose masters continue to creatively develop the traditions of ancient crafts.

The earliest documentary evidence of the manufacture of toys in the city dates back to the 1780s - 1790s. History has preserved the names of the masters Shkunov, Nikolai Bourdunyir and Pyotr Podmasteryev, who were engaged in the production of " different kind dolls”, teaching township children “coloring dolls”. V early XIX v. Sergievsky Posad was already the recognized Russian "capital of the toy kingdom." The local bazaar impressed buyers with a variety of goods: chiseled eggs, rattles, mushrooms, carpentry carts, as well as carved and painted wooden so-called “dolls” - figures of the “hussar”, “Lady”, “Nurse”, “Dandy” and other characters . Most likely, at the beginning of their appearance, the “dolls” were decorative sculptures that served in urban life as “fashion decorations”. They were cut out of trihedral chocks and were distinguished by the completeness of volumes, expressive, laconic interpretation of details, major color solution.

The plastic expressiveness of the images is achieved by the masters by the simplest, time-tested means based on the traditional principles of building a form within the boundaries of a triangular bar or “hump” - a semicircle of a tree bar. The carving is done quickly, "on the fly", with confident large and small cuts, often having an ornamental design. The advantages of the works include the clarity and rhythmic clarity of the silhouettes of the figures, the effects of chiaroscuro created by textured surface treatment. Emphasizing the peculiarities of the wood texture, the carvers leave the toys unpainted - “in linen”. To enhance the emotional expressiveness of the images, their amusements often make individual parts of the figures movable, fixing them on a spring, using simple methods using buttons, sliding bars and balance.

In the production of porcelain, papier-mâché and mastic products, wooden blanks were widely used, which were made by the most experienced carvers in the city. There were even whole dynasties of such masters. For example, the Ryzhov dynasty.

The city of Kirov (Vyatka) is the main fishing center. The industry originated in the early 19th century. A permanent Center for Contemporary Folk Art Crafts has been opened in Kirov. Wooden boxes with Mizen painting, which have no analogues in Vyatka, are surprising. The symbol of the Arkhangelsk region is a painted wooden chip bird. Traditional Mizen painting has a lot of bright colors - red and green, apparently due to the northern lack of sun. From the plots there are horses, birds, floral ornaments. The Kirov matryoshka is unique, decorated with a straw pattern. The first mention of the Vyatka nesting doll appeared in 1924. In the funds of the Kirov Museum of Local Lore, only one matryoshka, dating back to the beginning of the century, has been preserved.

I would like to dwell on the Mezen painting in more detail. Like most other folk crafts, this painting got its name from the area in which it originated. Mezen painting is one of the most ancient Russian art crafts. Its origins are lost in the distant centuries of the initial formation of the Slavic tribes. Fishing reached its peak of popularity in the 19th century. Mezen spinning wheels and boxes were widely distributed along the Pinega River, exported to the Pechora, Dvina and Onega. The theme of the Mezen paintings and the stylization of the drawing, conciseness and expressiveness, bring them closer to the ancient rock paintings of the Russian North; restrained coloring, where the black outline emphasizes the tense sound of a brownish-red color. In the mezen there is no usual Russian folk brightness, multicolor. Ornaments have a mean, primitive conditional graphic form.

Many of the decorative paintings were destroyed by time and only a few patterns have come down to us. Often they are similar in style, manner, color, but there are no two exactly repeating.

Mezen was written with soot and clay, which were dissolved in an infusion of larch resin. The painting was carried out with a chip soaked at the end and a black grouse feather, which indicates very ancient traditions. Unfortunately, few people are engaged in the restoration of the Mezen painting. It can only be seen in the Zagorsk Museum or on the Mezen itself.

Veliky Ustyug (Vologda region). Skilled Ustyug craftsmen, carefully preserving, developing and enriching the ancient original crafts and folk crafts that arose in the north of Russia, are able to create real works of art Folk art crafts and crafts of Veliky Ustyug are high examples of national artistic culture. In Veliky Ustyug, as elsewhere in the Vologda region, a variety of folk crafts developed - from embroidery to metalworking.

Shemogoda birch carving is of particular interest. Shemogoda carving was distinguished by a traditional floral motif: a thin branch, together with foliage, smoothly curving, filled the entire field of carving with patterned lace. The ornaments of Shemogoda carvers, called "birch lace", were used in the manufacture of caskets, boxes, tea caddies, pencil cases, tuesov, dishes, plates, cigarette cases. Now the traditions of this unique craft, which exists only in Veliky Ustyug, are continued by the Veliky Ustyug Patterns enterprise. Shemogodskaya carving is a traditional Russian folk art craft of birch bark carving, which was brought to fame by the masters of the Shemogodsky volost of the Veliky Ustyug district. In the villages located along the banks of the Shemogsa, a tributary of the Northern Dvina, as early as the 18th century, peasants learned the art of through-slitting and embossing on birch bark. The Shemogoda village of Kurovo-Navolok was famous for its high skill in carving birch bark, and I. A. Veprev, a peasant of this village, was the most talented carver-artist. Over time, this type of craftsmanship turned into a craft. The ornaments of Shemogoda carvers, called "birch lace", were used in the manufacture of caskets, boxes, tea caddies, pencil cases, tuesov, dishes, plates, cigarette cases.

The pattern of Shemogoda carving consists, as a rule, of a creeping stem with elongated leaves and spirally twisted branches. At their tips are round rosettes, berries, shamrocks. Often, masters introduced geometric patterns from circles, rhombuses - “gingerbread”, ovals, segments into floral ornaments. The composition was built on the principle of clear symmetry. They completed the drawing with a border of leaves, triangles, wavy lines, mesh. Images of birds or animals, architectural motifs, and sometimes even scenes of walking in the garden and drinking tea can be inscribed in this ornament. Another characteristic feature this carving are frames with geometric ornaments surrounding the picture.

The main contours of the image are applied to the prepared birch bark plate with a blunt awl. Then, with a sharp knife, cut out the pattern and remove the background. The silhouette ornament is decorated with small cuts. Embossing is applied to birch bark with the same blunt awl. After that, a birch bark plate was glued onto a product, usually made of soft wood (aspen), sometimes the background was tinted or colored foil was glued.

In 1918, carvers from the village of Kurovo-Navolok united in a cooperative artel (in 1935 it was renamed the artel "Artist"). On Shemoks there was another artel, created in 1934 by Nikolai Vasilyevich Veprev. It was called "Solidarity". The best carvers were invited to this artel, who tried to preserve the traditions of Shemogod carving. In the war and post-war years, there was a carving workshop at the Shemogodsk furniture factory. In 1964, the production was considered unprofitable, both artels were closed, and the craftsmen were fired. Great efforts were required to restore the Shemogoda carving. This happened in 1967, when a workshop for the manufacture of caskets, tuesas and other items decorated with slotted birch bark was established at the Kuzinsky Mechanical Plant. After the unsuccessful "innovations" of the 1950-1960s, the fishery began to actively develop again. In 1981, the Veliky Ustyug Patterns art and production plant was created, continuing the traditions of openwork knitting.

The names of many talented craftsmen are associated with the history of the craft. The State Historical Museum has signed works by the Veliky Ustyug master Stepan Bochkarev. These are caskets and snuff boxes of the first half of the 19th century with scenes based on the plots of Aesop's fables, with images of animals and architectural structures. The works of Ivan Afanasyevich Veprev were awarded a medal in 1882 at the All-Russian Exhibition in Moscow and a diploma at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.

Khokhloma village (Nizhny Novgorod region). For the first time, the mention of the village of Khokhloma is found in documents of the 17th century. At that time, a number of villages, together with Khokhloma, passed into the possession of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Perhaps already at that time, the production of gilded wooden dishes was born in Khokhloma - the documents of the monastery mention ladles, spoons, supplies, painted with multi-colored paints and gold. Khokhloma products through the Nizhny Novgorod fair dispersed throughout Russia, they were exported to Asian countries and Western Europe.

Khokhloma painting on wood, Russian folk art craft. Originated in the second half of the 17th century. on the territory of the modern Koverninsky district of the Gorky region; The trade name was given to the trade. Khokhloma of the same region - a center for the sale of products of Khokhloma painting of the 18th - early 20th centuries.

Khokhloma painting is characterized by the original technique of painting wood in a golden color without the use of gold. Objects carved from wood (mainly utensils) were primed with a solution of clay, crude linseed oil and tin powder (in modern products - aluminum), on the layer of which a floral pattern was made in a free brush style of writing, then varnished from linseed oil(now - synthetic) and hardened at high temperature in a furnace.

For the color of Khokhloma painting, a combination of red and black with gold is typical. Common types of painting - "horse" (red and black on a golden background) and "under the background" (golden silhouette pattern on a colored background). Decayed at the beginning of the 20th century. fishing in owls. time revived; in the 20s - early 30s. masters united in artels. In the 1960s the factory "Khokhloma artist" was created in the homeland of the craft and the production association "Khokhloma painting" in the city of Semenov, which became the centers of this artistic craft. They produce dishes, spoons, furniture, souvenirs, etc.

Masters: F. A. Bedin, A. T. Busova, O. N. and S. P. Veselov, E. N. Dospalova, Z. F. Kieva, O. P. Lushina, A. G. and F. N. Podogov, A. P. Savinova, M. F. Sineva, I. E. Tyukalov and others."

City of Gorodets (Nizhny Novgorod region). painting oil paints on a clean wood surface or colored background.

Products: toys, spinning wheels, children's furniture, kitchen appliances, decorative plates, wall panels. Bog oak is often used.

The village of Gorodets was founded in the 16th century. The peasants of all the surrounding villages were engaged in fishing: women spun threads, made canvases. In the Nizhny Novgorod region, they spun not from a spinning wheel, but from a comb. Instead of a spinning wheel blade, a comb was inserted into the bottom, and a tow was put on its teeth. The surface of the bottom gave the artist the opportunity to unfold entire paintings. And here is what the Great Soviet Encyclopedia says about this:

"Gorodets painting, a folk art craft that developed from the middle of the 19th century in the region of the city of Gorodets (now in the Gorky region) and replaced the local production (existed since the 18th century) of spinning wheels with inlay and carving.

Laconic, contrasting in color, Gorodets tempera painting served to decorate the home (shutters, doors, gates) and household items (the bottom of spinning wheels, furniture, toys, etc.). Figures of horses, roosters, fantastic beasts and birds surrounded by floral patterns, scenes of walks and tea parties were made with a wide, free brushstroke with a graphic stroke of the images with white and black lines that emphasized the clear rhythm of the composition.

The fishery died out at the beginning of the 20th century. V Soviet time revived. In 1938, the artel "21st Anniversary of October" (since 1960 - the factory "Gorodets painting") was created in Gorodets, producing painted toys and souvenirs.

Leading modern masters - D. I. Kryukov, A. E. Konovalov, I. A. Mazin.

In the 19th century, in the villages around Gorodets, spinning wheel craftsmen also made wooden painted toys. Via simple tools- a knife and an ax, "harnesses" were cut out - horses with a wagon and with a proud bend of the neck, wheelchairs, turntables, dolls from a log split in half, flat on the front side and voluminous on the back. The toys were brightly painted in the style of Gorodets painting. The toys of the Gorodets master Ignaty Mazin, created by him in 1920-1930, are well known. His images reflected the life of the Nizhny Novgorod Volga region: couples in love, nannies with children, a girl with a yoke, schoolchildren, skiers, Red Army soldiers. The family of hereditary toy makers Krasnoyarovs is also known, father - Fedor and his son Timofey Krasnoyarov, who became famous for his toys in the 1960s-70s. His toy is a unique work, in each of which he put his whole soul. In addition to traditional images, he also made mechanical toys, which were distinguished by great invention and originality. On a small box-stand, inside of which a simple wooden mechanism was placed, the master arranged carved figures of firewood sawers or a shepherdess with a pipe and a dancing girl. With the help of a handle, the toy was set in motion and a simple melody sounded. No less interesting is his toy "Soldiers on moving bars". With a slight movement, the hinged slats were stretched or compressed, rebuilding the grenadier soldiers in one to four rows.

Currently, the artists of the Gorodets painting factory in Gorodets are working on the creation of a modern Gorodets toy. One of their developments - the Gorodets carousel toy was exhibited in Paris at the exhibition "Russian tree from ancient times to the present day" held in 1973. It was a huge hit with visitors. In recent years, young artists E. Staroverova, V. Derevyanko, N. Privalovskaya have developed and produced a whole series of toys depicting colorful figures of residents of a small Volga city.

An exceptional phenomenon is represented by Gorodets spinning bottoms. Gorodets spinning wheels consisted of two parts - a bottom with a "spear" and a comb inserted into it on a leg. Kudel in the Nizhny Novgorod Territory was not tied to a lapaska, as in the North, but was put on a comb. When the spinning wheel was not being worked on, the comb was taken out of the "kopylk", and the decorated bottom was hung on the wall, becoming a kind of decorative panel. Initially, the bottoms were decorated with bog oak inlay, supplemented with contour carving, but from the middle of the 19th century, inlay was gradually replaced by plot-ornamental painting. Among the favorite motifs of the Gorodets craftsmen were trips, battles, tea parties, lush roses, figures of horses and birds.

G.Semenov, the villages of Fedoseevo, Lyskovo. (Nizhny Novgorod region), Nizhny Novgorod region is an ancient land that gave our people amazing masters of wooden toys, which by right is a bright and original phenomenon in Russian folk art. There are several centers here. folk toys with his artistic style and manufacturing methods.

Since ancient times, the center of turning toys in the Nizhny Novgorod region was the villages located near the city of Semenov, along the forest banks of the Kerzhenets River. Pyramids, apples, buckets, mushrooms, pears, wheelchairs, toy samovars, inside of which were placed sets of tea utensils and other toys, were sharpened here. At the beginning of the 20th century, a craftsman from the village of Merinovo, Arsenty Mayorov, carved and painted the first Nizhny Novgorod matryoshka. Everyone immediately fell in love with her, as the image of the nesting doll reflected folk ideas about a beautiful Russian woman mother.

At present, the factory "Semenov painting" in the city of Semenov successfully continues the tradition of turning toys. The Semyonov matryoshka has received special fame in the world. This is a Russian souvenir that embodies the folk art of Russia. The matryoshka organically combines original constructive art, concise form, and bright flower painting. It is made from linden, aspen and birch, dried for several years on outdoors. The manufacturing process of this seemingly simple toy is complex. Up to 15 operations wooden blank before becoming a real elegant beauty. It is turned on a lathe, primed, dried and painted by hand. The painting consists of several stages: guiding the contour of the face and clothes, painting the face, scarf and apron. The Semyonov nesting doll is recognizable by its skillfully painted large bouquet of flowers - roses, tulips, poppies, bluebells, etc. The finished product is varnished. Talented craftsmen make from single to 18-seat nesting dolls, as well as unique works - 40, 50 and even 72-seat nesting dolls. The thickness of these turning dolls can only be compared with an eggshell. Even "singing" nesting dolls are known, with a musical mechanism built into them. Matryoshkas "Russian fellow" and "Russian beauty" together with the crew spaceship"Salyut-7" went into space. The factory is constantly working on creating new samples of souvenir toys: on the themes of Russian folk tales and epics, scenes from the life of old Nizhny Novgorod.

In the large village of Fedoseevo, located not far from the town of Semenov, they are engaged in the manufacture of wooden toys. Toy craft, in his modern form originated here at the end of the 19th century. These toys were affectionately called "balusters", which meant funny, funny, made by a wit and a joker. The craftsmen are so skillful that only two tools are used in the manufacture of this toy - a knife and an ax. The toys are solidly built from smooth planks, painted bright yellow, with a simple pattern of thin twigs with scarlet flowers and green leaves.

Up to 70 types of toys can be made by folk craftsmen. Their images are born of real impressions. A toy in constant development, quickly responds to all life changes. From ancient times, images of riders on horseback, a horse-drawn cart, village sleighs and peasant axes and hammers made of wood came to the toy. Later, toys appeared - a mill, a carousel, sawyers of boards, houses, furniture. And the technical progress of the early 20th century revealed toy images of a steamboat, an airplane, a tram car, etc. It is very interesting to play with this toy - if you pull the rope, the windmill turns its wings, sawmills and blacksmiths move, depicting the process of hard work, they flash merrily, spinning on a rotating carousel horses, the car opens the doors, inviting the baby to ride.

Toys are made at home, usually in a small workshop near the house. Women help men with auxiliary operations and coloring. Yakov Aleksandrov is considered the initiator of the Fedoseev toy, who knew how to make the toy image simple and extraordinarily expressive. The traditions of the toy were continued by Zotey Kokurin, who, at the age of 80, made at least 30 varieties of toys; Efim Mordashov, who came to fairs and folk holidays with a whole box of fun toy images. Entire dynasties of toy masters, the Shesterikovs, Pachuevs, Poluektovs, and others, emerged.

Lyskovo is one of the most interesting centers of wooden folk toys in the Nizhny Novgorod region. Since the middle of the 19th century, the family of Lyskovsky toy makers Yagnenkovs has been known. In the Lyskovo toy, made of aspen and pine with the help of an ax and a knife, carpentry, carved and turning parts were combined in a harmonious unity. The set of toys is diverse: skates, dolls, blacksmiths on movable slats, wheelchairs with birds, various animals, carousels with animals, horses in harness, water carriers and doll furniture - tables, chairs, armchairs, sofas.

Lysk horses are especially archaic. These figurines with a simple, clear silhouette, made in a conditionally planar manner, allow the master to reveal only the most characteristic in the image. The image of the Lyskovsky horse goes back to its cult image, personifying the Slavic solar deity. The horses were very diverse: “wheel” horses with combined heads turned in different directions, on two wheels, with a round hole in the center of the toy, horses on four wheels. A long stick was inserted into a round hole, for which the child rolled a toy in front of him. Toys were painted white, crimson, purple and yellow with drawing patterns in the form of segments, circles, stripes and dots in black and white paint. Toys were made by the whole family, the father was the main one in this business, and the rest helped him. Due to the deep tradition and cheapness in retail this toy was one of the most popular in local bazaars.

The villages of Polkhov-Maidan and Krutets (Nizhny Novgorod region): painted wooden toys (matryoshka dolls, whistle birds, boxes, balls similar to an apple).

Subjects: plants, landscape. Feature: black outline of the aniline ink pattern

Arkhangelsk, Tomsk regions and Yakutia specialize in birch bark products. The main products are: baskets, caskets, tuesas, boxes, vessels for storing honey and sour cream. Birch bark is harvested at the turn of spring and summer.

The prehistory of birch bark craft is rooted in the distant past. Each nation had its revered trees. Among those who lived in the so-called taiga zone of the Earth, birch is most often found among the sacred and beloved trees. Birch attracted with its dazzling white bark - birch bark and greenery. medicinal properties birch sap, foliage, birch bark have also been known to man since antiquity. well and practical use birch is so wide that it is worth stopping only at birch bark, which is attributed to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe most ancient way of primitive use of wood for household needs. Birch bark is easily removed from the trunk, processed using a simple tool. It is lightweight, durable and waterproof. An excellent auxiliary building material, the like of which is difficult to find in the taiga.

In the past, birch bark occupied a large place in the life of the northern peasant. It was widely used by the peoples of Siberia and the Far East. Without birch bark, it is impossible to imagine the life of a peasant. From toys to building a house, birch bark was used everywhere. In construction, birch bark was used as an insulator against dampness. Due to its water resistance and antiseptic properties, birch bark protected from decay. Entering the peasant's house, one could see a lot of birch bark utensils, which are so necessary in the household: pick-ups, baskets, goiters, pesters, bags, boxes, tuesas, salt shakers, bowls, feet, slabs. With baskets and pesters, they went to the forest for mushrooms and berries. The boxes were used to store vegetables, flour and cereals. Tuesas were indispensable for storing dairy products, honey, fish and pickles. Each baby had birch bark rattles. They served as a noisy amulet and developed thinking. In the future, he was surrounded by toys woven from birch bark in the form of animals, people, household items. The simplest toys: balls, boats and others - the child could make himself. The peoples of Siberia everywhere had a birch bark cradle, which was portable. Birch bark was used to make musical instruments: shepherd's horns and pity.

The museum collections of St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, regional centers of Arkhangelsk, Vologda and other regions contain many birch bark tuesas collected in different years in the Russian North. Tuesas from the Uftyuga River and the vicinity of Krasnoborsk are distinguished by a special quality of workmanship. It was in this area that the tues fishing existed until recently. Verkhneuftyuzhskaya painting of birch bark products is widely known. Many researchers of folk art have devoted their works to this type of painting. They were engaged in Uftyug, in addition to painting birch bark tuesas, and also embossing. The Russian Ethnographic Museum has 8 tuesas of master V. V. Trapeznikov with excellent embossing. They were delivered to the museum in 1940 by an expedition of museum staff. In the Museum of Folk Art (Moscow), in V. Ustyug, Solvychegodsk, there are also Uftyuzh tuesas with embossing.

In the Tobolsk and Tomsk provinces, birch bark crafts of tues and "kiss" are known. Kiska is a kind of carpet that was used to protect from rain.

Untsukul village in Dagestan (Avars live). Walking sticks are made from walnut, dogwood, apricot wood,

caskets, decorative vases, smoking pipes, cigarette cases. The most common images on products are water and the sun.

Podolsk region: turning toys.

The large-scale production of wooden toys, which is concentrated in the Podolsky association of toys in the city of Klimovsk and the village of Babenki, is the successor and successor of the famous traditional folk craft of turning toys in the Podolsk region.

The Handicraft Museum of the Moscow Provincial Zemstvo played an important role in the life of the industry. With his assistance, local turners got new, “improved samples” of products: spillikins, sets of doll utensils, skittles, chess, bingo, nesting dolls. Objects of spherical, oval and cylindrical shapes became classic. Later, on their basis, typical Moscow region types of toys arose: multi-seat eggs, balls, nesting dolls, turnips, pyramids, fungi and much more.

Gradually, the artistic image of the Podolsk turning toy, a special technology for its production, took shape. The materials for the craftsmen's work are hardwood and coniferous wood: aspen, linden, alder, birch, as well as juniper, oak, Karelian birch, palm. Forms of products are sharpened from raw material, followed by drying. underlined decoration objects are created with special dyes: soft powder lithographic paints, to which aniline powder is added. TO distinctive features Podolsk toys include its coloring and polishing directly on the machine, as well as the translucency of the paintwork, through which the surface of the wood shines through.

In 1899 Babensky turners participated together with the artist S.V. Malyutin in the invention of the famous doll - "matryoshka".

The craft uses the method of creative variation in the manufacture of each product, and a developed mentoring system allows you to maintain and develop a unique experience of craftsmanship.

Artistic processing of wood is developed in the western part of Ukraine, especially in Transcarpathia, there is in the Poltava region.

Main product: dishes, such as salt shakers. Products in the Transcarpathian region are inlaid with mother-of-pearl, beads and metal plates. The drawing is basically a symmetrical geometric composition. Material: walnut, beech, sycamore, hornbeam and pear wood.

Belarus:

In Belarus, various types of wood processing are developed, but the products are poorly decorated.

Main centers: Brest, Pinsk, and Zhlobin. Main products: chests, tables, figures of birds and horses. Features: the background is darker than the painting, often black. Many products are decorated with straw.

Ornament, including both ancient elements and modern symbolism. 4. Folk crafts of the Don " Folk crafts and crafts of the Don "- this is a true material chronicle of the history of the people. The culture of the Don is original and diverse. Don is and Don Cossacks, and a multinational region in which representatives of 104 nationalities live. This is largely due to the originality of the culture of the Don. ...

Authorities in 1990, on the initiative of a number of enterprises, the Association "Folk Artistic Crafts of Russia" was created. Chapter 2. Placement of art crafts on the territory of the Russian Federation § 1. Enterprises of art crafts and their placement on the territory of the Russian Federation Speaking about enterprises engaged in the production of folk art crafts, you involuntarily touch on them historically ...

Adaptation skills modern society and get the opportunity to fully organize free time. In the classroom, a circle of painting on wood in the system additional education children, students get an idea of ​​artistic creativity, acquire the first graphic skills in the visual field of artistic culture. Acquaintance with works of folk art on household...

Painting, printed fabrics, lace, carving and painting on wood can suggest other topics for creative tasks that will be fully justified in the work of children. I would only like to emphasize that familiarizing children with folk arts and crafts in the form of thematic creative tasks most fully meets the characteristics of children's perception and the possibilities that may manifest themselves in ...

Content

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix

Introduction

Wood carving is widespread in our country as a very popular folk decorative art. Russian craftsmen have long been excellent at processing this material and creating highly artistic products from it. The art and local history museums store collections of furniture, utensils, tools, household items, decorations, which were created by Russian craftsmen over many centuries up to the first half of the 19th century.

But in the second half of the 19th century, due to the development of capitalism in Russia, woodcarving gradually fell into decay. wooden architecture increasingly replaced by stone. Home-made utensils and dishes, even in the conditions of rural life, are replaced by finished factory products. Go out of fashion wooden carved furniture, carved caskets and goblets made of bone.

Master wood carvers must work ever harder to cut and turn as many pieces as possible and, despite low selling prices, earn their living. More and more carvers give up their favorite work, go to work in factories and plants.

During the First World War, when many talented and skilled craftsmen died on the battlefields, and the country was devastated by the war, the demand for artistic wood products dropped sharply.

In December 1921 in the halls of the Moscow State historical museum the exhibition "Peasant Art" was opened, at which woodcarving was widely presented. In 1923 master woodcarvers took part in the 1st All-Russian Agricultural Exhibition. Best works were awarded.

In the 1930s, creative teams of wood carving masters formed, and the main assortment of products was created. New production workshops were built in many fields, and the craftsmen moved from cramped, dark, unsuitable home workshops to comfortable, bright general workshops.

Already in the pre-war years, the art of woodcarving reached a significant development. Soviet art products made from these materials were presented at a number of international exhibitions, for example, in Paris in 1925 and in 1938, in New York in 1939. The products of wood and bone carvers were exported abroad and widely distributed on the domestic market. The production of carved artistic wood products currently exists in the Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Kalinin, Gorky, Kirov, Moscow regions, in the Bashkir and Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics and in a number of other regions, territories and autonomous republics Russian Federation. Master carvers produce non-standard furniture, mainly for children's institutions, decorative wall panels, lamps, decorative ladles, ornaments, etc. In all these artistic products, one way or another, the rich artistic traditions of the national folk carving on wood.

The art of carving is very popular among the Russian people. That is why this topic is becoming more and more relevant.

The purpose of the work is to consider the symbolism and artistic images in traditional wooden crafts and crafts.

Tasks to consider:

1. Features of traditional wooden crafts and crafts;

2. History and development of traditional wooden crafts and trades;

3. The study of artistic images in traditional wooden crafts and crafts on the example of a modern enterprise.

The hypothesis of this work is whether the symbolism and artistic images have been preserved in traditional wooden crafts and crafts.

Research methods: analysis of scientific-theoretical and historical literature, observation. In this work, we will analyze materials from newspapers and magazines about the Bogorodsky Carver enterprise in order to find out whether symbols and artistic images have been preserved in traditional wooden crafts and crafts.

1. Features of traditional wooden crafts and crafts

1.1 Historical formation of traditional wood crafts and trades

Traditional arts and crafts is a whole, harmonious world of a person's special relationship to the life around him, to his work, life. Folk embroidery, weaving, painting on wood contain pictorial elements that were carefully selected by master performers and passed down from generation to generation.

First of all, it is necessary to define the concepts of symbolism, artistic images, tradition, wooden crafts, crafts.

Let's start with the first concept - symbolism is a collection of any symbols. Below we will consider the functions of symbolism and its essence in traditional wooden crafts and crafts.

Artistic images are images that meet the requirements of art, aesthetic taste.

Tradition is something that has passed from one generation to another, what is inherited from previous generations.

Wooden crafts, handicrafts are small handicraft production and processing wooden products. Highlight very a large number of wood crafts and crafts, but we will focus on two of them: carving and breadboarding.

Various fragments of carved wood from Penjikent, Ustrushana and Kofarnigan (Kofarnigan region of Tajikistan) give a vivid idea of ​​the high culture of Sogdian and Tokharistan sculptors and ornamentalists, who passed their baton to the masters of plastic carving of the 9th-12th centuries. A significant place in the art of woodcarving of this period is occupied by the wooden mausoleum of Khazrati-Sho (Langar Bobo) from the village of Chorku, Isfara region. Its architectural details (columns, consoles, frieze, ceiling) are examples of developed ornamental art. Magnificent artistic decoration carved columns from the villages of Rarz, Fatmev, Kurut, Obburdon, a mehrab from Iskodar (Zerafshan) and a carved pano from Asht are also notable. All visible sections of the columns and other architectural details are finished with unique artistic carvings.

The leitmotif of the pattern is S-shaped curves, pearls, trefoil, Kufic inscriptions. In the thick of the plant pattern, sometimes one can see the Tao-Te mask, pomegranate, snakes with a bird's head and a fish tail, an image of water, a swastika, grape leaves. Both technique and style carved wood Chorku and samples of carved details from the Upper Zeravshan are similar to the Afrosiab carved board: the same weave of ribbon, shoots, pearl mugs, volutes, shamrocks, half-palmettes, almonds, etc.

In the art of woodworking the image of a branch with flowers from individual standard parts (kit'a), a complex system of geometric ornamentation was compiled, when turning work was also introduced here. This style of decoration was used until the beginning of the 20th century. (Wooden cenotaph of Miri Arab Madrasah and carved gates of Kosh Madrasah in Bukhara). Monuments of the art of woodcarving, dating from the beginning of the 19th century, have survived in a small number.

Columns from the Panjvakta mosque in Vorukh, Simiganch, Kangurt and the mausoleum of Khoja Abdulloi Ansori in Uguk (Istaravshan) can be reckoned here. The art of making carved tombstones and friezes with inscriptions completely gives way to the decoration of columns, beams, sub-beams, wooden gratings, music stands, figured tables, as well as stamps for applying patterns on textile products and adobe plaster for the walls of mosques, or for the manufacture of wooden lattices.

In the Tajik part of the Fergana Valley, cornices, caissons, stacked capitals of the Khavzi Sangin and Dalyoni Bolo (Istaravshan), Jomi (Khujand), Surkh (Isfara) mosques and other religious buildings are decorated with a multi-row system of stalactites, which was unknown to folk architects and wood carvers of South Tajikistan .

In the architecture of the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, the columns usually did not have a balustrade. The balls of columns (kuzagi) were decorated with three- or five-toothed blades - lola madohil. The beam was carved into a semicircle with a scaly pattern - Pushti mohi. In the Tajik settlements of the Kashkadarya region, you can find wooden columns with and without typeset capitals (the Poyon mosque in the village of Jaus).

In the regions of Bukhara and Samarkand, in exceptional cases, stacked stalactite five-tiered capitals can be found. The art of compiling it with complex geometric ornaments was possessed only by individual professional architects and wood carvers. The architectural details of the mosques and residential buildings mountainous Tajikistan.

The spherical base of the columns was smoothly turned and shaped almost without blades, they were given the shape of ceramic vessels. Smooth and round barrels were completed with a cubic capital and lancet balconies, often decorated with ornamental carvings and paintings.

The craftsmen of South Tajikistan (Karategin, Darvaz, Khovaling, Baldzhuan, Kangurt, Gissar) were not only excellent carvers of architectural details. They made household products (chests, shoes, spoons, dishes, cradles, etc.) with great skill, revealing the patterned textural qualities of wood. In the manufacture of various carpentry, turning and carving crafts, they turned to the following types of wood: apricot, pear, maple, walnut, plane tree, pistachio, mulberry, etc. The advantage of the wood material was not only in the patterned texture, but also in strength, tone, density, physical and mechanical features, durability, etc. For the manufacture of architectural details of buildings, walnut, plane tree and juniper wood were usually used. Mulberry, willow, pear, apricot, pistachio and other varieties of trees were suitable for household crafts. Rosettes, scaly and wavy motifs, plant shoots, and quatrefoils were favorite wood carving ornaments among the craftsmen of these regions. The geometric grid, consisting mainly of five-, six-, eight-, ten-, twelve-beam stars, is more common in Bukhara woodcarving.

In the life of the Tajiks of the Pamirs and the Pamirs, the tree was one of the most important building materials suitable for the construction of dwellings and various crafts. In these areas, the crossbeams for hanging carcasses of sheep or goats (buzovez, buchkigich), columns (sitan, stan), horn-shaped poles (kuchkorak, ovahk), door slats, partitions on sufas, cradles, round chests (chokhdon) are decorated with artistic carvings. . Household utensils are decorated with small nail-like carvings in the form of a quatrefoil in black and red painting. On some columns of residential buildings in Badakhshan, images of a lotus, mimosa, tulip have been preserved, on the crossbars - the sun (oftob) and the moon (mokhtob). In the laconic ornament of mountain Tajiks, one can find archaic patterns and symbolic signs that have not yet lost their semantics and name. Artistic carving on wood and ganch was often accompanied by polychrome ornamental painting. The extraordinary talent of the masters in this field of architectural decoration was manifested in the decoration of the ceiling of both residential and religious buildings of the 19th-20th centuries. Starting from the capitals of the columns, the ceiling was painted with colorful ornaments of a floral and floral nature (the Daleni Bolo mosque in Istaravshan, the mosque in the Darkh village of the Ayni district). As a rule, there were three authors of architectural and decorative design of buildings: a wood carver, a ganch carver and a nakkosh (master of painting).

Since ancient times, it has been known about the ability of a tree to get rid of accumulated negative energy. Wooden gifts radiate warmth. Wooden souvenirs will bring harmony and comfort to your home. Wood carving also requires special qualities of character: perseverance, patience, painstakingness are important here. It is very important to make the right cut in order to fully reveal the properties that nature, as the creator of the tree, endowed it with. But all this is not enough. A truly harmonious product appears only when peace reigns in the soul of the author. It is the work done with warmth that will help to see the beauty of the tree.

Life, dwelling in Russia were inextricably linked with the tree. At the birth of a child, they put it in a wooden cradle, gave a wooden toy, the person remained that way, surrounded by a tree and until old age, in a wooden carved rocking chair. Wood carving has firmly entered the life and fate of the Russian people. According to Slavic mythology, the world tree - the axis of the world - stands on the outskirts of the Universe (near Lukomorye), its top rests on heaven, its roots reach the underworld. The gods descend and ascend along this tree, and it is possible to penetrate into other worlds through it. In the painting of Russian peasant houses, an indispensable element was the "tree of life", which served as a "symbol good wishes and a protective sign. "Russian craftsmen carved everything necessary for life from wood: furniture, utensils, so woodcarving accompanies a person through life. In the era of Peter I, our carpenters surprised Dutch shipbuilders with their carving skills, the ability to accurately and quickly work with wood. But all this could only be done by understanding wood very well and feeling it as a living, animated material. Any piece of wood is unique, lives its own life. To feel the soul of a tree, to convey its energy to space and the author tries in his products, especially when working with an icon, while adding as little as possible from oneself.The tree inspires, and the carved product fills our home with life-giving power.

The topic "wood carving" is found in a large amount of literature. The tradition of carving is very ancient. This includes carved furniture and all sorts of carved little things like caskets, toys and jewelry- the list of applications for woodcarving is very large. Separately in this row is church carving - iconostases, icon cases. Carved icons, which are now very rare, are least known. The current idea of ​​the icon is associated only with painting. A lot has been written about the ancient Russian icon-painting tradition, in contrast to the carved one, and there are a huge number of printed reproductions of hand-painted icons. Little is known about the carving tradition. In the article "carving" (V. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, vol. 4): "Carving, or carving - a patterned finish by hand of wood, bone", "carver" (Dal's through "er") - "carving something made of bone, horn, wood", "icon carver" - cutting icons.

Some museums in Russia store unique works - woodcarving. The very first decorative images in folk art were ducks and horses. In the State Hermitage there is a ladle-spoon with an elegant handle in the form of a bird's head (3rd century BC). Sculptural works were created (a wooden deer with branched horns on a proudly raised head dates back to the 5th-2nd centuries BC) and household items (ladles of Russian villages of the 10th-12th centuries depicting a horse, a duck, a solar disk). The tradition of carved icons came to Russia from Byzantium, along with Christianity. The Hermitage keeps samples of Byzantine carvings: icons, crosses. By Orthodox canon It turned out that the carved image of the icon is usually in relief (in contrast to Catholicism, which preferred sculpture).

At first, a small number of Russian icon painters, an abundance of carved material, and the tradition of Slavic carving contributed to the spread of carved icons in Russia. It was precisely the faces of God carved from wood that were revered. In the Church of the Deposition of the Robe in Moscow, icons of saints and wooden carved tombstones of Moscow metropolitans are kept. The most time-consuming and painstaking type of carving is presented there - a carved miniature. Miniature wood carving is still not often found among carvers. Carving of products measuring 3-6 cm is rare at present.

Images of the heavenly patrons of the newborn will be located in the space that corresponded to the body of the newborn, as if within its boundaries. Parents thereby establish a special, personal, indestructible bond between the icon and the newborn. The connection, perhaps stronger than the one that arises when buying a nominal icon or receiving it as a gift. Icons depicting the namesake saints can come to a person throughout his life in different ways and in different ways. different time how many such icons a person will have depends only on the will of God. The measured icon is one. A measured icon belongs to only one person from birth to death, and is associated with only one person, even if for some reason the owner loses it. It can legally belong to another person, but it will never become HIS icon, since the spiritual, higher connection between the dimensional icon and the child is established forever. As a rule, a measured icon is closely associated with the sacrament of baptism, with those people who give the icon to a newborn, with their love and good feelings. A measured icon can be obtained at any age, depending on when the sacrament of baptism was performed, shortly after birth or later. When ordering a measured icon for a child, people close to him actually create it themselves, since they can be directly involved in determining the plot of the measured icon. What is the traditional iconography of dimensional icons? The plot of the icon, the choice of depicted patron saints of the newborn is determined by the dates of birth and baptism of the child. The most concise plot of a measured icon is the image of a saint whose name is given to a child at baptism. Perhaps, along with the saint, whose name is given to the newborn at baptism, the simultaneous image of the saints, on the day of the celebration of which the child was born. If the birthday or baptism of a child coincides with the day of celebration of some revered icon (for example, a revered image of the Virgin), then the image of the Virgin can be depicted in the center of the icon, and images of saints whose names are associated with birthdays and baptisms were placed on the margins of the measured icon. . In any of the considered variants of iconography, there could also be an image of a guardian angel.

For an ancient Russian person, the invisible, spiritual unity between the baby and the icon, intended for him, finds its embodiment in the size of the image. The measured icon, as it were, fixed the identity of a person with the sacred world, with his heavenly patron.

The baptism of an infant is preceded by the rite of naming. It is from this moment, according to Orthodox views, that a person’s life turns into a march towards earthly temple where salvation is to take place. The name of a person carries a deep spiritual meaning, distinguishes him from many other people, affirms the uniqueness of his personality, for our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified for him. At all times the name Orthodox person was considered a saint, therefore, from childhood, a Christian was taught to respect his name, therefore, the tradition was born to call the baptized the same as one of the saints, who became the heavenly patron and intercessor. Thus, the idea of ​​fusion (even "in the flesh") of a newborn with the holy name given to him can find its visible embodiment in the creation of an icon to the extent of the baby's growth.

Subsequently, the measured icon was perceived precisely as a special relic and was closely connected with the entire fate of its owner, constantly accompanying him in life. Its further path after the death of the owner is not entirely clear. However, it is known that the "darling" images of representatives of the royal family, as a rule, acquired a permanent place in the iconostasis above the tomb. This is evidenced by the presence of several measured icons in the royal tomb - the Archangel Cathedral of the Kremlin, as well as in the churches of the Novodevichy Convent, in which Moscow princesses lived and died. Dimensional images of numerous sisters of Peter I, including "St. Sophia the Martyr", have been preserved here.

The purpose of the home icon is to show us the world of the invisible and tune in to the perception of invisible, spiritual things. The icon captures the connection between the little man and the saints, whose names are already written in heaven. It keeps the man on his life path Orthodox Christian. Identity with the patron saint and the Heavenly Church, imprinted in the measured icon, brings us back to spiritual origins. The icon itself is not a self-sufficient phenomenon, but an image, likeness and reminder of a higher and not quite comprehensible reality for us, not to forget and strive for which is the task of every person living on earth.

In the XV century. the famous carver and jeweler Ambrose worked in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. His woodcarving: carved crosses and icons were distinguished by complex multi-figured compositions, made very carefully from dense, dark wood. walnut, valuable rosewood, cypress and boxwood. He sculpted from wood and bone and was the organizer of a school of carvers. By the 19th century, a significant number of icon carvers were working in Russia. In the XVI century. The Kremlin Armory begins its activity, which, among other things, had a carving and carpentry workshop. Here, in 1551, one of the remarkable works of Russian art was created - the royal chapel of Ivan the Terrible for the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The tent-topped throne is completely covered with complex carved ornamental and plot compositions. In the XVI century. wood carving its character changes a little. Carving relief of the 16th century. taller, more voluminous. Inexhaustible imagination and skill were shown by folk carvers in the wooden decoration of numerous cathedrals and churches in Russia. One of the most striking monuments in the history of Russian carving was the Kolomna wooden palace near Moscow. Architects S. Petrov and I. Mikhailov designed in the second half of the 17th century. for Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the palace, which eyewitnesses called the eighth wonder of the world. This palace stood for about a hundred years, glorifying the art of folk carvers.

Artistic woodcarving during the construction of St. Petersburg and its environs, when craftsmen decorated new palaces, estates, churches and cathedrals with carvings. And now the wooden iconostasis of the Peter and Paul Cathedral, created by carvers I. Telega and T. Ivanov with assistants, is admired. Andrei Konstantinovich Martov, who was in charge of the palace turning workshop under Peter I, was an excellent woodcarver. The work of Russian carvers was in no way inferior to samples of foreign masters. Woodcarving is a national art form for many peoples of our country to this day. For centuries, the art of woodcarving has been passed down from generation to generation. Passing on the artistic skills of woodcarving, Russian craftsmen have kept the national traditions of original wooden plasticity for centuries.

The ancient church woodcarving delights to this day. Carved wooden royal doors Church of the Ascension in the city of Rostov Yaroslavl, which also bears the local name of the Church of Isidore the Blessed, is an outstanding work of Russian plastic art of the 16th century. The original form of the gates and the fine skill of the carvers who created them give reason to consider the gates one of the most important monuments of world art. In the specialized literature, they have always received great attention, but only after their restoration, carried out in 1962-1964 by the restorers of the State Central Restoration Workshop named after Academician I. E. Grabar, did they manage to see the true nature of the unusually fine work. Woodcarving was opened, which until then had been under layers of gesso and repeated coarse gilding. From skillful hands Rostov carvers, thin, surprisingly elegant woodcarving appeared.

Time did not spare the ancient carving, however, wood carving, even poorly preserved, allows you to see what was put into them by the creator. sculptural carving on wood until recently was almost unknown. And if the painting of Ancient Russia became the property of science already at the beginning of the 20th century, then sculpture - only at the present time. Researchers discovered a large number of previously unknown works of sculpture and decorative carving, and these discoveries have enriched the history of Russian art with interesting examples of folk art. An ancient wooden sculpture and decorative carving on wood. The inherent warmth and fragility of wood is akin to heat and fragility human body. They evoke a feeling of extraordinary, incomparable, spiritual intimacy and peace. The work of an icon carver requires strict discipline, a sense of material, and impeccability in work. It is impossible to make a mistake here - one wrong cut ruins all previous work. Working with wood does not allow haste and fuss.

To make the work go smoothly and the carving of the ball fine and precise, the author uses linden, the wood of which is one of the softest. Previously in Russia, peeled lime logs-lutoshki were stacked under a canopy, where they dried all summer. In winter, when the peasant had a lot of free time, he brought baubles into the house and began to make crafts. From logs blackened over the summer, the village craftsman cut toys, dishes and other household utensils. Beneath the chisel, pure white wood was exposed. Sparkling white finished products were sent by some peasants to the market. And perhaps, by village craftsmen, whose occupation was woodcarving and invented the once common riddle: "In the hut - a raven, from the hut - a white swan." It wasn't that hard to figure it out. Of course, this is a lutoshka - lime logs - woodcarving by a skilled carver.

Looking at chiseled or carved linden items, we hardly notice its texture. It seems that they are made of a homogeneous wood pulp, devoid of layering. This idea is formed because no matter how sharp the cutter is, it still crushes the wood fibers, making the wood slightly velvety in transverse sections and glossy in longitudinal sections, which is why it seems that the linden does not have any specific texture pattern. Linden wood is soft, especially when steamed, but when dried, it becomes quite hard. Therefore, linden carving was especially common: craftsmen carved various table utensils: ladles, scoops, brothers, bowls and spoons. They sharpened bowls, dishes and turning toys on lathes, among which were the famous nesting dolls. Carvers made rich carved furniture from linden. Linden wood smells peculiar, this smell is persistent and persists for many years. In some areas, peasants believe that a light honey spirit always holds in a bathhouse cut down from linden ridges, because wet wood smells even stronger.

Linden not only cuts well, but also bends and polishes well. There was a linden and for the manufacture of wooden parts of harmonicas. Veliky Ustyug craftsmen carved the finest birch bark patterns on a linden scoring board. And the Bogorodsk carver did a rough processing of a lime blank with an ax on a lime block. And this is not accidental - after all, on soft and viscous linden wood, tools become less dull.

Oil, caviar and grape juice are well preserved in linden containers. In the Caucasus, huge vats for squeezing grape juice were hollowed out of linden and butter churns were made. In modern cooperage production, linden staves are used to make dishes designed for storing and transporting granular caviar.

Masters of art crafts carve wooden parts of special hand tools. Engravers from the village of Kubachi make chisel handles from linden, and wood carvers from Bogorodsk make knife and chisel handles. This preference for linden is explained by the masters by the fact that its soft wood fills the hand less than the wood of hardwood trees. Many people try to use old linden wood for these purposes, since it has more porous and loose wood. It is pleasant to work with linden, and the condition of the carver affects the entire course of the thread, and therefore the product from it turns out to be attractive.

Speaking about the wooden plasticity of Ancient Russia, it should be noted that numerous archival documents, as well as records of foreigners who visited Russia, indicate that woodcarving and wooden sculpture took place in the everyday life of Russian people and were valued by them.

1.2 Wood crafts and trades at present

Traditional arts and crafts is a whole, harmonious world of a person's special relationship to the surrounding life, to his work, life. Folk embroidery, weaving, painting on wood contain pictorial elements that were carefully selected by master performers and passed down from generation to generation.

Exhibitions of contemporary art in different years successfully demonstrated the skills of East Kazakhstan appliers in the cities of Almaty, Astana, Yerevan, Leningrad, Moscow, Novosibirsk and others. And every year in the spring, expositions in which our craftsmen participate, as well as items from stock collections, are held in the ethnographic museum.

The works of masters always demonstrate the continuity of traditions and new approaches dictated by modernity. At the current exhibition, in particular, the works of masters involved in floristry are presented. The use of the simplest means - plants, pebbles, stones - attracts masters to this type of creativity.

Wood carving, one of the most ancient and traditional types of applied art, remains one of the most popular types of folk art to this day.

One of the authors is the well-known and, unfortunately, now deceased poet Yevgeny Vasilyevich Kurdakov. In the 70s of the last century, he was a multiple winner of city, regional and republican competitions held among wood carving masters. At one time he worked as the head of art workshops at the university in Novgorod. But the only place where you can see his collection - panels, root sculpture, unique sculpture of small forms - is our ethnographic museum. Later, the master will master other crafts, but he will give preference to literary work.

The initial natural material for the master is not only wood, boards for woodcarving, but also burls - outgrowths on trees, kapo roots with uniquely bizarre plasticity, these are also the roots of trees grown on cliffs, on stony soil, which often take strong curved, twisted, ornate shape, sometimes capturing both stones and pebbles. Such roots with natural inlay are especially decorative and of great interest to the creator.

In search of natural material, Yevgeny Vasilievich visited different parts of East Kazakhstan - gorges, abandoned sites, streams, mountains, windbreaks, forest fires - an incomplete list of those places visited by the master. His travels in search of source material are reflected in his poetic work.

His works are diverse - panels, decorative vases, various sculptures, the characters of which are epic, humorous, comic, allegorical heroes. The natural material is creatively rethought and brought by the master to a certain artistic image. In every work, in every product, in the plasticity of wood, its warmth, the beauty of color, the image of the forest lives, the image of the connection between man and nature.

Yevgeny Kurdakov once worked in the ethnographic museum as a restorer, researcher, and gave advice to wood carvers. In 1986, his unique book "The Forest and the Workshop" was published - the result of a passion for carving, floristry, a serious study with recommendations for masters of arts and crafts. The book is complete with photographs and drawings. Since that time, the master devotes himself entirely to literary work.

Masters of our region own different types woodworking techniques. An example of this is the products of Vladimir Petrovich Ageev - magnificent caskets with carved ornaments, boards with the oldest trihedral-notched ornament, sculptural-voluminous boat-shaped ladles, as well as baskets skillfully woven from birch bark strips (mastering this craft is not easy). His works are marked by high craftsmanship, rare penetration into technology and the secrets of folk crafts. Works made of wood by masters of arts and crafts of Leninogorsk are represented by products from burl by Yuri Alekseevich Arepiev and Yuri Iosifovich Nadeina.

Caps are growths on trees and roots. It is noteworthy that containers made of burl never crack. Yuri Arepiev is a great master of making elegant, light decorative bowls, ladles, vases, the shape of which follows the contours and plasticity of growths. Favorite material is birch burl.

Yuriy Nadein reveals the unique beauty of the texture of caps by processing them on a lathe. On products, to complete the drawing and plot, the master tactfully adds lines and strokes with brown dye. His work is varied. Unique decorative vase, carved from a large influx of burl - it is attractive with its original shape and the winter landscape depicted on it.

An example of the highest professional craftsmanship in woodcarving is demonstrated by Vladimir Savelyevich Akulov in his products. He brilliantly uses the technique of inlaying metal on wood, whether it's a Hen and a Cockerel salt shaker or ozhau ladles made in the Kazakh national style. Making tuesov, utensils, boxes from birch bark is a very old craft, once widespread. One of the masters involved in the revival of this ancient craft- Pavel Andreevich Nikulin. In the exposition there are tueski, made by him according to the old technology, in a purely peasant spirit, without glue, without nails. The master makes his products with rare perfection. His fabulous miracle birds, split from bar wood, are genuine works of folk art: they combine technical excellence and artistic expressiveness. Once fluttering out of the hands of the master, these wonderful birds not only found a residence in the museum exposition, but also in the apartments of many Ust-Kamenogorsk residents.

2. The study of artistic images in traditional wooden crafts and crafts on the example of the modern enterprise "Bogorodsky carver" in the village of Bogorodskoye

2.1 Features of production at the enterprise "Bogorodsky carver"

Colorful wooden chickens on a stand, figures of blacksmiths, a man and a bear - pull the bar, and they will knock with hammers on a small anvil ... funny toys, known in Russia since time immemorial, have become the main folk craft for residents of the village of Bogorodskoye near Moscow.

The history of the Bogorodsk toy begins with a legend. They say that a peasant family lived in a small village near modern Sergiev Posad. They were poor people and had many children. The mother decided to amuse the children and make them a doll. I sewed it from fabric, but after a few days the children tore the toy. I wove it from straw, and by the evening the doll crumbled. Then the woman took a chip and carved a toy out of wood, and the children called her Auka. The children had fun for a long time, and then the doll got bored with them. And her father took her to the fair. There was a merchant, who found the toy interesting, and ordered the peasant a whole lot. Since then, they say, most of the inhabitants of the village of Bogorodskoye have taken up the "toy" craft.

At the beginning of the last century, the first production appeared in the village of Bogorodskoye - Andrey Chushkin's handicraft and toy artel. Later, the artel was named "Bogorodsky carver". In Soviet times, the craft flourished, in the artel, which became an artistic carving factory in 1960, 300 people worked, there were large state and foreign orders. Now the situation has changed. Walking through the factory shops, I was amazed - no more than five craftsmen worked in each of them, and most of the premises were simply empty.

Recently, people do not want to go to work in a factory. The salary is more than modest. Some "exclusive craftsmen" work from home, completing complex, original factory orders and receive a percentage of their value. An ordinary carver on stream receives at the factory no more than one and a half thousand rubles, painters - about a thousand. Carvers in creative workshops are "richer", the salary is up to 2500, and their work is more interesting. Once a month, they must submit two toys to the factory's artistic council for release on the stream, plus exclusive orders. In this case, you can also earn interest on each. The rest of the employees have not seen any bonuses or "13th salary" since the early 90s. The team noticeably "aged", the young, having graduated from the local art and industrial school, either leave to work in Sergiev Posad, or are engaged in carving at home, and hand over their products to resellers.

Before getting to the store counter, the toy goes a long way. It begins with a well-dried linden log, a soft, pliable tree in processing. Products are turning and manual processing. With the first, everything is simpler - the details of future toys are machined, the assemblers connect them, and the painters do the painting, if necessary, and varnish it. But manual work is much more difficult. Carvers process fake "churaks" on their own. Let the wood be soft, but most of the craftsmen in the factory are women. The workpiece of the product is first cut down with an ax or cut out with a hacksaw according to a template. Then the processing begins with tools - chisels and Bogorodsk knives with very sharp blades. So cuts for masters are a common thing: they will seal the wound with a band-aid - and again they will go to work. It is necessary to work out the norm, each carver must hand over 120 - 130 products per month.

If a sculpture in finished form costs about a thousand, then the master receives a hundred rubles from them. And on the day of such products you can’t do much, from the strength of one or two, although everything depends on experience. From the carver, the products go to the assembly, painting, or immediately to the warehouse. I could get an idea of ​​the famous Bogorodsk toy only in the museum of the factory.

Once in the factory museum-shop, you can feel like a child again. Shelves behind the counter were filled with toys and wooden sculptures. Here are painted chickens familiar from childhood on a stand, under it is a round balance. You spin it, and the hens start banging their beaks together. Here is a fisherman cat with a sly face - also a mobile toy. And a lot of different bunnies, bears, mice. All dolls are painted with bright colors, and you want to take it in your hands.

"Choosing is a problem, I want to buy everything at once. For young children, our toys are the best: you set the toy in motion - a hand develops, and you can gnaw - a tree after all. We paint with gouache, and then cover it with oil varnish, it is harmless. "

Children prefer mostly bright turning toys. At the factory, they can be bought for 70-80 rubles, in stores - three times more expensive. But toys and sculptures self made are much more expensive, about a thousand rubles. Some of them are motionless, in others, with the help of a spring inserted inside, only a certain part “comes to life”. The "Russian beauty" shakes her head, the leaves on the birch tree tremble and the umbrellas in the hands of the "ladies" ... There are also composite toys where each character moves.

At the "Peasant's Yard" all the heroes are busy with their work: the mother milks the cows, the father chop wood, the daughter feeds the chickens, and they knock with their beaks, and the little son swings on a swing. The figures are set in motion by a push-button mechanism.

In addition to the traditional toys, the masters of the Bogorodsk factory make custom-made carved furniture, wall-mounted wooden panels with three-dimensional images of people and animals, large sculptures and timepieces.

Factory orders are not the main source of income for carvers. Most work from home, and the products are handed over to resellers. Otherwise, do not survive. Many are believers, large families. And how can you feed your family on zero, at today's prices, salary. Therefore, each house has its own small workshop. There are regular customers from resellers, there is also one-time work, for example, carved furniture for a bath or country house. With raw materials, "individualists" also have no problems. Merchants come to the village and sell linden by cubic meters, from cars. Prices are quite affordable, one cubic meter can be purchased for one and a half thousand rubles. This amount of wood is enough for the master for a whole year of work.

At the factory, the part-time work of their employees is disapproved. Only everyone continues to "handicraft". The profit is obvious.

In addition to wood carvers, there is another folk craftsman in Bogorodskoye - an old blacksmith. In his seven decades, Grandpa is still the only one in the village who makes tools for woodcarving - Bogorodsk knives and chisels. A set of ten items sells for one and a half thousand rubles, he brings his goods directly to the factory or to the vocational school. True, recently carvers have adapted to making tools on their own, but only a few. So the old man's business is booming.

2.2 Technology of artistic wood carving at the enterprise "Bogorodsky carver"

Contour and geometric carving

Woodcarving is a national art form among many peoples of Russia. It has long been a Russian peasant, having finished the hut and finished field work, in endless autumn and winter evenings, he took up art - woodcarving.

And today, despite the many polymers created in recent years, wood continues to be one of the main materials. Despite the simplicity of execution, the contour and geometric types of carvings have high aesthetic qualities and allow you to acquire certain skills and abilities.

In contour carving, the pattern is conveyed by deep lines of various widths, depths and outline shapes. Lines run different tools: semicircular chisels, chisels, profile cutters, oblique knife.

Outwardly, this carving seems to be surprisingly simple, but it can be done with high quality only by mastering a number of professional techniques. Contour carving can be combined with other types of flat-relief carving: geometric, nail-like, oval, Yavorovskaya. In this technique, geometric and floral ornaments, animalistic images can be made. On the Yaroslavl spinning wheels of the first half of the 19th century, with contour carving in combination with nail-like cuts, folk craftsmen even transmitted everyday and genre scenes: tea drinking, trips, dates, dances.

Contour carving can be done on both light and tinted wood. In recent years, the so-called black lacquer carving has become widespread among schoolchildren involved in arts and crafts circles. This is a rather spectacular type of work, when an image is created on a black shiny background with deep strokes. It attracts that the result of labor is immediately visible. Indeed, the black shiny surface suddenly comes to life and transforms from a slight movement with a chisel.

But there is such a danger here: being carried away by the technology of carving, they forget about the artistic possibility of this technique. You can often see how the guys redraw from photographs, and then cut out portraits of famous writers, scientists, and artists with negative contours. There are graphic landscapes carved on black boards with an attempt to convey a linear and aerial perspective, chiaroscuro effects, and even the state of nature. This is because wood carving is confused with linocut due to some technological similarity of individual techniques.

Hardwoods are suitable for contour carving: linden, aspen, birch, alder. Conifers are practically not used here due to their different hardness. constituent parts annual layer.

Wood of the appropriate size without defects must be prepared for carving. For carving on light wood, it is enough to cut it with a planer. If the composition is conceived on a dark background, the board needs to be toned. If a shiny surface is expected, it is necessary to cover it with black varnish, and when it dries, polish it with polish. A dark, evenly toned surface for carving can be prepared in another way: wipe the planed workpiece with a liquid solution of wood glue or PVA glue. After the glue dries, the surface is sanded with a fine sandpaper and covered again with glue. After repeated sanding, the surface of the wood is primed enough for the black ink to evenly lie on it. Dried ink is fixed with varnish, which is then polished. A variety of dyes are used for toning: ink, gouache, tempera, watercolor, aniline paints, various stains and mordants, potassium permanganate. The surface can be left matte, but it can also be covered with a light varnish (to fix the paint) and polished.

The prepared plank is firmly fixed on the surface of the workbench. This is done in the clamps of the workbench or with the help of holders - planed laths with rectangular or angled cutouts. Four bars can be used as holders, clamping the workpiece from all sides.

When cutting a contour groove, the tool is driven with both hands. The knife is clamped in a fist, and the fingers of the other hand guide the blade, supporting, helping the movement or, conversely, holding it back.

The carving process includes several stages: drawing a carved composition, transferring it to a workpiece, direct carving, and finishing operations.

The composition is made taking into account the decorative features of this type of carving and the nature of the object being decorated. The contours of the outlines of the patterns should be extremely clear and precise.

The transfer of the pattern to the workpiece depends on the color of its surface. If the blank is light in color, then black or purple carbon paper is taken. For a black board, carbon paper should be light: yellow, red or green. You can do without a copy, using ballpoint pen with rod without paste. If you press the handle a little harder, deep grooves will remain on the wooden surface, clearly visible in the side light. They are being worked on.

If details with small circles are conceived in the ornament, they are cut out with a semicircular chisel. If there are no semicircular chisels, the circles are cut out with an oblique knife. It should be remembered: the smaller the diameter of the circle, the sharper the blade sharpening angle should be (up to 30 degrees). An oblique knife can be cut in all directions: towards you, away from you, tilting it to the right, to the left, inside the circle, out.

As already mentioned, contour carving is often performed on a toned and polished surface. If the pattern is carved on light-colored wood, it is protected from dust, moisture and air with a transparent lacquer coating. Before varnishing, the carved surface is polished with fine-grained sandpaper. If the surface is planed, sand it with sandpaper wrapped around a wooden block. Grinding is carried out along the fibers. If the surface is turned, the work is carried out in the process of rotation of the product in the clamps of the machine.

Wood dust is carefully removed from all thread recesses. Here you can use a clothes brush.

Depending on the purpose of the item, an appropriate coating is applied. The surface can be lacquered to a high gloss or a matt finish can be achieved by wiping the threads with a stiff brush with thinned lacquer. If necessary, before a transparent coating, the surface of the thread after grinding can be tinted, and the density of tone can be very different - from light tinting of the surface to dull dark tone both on top of the product and in carved recesses.

Geometric or trihedral thread

In the literature, there are other names for it: wedge-shaped, wedge-shaped, etc.

It consists of a number of alphabetic patterns, the combination of which gives beautiful, expressive compositions (contour carving is sometimes also referred to as a variety of geometric carving if it has rectilinear or circular outlines).

The whole variety of geometric carving patterns practically consists of a combination of elementary elements: a spike and a triangle, which can be seen in any composition. Any, the most complex geometric pattern can be divided into its constituent elements, and they turn out to be either pegs or triangles.

For the execution of geometric threads, you need reliable knife. This is the so-called oblique or shoe knife. It should be strong, firmly seated in the hand and very sharply honed. Good knives from the fragments of wide saws for metal (made from R-18 steel). Some craftsmen forge their own knives from wide files, from old automobile springs, from the outer cage of large bearings, they grind them on an electric grinder from fragments of cutter discs for metal. Good knives are obtained from linen, braids. Everyone uses the opportunities that he has. The simplest but most reliable knife can be made from an ordinary chisel 20-30 mm wide. It is machined on an emery wheel.

For a slanting knife, a wooden or plastic handle is made (or, having applied strips of leather or foam rubber on both sides, tightly wrapped with vinyl chloride insulating tape).

When performing a geometric carving, the knife is held tightly in the fist, resting the thumb against the handle of the knife. With the fingers of the other hand, direct the tip of the knife, setting it on the line of the drawing.

Each of the carving elements is easily performed after cutting the peg and triangle has been mastered.

The surface with geometric carvings can be complemented by various finishes that enhance the decorative expressiveness of the item. The finish of a wooden surface with geometric carvings can be very different. Let's name several types available for children to perform.

A product with a geometric carving can be tinted in gray using watercolor or liquid black ink. After the surface has dried (natural drying for about a day), it is polished to a light wood. Dark gray geometric patterns on a light wood background are very expressive. Gray color can have wide color gradations from gray-ocher to cold gray-blue. After sanding the tinted surface, it is possible to lightly (single-layer) coat it with liquid diluted varnish.

To tint the tree, you can also use potassium permanganate. The concentration of potassium permanganate solution can be different depending on the color that they want to give to the tree. In rural conditions, as a paint for tinting a tree, you can use, as was done before in the villages, the juice of forest berries, boiling down the husks from onions, a decoction of chopped bark of trees (oak, alder, apple trees), a decoction of sawdust of dark wood, etc. Of course, this is a tricky business. Now they prefer to use ready-made factory dyes, but these techniques must be remembered. Geometric carving covers both flat surfaces and slotted products and surfaces of bodies of revolution obtained on lathes.

ovalized carving

In contrast to the geometric, there are no certain "alphabetical" figures in the oval carving. The composition of the pattern is composed in contrast to the author's intention. These can be both various ornamental garlands of a plant nature, as well as animalistic compositions and even images with a certain plot and thematic content.

The preparatory drawing in this type of carving is made in the size of the future work with tone study (pencil, ink, watercolor or gouache paints). This will help to visualize the final result of the work.

For the first tasks on the development of oval carving, mainly softwood species of wood are recommended: linden, alder, aspen. For the first works, it is better to use the samples given in the literature on carving. In the future, using the experience gained, you can try to compose independent compositions.

For prepared wooden surface The drawing is translated using carbon paper. The cutting process itself is conditionally divided into several stages: pricking, background processing and element modeling.

When pricking, the chisel is held in the fist with the blade vertically down. First, the steepest curls of the thread are pierced, then more gentle ones. The sharp edge of the chisel is placed on the contour line, with pressure it deepens into the tree by 3-4 mm and, by turning the brush, scrolls around the axis. The movement continues as long as the blade of the chisel moves along the contour corresponding to the diameter of the chisel.

Then they take a flatter chisel and, having set it close to the slot left by the first chisel, make a tattoo further. The cut line should smoothly, without kinks and gaps, move from an arc of one diameter to an arc of another. Transitions are made smoothly, like mates in drawing. The most gentle parts of the pattern are cut with a cutter knife. All cut lines with respect to the plane must be vertical. The depth of the tattoo is not the same everywhere: in the arc of twisted curls it is the deepest, and where individual petals converge on a common stem of the plant, the tattoo comes to the surface. A tattoo can be done immediately over the entire carved surface, but it can also be done sequentially, in sections, completing each of them completely.

The next stage is the release of the pattern from the surrounding field, that is, cutting off the background around each pinned element. This operation can be performed either with a cutter knife, or with semicircular chisels of a larger diameter than those used to tattoo the pattern. From the edge of the pattern they recede towards the background by 2-3 mm and at an angle of about 45 degrees with pressure they go deep into the tree along circular contours around the patterns. The edge between the recess and the background is removed with additional, flatter cuts with a cutter knife. The pattern becomes as if gently rising from the background. All burrs, all remnants, fiber breaks must be cut and removed from all nooks and crannies around the pattern. It should stand out clearly and cleanly from the deep background. Then the study of each of the elements of the pattern begins: sharp edges are cut off, the outlines are rounded. Ultimately, the entire thread should be gently rounded, without sharp edges. All contours should be as if gently melting. Elaboration, removal of excess material from the elements of the pattern is carried out with semicircular chisels (turned with the groove down) and a knife-cutter.

Among these softly rounded petals, leaves, curls, Kudrin's masters introduce some elements for contrast, clearly indented with deep contour strokes - cross-drawn hearts of flowers and other details. Such a notch is the final stage of finishing.

Conclusion

We have written a lot of books, articles, created albums dedicated to folk Russian art. Even V. Stasov, in his remarkable, but then partly forgotten work "Russian Folk Ornament" / St. Petersburg, I872 /, was the first to express the idea of ​​​​the significance and depth of Russian folk art, in fact, he was the first to pay attention to it. Various scientists, mainly of the Soviet era, such as V.S. Voronov, A.I. Nekrasov, A.V. Bakushinsky turned to the study of folk art, considering its artistic features and thereby , continuing in many ways Stasov, laid the foundation of the science that studied folk art. After their studies, which have now become classical, it became clear the high significance of folk craftsmanship, the height of significance of folk art culture in the world of things created by the peasantry.

In the first half of the 19th century, scientists, poets, artists knew and understood the significance of folk art, but perceived it only in its oral form: the beauty and strength of Russian fairy tales, the colorfulness of epics, their historical integrity, accuracy and sharpness of sayings and the wisdom of riddles were discovered; wonderful creations of folk poetry joined them: songs, chants, parables, texts and the meaning of various kinds of rituals, beliefs, which carried high poetry. But the fine decorative art that adorned the things of peasant life: utensils, implements, clothes, attracted little attention and, as it were, turned out to be outside the interests of researchers and artists. and writers. The splendor of ladles, with their amazing sculptural forms, the colorfulness of the paintings on spinning wheels and other objects, the expressiveness of what we now define as a phenomenon of an ancient geometric style in its origins, expressed in woodcarving, in painting, in clothes (embroidery and weaving), is simply not yet " have seen." Passed by. Even such an artist, seemingly close to folk life, to peasant life and share, like Venetsianov, he never depicted either a roll or a spinning wheel, he did not pay attention to the beautiful carvings on a peasant's hut: he certainly saw them, but the time has not yet come to recognize all this as phenomena of great art. Stasov's work was to appear and the creation of that "center" in Abramtsevo, where, thanks to E. Polenova and E. Mamontova, the collection of peasant things did not begin, but a genuine understanding of their high artistic value appeared.

The art of carving is very popular among the Russian people. Wooden products are constantly exhibited at domestic and foreign exhibitions of decorative art.

Thus, Russian decorative wood carving was widely represented at world exhibitions in Brussels (1959), Montreal (1967), Osaka (1970) and at such major domestic exhibitions of recent times as the All-Russian Exhibition - a review of folk crafts, held at VDNKh in 1977 - 1978, and the All-Union exhibition of works by masters of folk art crafts in the Central House of Artists in 1980, the exhibition "Folk Art of the RSFSR" in the Central Exhibition Hall in 1988.

Hand-made products of masters of artistic woodcarving are designed to decorate the life of Russian people. On the one hand, they are works of decorative art, on the other - consumer goods.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the symbolism and artistic images in traditional wooden crafts and crafts play a very important role. These values ​​have been preserved to this day, this is clearly seen from the second section of the work, which analyzes the modern enterprise "Bogorodsky Carver".

Bibliography

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Appendix

Annex 1

E. Kurdakov. "Abduction", "The Old Man and the Old Woman", "Dwarf Under the Mushroom"

TOPIC: Artistic craft. Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving. Woodcarving. Types of carving.Abashevskaya toy.

Prepared by a 1st year student

Kuznetsova Victoria

ABRAMTSEVO-KUDRINSKY CARVING - art craft of wood carving, formed at the end of the 19th century. in the vicinity of the Abramtsevo estate near Moscow. The emergence of the craft is closely connected with the artists of the Abramtsevo circle and, first of all, E. D. Polenova, who organized a carpentry and carving workshop in the estate of S. I. Mamontov in 1882, in which carvers from the surrounding villages of Khotkovo, Akhtyrka, Kudrin, and Mutovka studied and worked.

When organizing the workshop, special attention was paid to learning activities, creating and maintaining a creative mood among students. In addition to learning the skills of carving, drawing and the basics of painting were taught in the workshop. Classes were held at the "Abramtsevo Museum": a large collection of folk art was collected in the estate. Graduates of the workshop received tools for organizing their business as a gift.

In 1890, one of the students of V. P. Vornoskov founded his own production in his native village of Kudrin and began working on orders from the Abramtsevo workshop. This, initially small, workshop formed the basis of the future craft. In the Kudrin workshop, a special style of ornamental carving was formed, successful combinations of flat-relief carving with geometric carving were found, and principles for the organic use of carved decor in utilitarian objects were laid down. In the first years of work, professional artists - V. I. Sokolov, S. V. Malyutin, employees of the Handicraft Museum, provided great assistance in the development of a special "Vornosk" style.

The products of Vornoskov and his followers - ladles, caskets, barrels, salt shakers, decorative dishes and vases covered with rhythmic floral ornaments, are distinguished by a variety of toning, emphasizing the natural beauty of wood. The floral ornament is based not only on samples of carved peasant products and house decor, but also on the ornamental screensavers of old printed books. The development of the ornament of the Kudrin masters went from the connection of individual elements - twigs, curls, rosettes - to solid ornamental compositions covering the entire product.

In 1922, the Vozrozhdenie artel was organized in Kudrin, which began to develop rapidly, in the mid-1930s. more than 120 people worked there. The products of the artel were in great demand, and were repeatedly awarded diplomas at Russian and international exhibitions. In 1936, a unique order was completed: the decoration of one of the entrances to the exhibition of folk art in the Tretyakov Gallery. This is the only work of Kudrintsy in the field of monumental art. For the International Exhibition in Paris in 1937, the Kudrintsy prepared an extensive collection, for which many of the early works of V. P. Vornoskov were repeated.

In subsequent years, craftsmen and artists of different generations developed the craft - V. V. Vornoskov, M. V. Artemiev, A. I. Gulyaeva, Z. N. Borodulina, T. V. Alkhimovich, L. V. Barkan, N. N. and G. I. Simankin. At present, the center of the craft is located in the city of Khotkovo, Sergiev Posad district, where a factory of carved art products operates. Masters of the Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving are trained by the Abramtsevo Art and Industrial College named after V. M. Vasnetsov.

Abashevskaya toy

Russian art craft, formed in the Spassky district, now the Bednodemyanovsky district of the Penza region.

The production of toys originated in the 19th century. on the basis of local pottery. Repression at the beginning of the 20th century. handicrafts with factory utensils led to the gradual extinction of pottery and the separation of toys into an independent craft. Unlike most toy centers, it was predominantly male.

The fame gained by the craft in the late 1920s is associated with the name of Larion Zotkin, a talented craftsman from the village of Abashevo, the author of many interesting toys: fabulous lions, bizarre dogs, funny bears. At this time, the sculptural techniques and painting features characteristic of the Abashevo masters were formed.

Features of the Abashev toy

Abashevskaya toy- These are whistles depicting animals, often taking on a phantasmagoric fairy-tale appearance. The figurines have an elongated body with short, widely spaced legs and a long graceful neck. On a small, carefully sculpted head, deeply scratched eyes stand out. The heads of goats, deer, rams are crowned with curved, sometimes multi-tiered horns. Lush bangs, curly beards and manes are clearly modeled, their contours outlined by the stack have a strict pattern and high relief.

STACK - (Italian stecca), clay modeling tool, etc. soft materials; a wooden, bone or metal stick with widened ends in the form of a spatula.

Painting toys

The whistles are painted with bright enamel colors - blue, green, red, in the most unexpected combinations. Individual details, such as horns, can be painted with silver or gold. Sometimes parts of the figurines remain unpainted and contrast sharply with bright spots of enamel. Ordinary pets under the hands of the master turn into fabulous creatures.

Modern masters :

The craft of Abashev toys is continued by modern masters - T. N. Zotkin, I. L. Zyuzenkov, A. I. Eskin. Some artists have begun to cover their whistles with a colorless glaze, which makes the figurines more streamlined and less bright.

ARTISTIC WOOD CARVING- one of the oldest and most common types of artistic processing of wood, in which a pattern is applied to a product using an ax, knife, chisels, chisels, chisels and other similar tools. With the improvement of technology, wood turning and milling appeared, which greatly simplified the work of the carver. Carving is used in home decor, when decorating household utensils and furniture, for making small wooden plastic and toys. The carving differs in types - geometric carving, contour carving, flat-relief carving, openwork carving and volumetric carving.

Artistic woodcarving has been known since primitive times among almost all peoples in different parts of the Earth. With the constant improvement of labor tools, with the transition from stone cutters to metal tools, craftsmen mastered new technologies, more and more artistically advanced types of carving. Since ancient times, being one of the most important areas of folk art, carving still makes up a significant part of traditional artistic crafts.

In Ancient Russia, wood was the most widely used material. Due to the relative cheapness and poor durability of the material, only a small part of the ancient works of decorative and applied art made of wood have survived to this day. On the basis of written sources and the few surviving monuments, one can judge the art of ancient Russian carpenters and carpenters, whose skill with its origins dates back to the art of the ancient Slavs and other peoples who inhabited the territory of modern Russia, which was reflected in the techniques of carving and drawing the most archaic ornaments.

In the Russian North, in the Volga region, in the Urals and in Siberia, wooden houses 18-19 centuries - the most striking monuments of architectural carving. Until the beginning of the 30s of the 20th century, ancient Russian artistic traditions of decorating dwellings and utensils existed in these areas. Peasant architects paid much attention to home decor. The high pediments of peasant houses are completed by okhlupni, at the ends of which monumental heads of horses or deer are carved. Walls, valances, towels decorating the facades are covered with floral or geometric ornaments. The external stinginess of pictorial means gives these buildings a sense of austerity.

In the Middle Volga region, since the 18th century, the so-called baroque carving, transferred from the Volga ship carving to architectural forms, has become widespread. Hollowed out images of lions, pharaoh mermaids, Sirins framed by an intricate floral ornament made of vines and acanthus leaves are covered with a continuous pattern of facade boards, platbands, porches. Often such a carving was painted with bright oil paints.

The house decor of the Arkhangelsk, Olonetsk, Kostroma provinces is more stingy. Here, the ancient Russian type of wooden architecture has been preserved, almost untouched by later influences, where geometric ornament with shallow recesses prevails, based on archaic solar signs. Carving usually decorates the roof frame, architraves and porches.

From the middle of the 19th century, in the design of dwellings in the Upper Volga region, the regions of the Non-Black Earth Region and Siberia, lush sawn decor covering the pediments and architraves began to be intensively used. A wide range of ornamental themes in openwork carving - from the simplest geometric forms to images of people and animals - is used in the countryside and by modern builders.

In close connection with wooden architecture, a culture of decorating utilitarian objects developed, in which technological methods and the nature of ornamentation of house carvings were preserved. Weaving mills, sledges, wooden utensils, spinning wheels and other household items were generously covered with geometric ornaments, which in the past had a certain sacred meaning. Distaffs were one of the most interesting in terms of the variety of forms and the perfection of the patterns of carving objects. The pattern on them was applied mainly on the "blade", less often on the "bottom". In each of the regions, for centuries, original techniques for decorating spinning wheels have been developed that are unique to this area. So, for example, in the Nizhny Novgorod province, a unique craft of Gorodets spinning donets has developed.

An independent area of ​​​​folk carving was wooden toy- dolls, figurines, horses, teams. Wooden toys were made in all forest regions of Russia, most of them were signed. Sergiev Posad and Bogorodsk wooden toys in the Moscow region, Fedoseev and Gorodets toys from the Nizhny Novgorod region are distinguished by original local features.

Based on the study of the techniques and stylistic features of Russian folk carving, the efforts of artists and collectors at the end of the 19th century created the so-called Abramtsevo-Kudrinskaya carving, which continued the traditions of flat-relief carving.

Today, the traditions of Russian flat-relief and geometric carving are widely used by masters and artists of old craft centers and newly created workshops.

GEOMETRIC WOOD CARVING, one of the most ancient and widespread types of wooden ornamental carving. It is carried out in the form of notches of two-, three-, four-sided shape, which in combination give a large number of various compositions. Main tool carver - a cutter with a beveled end, the so-called "jamb".

Geometric carving is divided into two main varieties: trihedral-notched carving and nail-like (or stapled).

The first one is based on a trihedral pyramid buried inside, from which various ornaments are formed. The nail-like carving got its name from the semicircular recess - the “nail”, applied with a semicircular chisel. Combinations of "marigolds" give more complex patterns - leaves, shamrocks, eyes.

Ornamentation of geometric carving goes back to ancient pagan symbols. For example, one of the most common elements - the rosette - was associated with the cult of the sun. Rosettes and radiance are present in all compositions made using the technique of trihedral-notched carving. Geometric carving was used in the home decor of the Russian North and when decorating spinning wheels and various household utensils - rolls, rubels, rattles. The geometric pattern is found on objects from the Novgorod excavations of the 10th-12th centuries. Similar ornaments adorn the products of Western European artisans, masters of Central Asia.

At the end of the 19th century, on the crest of a wave of interest in folk art, geometric carving again began to be widely used in architecture, in the design of furniture and interior details. This technique was used by carpentry workshops in Talashkino, Abramtsevo, Nizhny Novgorod, sketches for the ornament were made by professional artists. Today, geometric carving is used mainly in the decoration of small household items and in souvenir production.

WOOD CARVING , one of the types of wooden ornamental carving, which has become widespread in folk art since the beginning of the 15th century. It is performed in the form of a line cut along the contour of the picture. A clear, somewhat dry, contour carving ornament vaguely resembles an engraving. As a rule, a linear pattern is complemented by a variety of cuts that enliven the composition. Often, contour carving can be combined with a trihedral-notched carving or complemented by subsequent coloring. Basic cutter tools: special knife with a beveled end, the so-called "jamb" and "cerazik" - a narrow semicircular chisel curved at the end.

Despite its apparent simplicity, contour carving requires high skill, since it is more difficult to correct flaws than in other types of carving. For the purity of the pattern, without chips and cuts, the thread is carried out with a single flywheel technique. With a jamb, first cut the line from the outside, and then from the inside. For greater expressiveness of the pattern, these grooves can expand or narrow, be of different depths. The contoured image is complemented by veins made with ceraziks of different widths.

Contour carving has become widespread in the Volga region, in particular on the Gorodets spinning bottoms and in the northern provinces. In this technique, images were made on spinning wheels of the Yaroslavl-Kostroma type.

WOOD CARVING , one of the most common types of carving. Relatively shallow relief (5-20 mm) retains the same height with equal depth of the main background. The main motifs of flat-relief carving are floral ornaments, stylized images of human and animal figures. Her technique is relatively simple. Carved decorations are applied to a pre-prepared product. Initially, the contour of the drawing is drawn with a sharp object, then the master cuts the drawing along the contour with a chisel and selects the background with chisels. The relief is often processed with additional cuts that model the image - veins of leaves, horse manes, small details. The set of tools depends on the complexity of the drawing; in some cases, carvers use up to 60 cutters and chisels of various profiles and sizes.

Flat-relief carving is divided into varieties: carving with an oval contour - the edges of the pattern cut along the contour are slightly rounded, and the background is usually not chosen at all; carving with a pillow background - the background is cut very gently, forming a semicircular bulge resembling a whipped pillow; carving with a selected background - around the contoured pattern, the background is selected to an equal depth, which makes the image more embossed.

Flat-relief carving was used primarily in home decor and was known in Russia since the pre-Petrine time, having become widespread in the Volga region, in the Russian North, in the Urals. Big influence The development of the Volga carving was influenced by the "ship carving", on the basis of which a special baroque type of carving was developed. At the end of the 19th century in Abramtsevo near Moscow, through the efforts of artists and collectors, the craft of Abramtsevo-Kudrin carving arose, continuing the ancient Russian traditions of relief carving.

OPENWORK (THROUGH) WOOD CARVING, a kind of artistic processing of wood, in which the background is completely selected, and only the image itself remains, which makes it similar to three-dimensional carving. In Russian peasant art, this type of carving is widely used, primarily in house decor and household utensils in the North, the Upper Volga region and Eastern Siberia.

To perform openwork carving of small household items and furniture parts, as a rule, hardwood is used - linden, birch, aspen; in architecture - larches and pines.

When performing openwork carving, the master marks points on the corners of the selected plane on the drawing transferred to the workpiece and drills holes. Sawing is carried out with a jigsaw or a thin circular saw. Initially, this operation was carried out with a chisel, which significantly slowed down the work. The resulting openwork pattern cut with a knife, jamb or chisel, giving the outlines corresponding to the pattern.

From the middle of the 19th century, in the design of the dwellings of the Upper Volga region, the regions of the Non-Black Earth Region and Siberia, sawn decoration began to be intensively used, covering the magnificent pediments and architraves. A wide range of ornamental openwork carving themes - from the simplest geometric forms to images of people and animals - is used in the countryside and by modern builders.

Among the most interesting phenomena openwork decor household items include Pomor and Yaroslavl spinning wheels, whose blades, and sometimes legs, are covered with a through pattern with varying degrees of intensity; elongated handles of Kozmodemyansk, Tver, Vologda ladles, covered with cut-out ornament; salt shakers from the Kostroma province. Carved architraves

spinning wheel , the simplest device for hand spinning.

The spinning wheel consisted of a flat comb-blade, legs and a flat base-bottom, carved, as a rule, from a single piece of wood. While working, the craftswoman sat on the bottom and twisted the thread onto a spindle from a tow - a fibrous bundle of flax or hemp - tied to a paddle. The spindle was a cone-shaped stick about 30 cm long. For stability, a stone or ceramic ring - a whorl - was put on the thin end of the spindle.

For the manufacture of spinning wheels, the butt part of a tree, usually pine or spruce, was used, with a protruding root from which the bottom was hewn. The blade and stem of the finished spinning wheel were usually covered with carvings or paintings, often carved patterns were painted with oil paints. In each of the regions, original techniques for decorating spinning wheels have been developed for centuries, inherent exclusively in this area. Richly decorated spinning wheels were given to brides and then carefully kept in the family, passed from mother to daughter. Thanks to this, the products of the masters of the 18th century have come down to us.

Distaffs from the Arkhangelsk province, carved and painted, are simple in form. Often on top of the blades are decorated with carved "towns", reminiscent of the domes of churches. Painted in the Permogorie on the Northern Dvina, they are almost completely covered with curly shoots of red, yellow and green leaves. Among the lush ornaments are images of fantastic animals, birds, everyday scenes. In the Severodvinsk village of Borok, a similar style of painting became widespread, called “boretskaya” after the boyars who once owned this village. Usually in the painting of Boretsky spinning wheels there is a wedding wagon or carriage, rich chambers, fabulous birds, lions.

In the area of ​​the village of Polashchelye, an original type of Mezen painting on wood has developed. Mezen spinning wheels have a narrow, upwardly elongated blade, covered with horizontal rows of fractional ornament, consisting of alternating stars, crosses, dashes, made in two colors - black and red. Among non-pictorial ornaments there are friezes with stylized schematic images of horses and deer.

Around the city of Shenkursk in the Vologda province (now the Arkhangelsk region) has developed its own original style of painting spinning wheels. Three large rosans arranged vertically occupy almost the entire surface of the blade. To give more elegance, the Shenkur craftsmen sometimes supplemented the painting with golden foil.

Distaffs of the Yaroslavl-Kostroma type (“Terem distaffs”) have a strongly elongated blade tapering upwards, crowned with a stylized figure resembling a flowering tree. The scenes of tea parties, trips, round dances, and festivities depicted on them are made using the technique of contour carving.

An exceptional phenomenon is represented by Gorodets spinning bottoms. Gorodets spinning wheels consisted of two parts - a bottom with a "spear" and a comb inserted into it on a leg. Kudel in the Nizhny Novgorod Territory was not tied to a lapaska, as in the North, but was put on a comb. When the spinning wheel was not being worked on, the comb was taken out of the "kopylk", and the decorated bottom was hung on the wall, becoming a kind of decorative panel. Initially, the bottoms were decorated with bog oak inlay, supplemented with contour carving, but from the middle of the 19th century, inlay was gradually replaced by plot-ornamental painting. Among the favorite motifs of the Gorodets craftsmen were trips, battles, tea parties, lush roses, figures of horses and birds.

With the appearance in Europe in the 15th century of a self-spinning wheel with a foot drive, the gradual displacement of spinning wheels from urban use began. However, in the life of the Russian village, despite the widespread use of spinning machines since the 18th century, hand spinning wheels continued to be used until the beginning of the 20th century. In the villages of the North and the Volga region, even today, some craftswomen spin wool on this ancient device.

Literature:

Art and painting N. V. Gaevskaya A. L. Iordansky

Encyclopedia "Russian Culture"

Folk crafts. Wood carving: the history of origin and development The history of wood carving goes back to the time of the appearance in human society of techniques and methods of processing wood, as the simplest and most common material, as well as the appearance of wooden architecture. Our distant ancestors knew that wood has very valuable qualities: water resistance, thermal insulation, low density, a rich variety of texture patterns. In addition, wood is easy to process and harvest. In this regard, the tree was widely used in everyday life - almost everywhere from the construction of defense fortifications to kitchen utensils and agricultural implements. Since the advent of Homo sapiens, the desire for beauty has been embedded in the mind and heart of people. This desire resulted in the amazing ability of people to make a real work of art out of natural material. It is unlikely that there will be such a people who would not decorate their homes and household items. However, the history of the development of carving in each country is special and is associated with the level of culture, skill and worldview in society. This is probably why, in each country, the art of woodcarving has its own unique features, techniques and styles. The most ancient is considered geometric flat-relief carving. She not only decorated household utensils and buildings, but also had a semantic, ritual load. All elements of such a carving carried symbols of the elements and phenomena. By applying them to objects decorating the house, people hoped to protect themselves from the influence of evil forces and attract light forces: life, fertility and longevity. Amulets were also carved from wood - small figures of gods, who were the guardians of the hearth. The Shigir idol is considered the most ancient find carved from wood. This is a wooden sculpture made of larch, which experts attribute to the time of the Mesolithic, that is, to the VIII millennium BC. The item was found on the territory of our country, not far from Yekaterinburg, during excavations on the eastern slope of the Middle Urals. Interestingly, the body of the idol is covered on all sides with geometric ornamental carvings, and something like a face (mask) is carved on its wider parts. After studying the images, scientists have identified characters that are associated with the heavenly (upper) and underground (lower) worlds, apparently embodying the world of animals and the world of plants, the feminine and masculine. Gradually, with the development of mankind, woodcarving lost its mystical and ritual meaning and became a way decorative ornament household items. New techniques appeared in carving, its technique was enriched by the use of new tools. Starting from the 16th century, large carving workshops and artels began to be created. Wood carving has become a widespread folk craft on a nationwide scale. Skilled folk carvers decorated royal palaces, cathedrals and temples, houses and estates of rich and noble people with original carvings. The life of people in Russia was inextricably linked with the tree. Masters used not only the wood itself, but also birch bark, thin roots of pine and spruce, bast, burl, kapo-root. These materials have been used in various types artistic processing of wood. For example, kapo-root, which was an outgrowth on the trunk and roots of a birch, had an irregular structure, an intricate interweaving of fibers and a very high density. These properties make cap or kapo-root look like Karelian birch, from which elegant decorative items were made: exquisite furniture, snuff boxes, chests. Folk carvers made excellent dishes from kapo-root, which did not yield to moisture. From time immemorial in Russia, all traditional household items made of wood had an expressive decorative form and were decorated with rich carved ornaments or artistic painting. In the carved decoration of spinning wheels, ladles, spindles, salt shakers, seamstresses, rollers, dishes and spoons, people's observations of the wildlife around them were reflected. Great importance in Russia was attached to the decoration with carvings of architectural structures made of wood. In the 19th century, a whole trend arose in carved folk art - house carving. Peasant houses decorated with openwork slotted thread with a beautiful ridge on the roof, reminiscent of fabulous towers. Perfection carved ornaments and images delights even the most sophisticated connoisseur. Rhythmic floral patterns, geometric lace, graceful curls, intricate rosettes, figurines of lions, shoreline mermaids, magical birds and animals - all this put the carved decor of the Russian hut on a par with the masterpieces of world architecture. In house carving, a more complex technique was used than in the design of simple household items. To replace the trihedral, pitted, contour and geometric carving came deaf embossed, slotted and sculptural. Blind carving with a characteristic solid background was used to decorate the gables of houses, architraves, end boards, helping to keep the wood from decay. Welt or openwork carving, which is very similar to lace, was used to decorate entrances above doors, architraves, porch cornices, piers, towels, and stair railings. Openwork or sawn carving was the hallmark of the masters of the Russian North: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma regions, as well as the Urals, the Volga region and Siberia.