Expressive means online definition. Language means of expressiveness

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Content

Introduction

2. What are trails?

4. Stylistic figures
5. Using someone else's speech

Introduction

We can convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts with the help of words, and expressiveness allows us to do this.

Expressiveness is associated with its imagery, i.e. allows using words not only in their direct, but also in a figurative sense. With the concept of figurative use of words, artistic means as paths.
Paths are the turns of a speech word in a figurative sense, and it is the paths that give expressiveness in our speech. There are many types of trails:
metaphor, metonymy, epithet, comparison, hyperbole, litota, personification, paraphrase, etc. The main function of tropes - expressive-pictorial in this sense, serves as a means of speech culture.
The main condition for expressiveness of speech is the ability of a person to think independently. Expressiveness, brightness of speech depends on a good knowledge of the features of language styles (such as, for example, artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial and everyday life, etc.).

1. The main characteristic of the expressiveness of speech

MV Lomonosov, a brilliant orator of his time, theorist of oratory, wrote: "Eloquence is the art of speaking about any given matter and thus incline others to your opinion about it."
In this definition, a characteristic feature of the culture of speech is called and it is emphasized that speaking "red" (figuratively, expressively, emotionally) is important for this, in order to more forcefully influence the listeners.
The expressiveness of speech enhances its effectiveness: bright speech arouses interest, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, affects the mind and feelings of a person, on the imagination of listeners.
This applies not only to public speaking, not only to reports and lectures, but also to everyday speech, home conversation. There are times when one student talks about the same day spent at school in a gray, disinterested way: “There was nothing special. Fine. The teacher talked about Demosthenes. There was such a speaker. They didn’t ask me, they didn’t call me. Everything is fine". Another vividly, interestedly told what he had learned about Demosthenes, remembered how a classmate at a biology lesson said: "The cholera embryo is very dangerous", after which the teacher's glasses climbed over his forehead. And then it turned out that several people in the class did not know that the causative agent of cholera is called "vibrio", and embryo means "fetus."
People have different characters: some are “silent” since childhood, while others are “talkers”, some have the gift of eloquence, others do not. However, theorists of oratory argue that any person, if desired, can overcome the innate tendency to "silence" and learn to speak figuratively, expressively.
To do this, first of all, you need to know what means of expressiveness the language possesses, which makes speech figurative, colorful. Then learn how to use these tools and create them yourself.
The resources of expressive means in the language are inexhaustible. They are found at all its levels, especially at the lexical level. This is due to the fact that the word not only names an object, quality, state, but is also capable of conveying the speaker's attitude, his assessment (positive, negative), his emotions (disapproval, neglect, affection, love, delight), to indicate the degree of manifestation recognized, actions, i.e. be expressive.

2. What are trails?

The expressiveness of speech largely depends on the extent to which the creator is familiar with artistic techniques traditionally called tropes and figures.
Paths are words and expressions used not in the usual, direct sense, but in a figurative sense. The trail is based on the comparison of phenomena that are similar in some way or in some way related, correlated with each other.
Paths include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, comparison, epithets, periphrasis, allusion, parable, personification, irony, hyperbole, lithote, etc.
And in typology, and even in the definition of tropes, researchers do not have complete unity, and there have been many of them for two thousand years. Therefore, here for a long time not a single definition of the path, but the properties of the paths, which do not always appear stereotypically, will be indicated.
1. Trails, unlike other figures, always create an image - visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. Figures such as antithesis, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, also create images, and this makes it difficult for both.
2. The image created is based on a comparison that generates a new one, figurative meaning.
3. Trails different types can be arranged according to the increasing degree of metaphoricity, allegory. This property is placed in the basis of typologies as the main one, along with others.
4. Structurally, a trope as a figure appears almost always in the form of a two-part phrase, one of the members of which can be used only at the mental level. A person does not speak - this is a reed, but a thinking one, a high-ranking trope makes the listener trace the similarity in thoughts and marvel at the charm of such an unintelligible comparison.
5. The trail is based on a common property of linguistic units that expands the boundaries of their use. Here is a model of this process:
The meaning of the word> comparison of the phenomena indicated by words> trope, for example, a metaphor> consolidation of the figurative meaning of the word> the appearance of a shade of the meaning of this word> its polysemy, recognized in the lexical norm. Through figurative meanings, for example, the following meanings were formed: House ("building")> house ("housing")> house ("family, people living together")> house ("dynasty of monarchs").
Often in everyday life, a person uses and even creates paths himself, increasing the expressiveness of his speech. These paths are fixed: the clock is running, the clock has stopped, the moon is young, the sun is blazing, nature is asleep.
In Russia of the twentieth century. the trails were explored by GG Shpet, AN Veselovsky, VN Toporov, and others. Understanding of the essence of trails is still unstable; in the light of semiotics, tropes are defined as a semantic transposition from a present sign to an absent sign, prompted by a microtext.

3. Means of speech expression

Metaphor is one of the main, most commonly used tropes. Apparently, a metaphorical ability is inherent in human nature, which is confirmed by examples from the speech of preschool children: The sun has gone to sleep; the dog sunbathes in the sun; metaphors in proverbs, sayings: Get off your thin life; trouble is not far off; Thin - in armfuls, good - in a pinch (V.I.Dal). And in everyday speech at every turn there are frozen metaphors: the stream sings; the songs are ringing; all year round, the sunset is blazing, etc.
Metaphors are varied both in the structure of the combination of words, and in the degree of development, novelty, originality, unusualness, allegoricality, symbolism.
A gradation of metaphor is possible from an almost straightforward comparison to a detailed allegory, parable, grotesque, carnival.
In the metaphor, words, combinations, sections of the text come close to realities in similarity, it is based on analogy. The word, the turn of speech becomes metaphorical in an allegory, an image. And although in the origins of the metaphor - the comparison is not straightforward, but veiled: the object being compared is significantly distant, it is not always easy to recognize. Here's an example of interweaving metaphors:
Who created you, O Rome? The genius of people's freedom!
If a mortal, forever bowing under the yoke,
In his heart he put out the eternal fire of Prometheus,
If in the world everywhere the human spirit fell, -
Here the sacred stones of ancient Rome would have cried:
"Mortal, immortal your spirit: man is equal to the gods!"
(D. S. Merezhkovsky)
Here are metaphors: the creator of Rome - the genius of people's freedom; submitted - bowed his neck (neck) under the yoke; an extreme degree of protest - the sacred stones would have cried out to ancient Rome; man is great by the strength of his spirit - equal to the gods; general meaning: only a free person becomes equal to the gods.
The use of metaphors does not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. "Too brilliant style," wrote Aristotle, "makes both characters and thoughts invisible."
Metonymy, in contrast to metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two similarly named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, should be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words class, school, auditorium, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.
A word can be called a material and a product made of this material (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: "Gold and silver went to our athletes, bronze went to the French."
Geographical names are often used in metonymic meaning. For example, the names of the capitals are used in the meaning of "the government of the country", "the ruling circles": Negotiations between London and Washington, Paris is worried, Warsaw has made a decision, etc. Geographical names also refer to the people living in the area. Thus, the name Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which lies in what is called a part instead of a whole, a singular is used instead of a plural, or, conversely, a whole instead of a part, a plural is used instead of a single.
An example of a synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian person. Using the word man, and given name Ivan, the writer means all the people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray
the overcoat, which without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and
frontline thirty grams of sugar, orphaned in the terrible days of war
child, a person who selflessly covered
comrade, saving him from imminent death, a man who squeezed
teeth, endured and will endure all hardships and hardships, going for a feat in the name of
Homeland.
Good name Ivan!
Allegory is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete life image. This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales. With the help of animal images, various human vices (greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance) are ridiculed, good, courage and justice are glorified.
So, in folk tales the fox is an allegory of cunning, the hare is cowardice, the donkey is stubbornness, etc.
Allegory allows you to better understand one or another idea of ​​the speaker, to delve into the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation.
Comparison. Any comparison of the new with the previously known is intended to evoke in the mind of the listener, the reader, an association, usually accompanied by emotions, a flash of imagination, which, together, contributes to the emergence of an image.
The comparison can be logical, it is devoid of any allegory; according to KD Ushinsky, such a comparison is the basis of human cognition in general: everything is cognized through comparing the new with the already cognized; comparison is the path to understanding. Examples of logical comparison: compare a cat and a dog, i.e. find the similarities and differences between them.
The following types of comparison-tropes are distinguished.
1. Comparison is not yet divorced from the syntax, it is introduced with the help of union words as if, as if, as if, as if, similar, etc.:
Debt days are short, black and clear,
The branches in the sky are crossed, Like cracks in the sky.
(N. Matveeva)
An amazingly strong image, it evokes not only visual associations, but also a feeling of universal anxiety. Indeed, the resemblance is truly tragic.
2. comparison is introduced by the form of creative case.
Crosses stand after the battle
Simple addition signs.
(S. Kirsanov)
Such an eerie comparison is symbolic of the innumerable deaths.
3. Comparison is introduced by the form of the genitive: the tongue of the flame.
The flame is likened to tongues: they lick the wooden walls of a building, and they catch fire.
4. Comparison is introduced as a separate turnover, appendix.
My hands are a pair of swans -
In the gold of my hair they dive.
(S. Yesenin)
5. Negative comparison is not quite the usual type: the effect is achieved by the principle of opposition:
Not a flock of ravens flew
On the chest of smoldering bones
Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights
The daring gang was gathering.
(A.S. Pushkin)
This type of comparison came to literature from folklore, is distinguished by poetry, melodiousness, carries an image: a flock of ravens, bonfires - a complex picture.
Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. Pay attention to what expressive epithets A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, now thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, now sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling stone demantoid, which was so valued abroad - the traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana and Persia. A whole range of tones connects the slightly greenish or bluish beryls with the deep green dark aquamarines of the Ilmen mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is unparalleled.
Epithets, like other means of speech expression, should not be overused.
Speech practice has also developed such a concept as a constant epithet: the sea is blue, the clouds are black, the maiden is red, Odysseus the Cunning, Koschey the Immortal. An epithet can perform the syntactic function of not only definitions, but also sentences: Zeus the Thunderer, beauties maidens, and circumstances: the voices sounded excited; thunder roars deafeningly.
A complete and generally accepted theory and classification of epithets does not yet exist. V scientific literature usually three types of epithets are distinguished: general linguistic (they are constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: bitter frost, quiet evening); folk poetry (used in oral folk art: red maiden, pure field); individual author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev)).
The periphery is the replacement of the word with a descriptive turnover: Japan, the land of the rising sun, greeted us with rain and wind. Here the word Japan itself may well be missing. For example: ... And he raises the cup of health for his teachers (Peter after the Battle of Poltava) - here A.S. Pushkin quotes Peter himself, who, not without reason, called the Swedes his teachers.
A periphrase is not always a turnover, a combination of words, it can also be one-word: Aurora - morning dawn:
Towards the morning Aurora
Appear as the star of the north.
Here Pushkin introduces two paths: Aurora and the Star of the North.
There is a well-known paraphrase in parodies. An example is D. Minaev's parody on the poems of A.A. Feta:
Whisper. Timid breathing. Cold. Dirty villages
Nightingale trills ... Puddles and fog ...
An allusion is a hint that is not clear to everyone, but usually only to close friends and associates of the speaker; it establishes a connection between the communicators. The illusion is always colored with positive emotions, humor, and sometimes light irony.
For example - from "Eugene Onegin":
Onegin, my good friend,
Born on the banks of the Neva,
Where shone, my reader;
I once walked there too:
But the north is bad for me.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Here the word north is harmful - an ironic allusion to the exile to Pushkin, about which not everyone knew at that time, but only a relatively narrow circle of friends and admirers.
The illusion can be unintentional, it is like a password known only to two. In V. Kaverin's novel "Two Captains", eight-year-old Sanya read letters from the bag of a drowned postman; some were remembered. As it turned out later, one of the letters was from a polar study - from Captain Tatarinov, who soon died, to his wife Maria ...
Years passed, and fate brought Sanya to Maria Tatarinova, already in completely different lands; remembering the name of the captain, he reads the letter from memory, but Maria, all in tears, does not believe him. Straining his memory, Sanya recalls that the letter was signed: Your Mongotimo Hawkclaw. And then Maria corrects him: Not Mongotimo, but Montigomo Hawk's Claw. That's what I called him.
A parable is essentially a genre that gave birth to fable and other allegorical works. It carries with it a lesson. The Gospel parables are widely known - about the sower, Prodigal son and also the "Proverbs of Solomon". Numerous folklore works, proverbs, and some fairy tales are close to parables. Proverbs are found in the works of Old Russian literature.
Impersonation is a variant of the path in which plants, animals, inanimate objects are endowed with the feelings, thoughts and actions of a person.
Irony as a figure is also a trope, since it imposes a satirical allusion to the direct meaning of words, turns of speech, a subtle mockery, expressed not only verbally, but also intonationally. Irony gives the words the opposite meaning: Silenus! - about the frail; Well, you um-e-en! - about stupid.
Hyperbole is a technique that is used to create an exaggerated mood in the audience about the subject of speech: "You are always late."
Litota - the opposite of hyperbole is used to create an understatement presented about a subject of speech. Litota is often used in communication between adults and children: not a hand, but a pen; pointing to a huge electric locomotive, grandfather says to his grandson: Look, what kind of electric locomotive, etc.
Paths enrich our speech, make it more expressive, figurative. At the same time, one must be able to use them, namely, they must be used sparingly and to the point.

4. Stylistic figures

To revitalize speech, impart emotionality, expressiveness, imagery, methods of stylistic syntax are also used, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. For example, Mark Tullius Cicero made several speeches against Lucius Sergei Catiline, a patrician by birth who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites, Cicero said:
A sense of honor fights on our side, on that side - impudence; here -
bashfulness, there is debauchery; here is fidelity, there is deceit; here-
valor, there is crime; here is a private name, there is a shame; here -
restraint, there is licentiousness; in a word all valor is fighting
injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness,
all sorts of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty,
decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - arrogance, bashfulness - debauchery, loyalty - deceit, valor, crime, steadfastness - fury, honest name - shame, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of the audience, evokes in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. This technique, based on the comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called an antithesis.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: "The courageous one blames himself, the faint-hearted one blames his comrade"; "Great in body, but small in deed", "Labor always gives, but laziness only takes." To compare the two phenomena in proverbs, antonyms are used - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, work - laziness. Many lines from fiction, journalistic, and poetic works are based on this principle. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
A valuable means of expressiveness in a performance is inversion, i.e. changing the usual order of words in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose. So if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this strengthens the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the object. Here is an example of such a phrase: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality, constantly evolving, with reality, ever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the narrative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The whole team honored the hero of the day.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in the sentence, even consisting of not a large number words, you can often create several variants of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades. Naturally, when rearranging, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the statement, give speech, dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Begin several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called anaphora, which in translation from the Greek means monotony. The repeated words are service units, for example, unions and particles. By repeating, they perform an expressive function. Here is an excerpt from their lecture by A.E. Fersman "Stone in the culture of the future."
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, and make the pivotal thought contained in them more evident.
V oral speech repetitions are found at the end of the phrase. As in the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a figure is called an epiphora.
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is a question-and-answer course. It consists in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself, and answers them himself. The question-and-answer course turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes the listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and involves them in the scientific search for truth. Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-and-answer course is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques.
The question-and-answer course is also used as an effective means in latent polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubts among the listeners, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-and-answer method.
In addition to the question-and-answer technique, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves for an emotional affirmation or denial of something. Asking a question to your audience is an effective technique. A rhetorical question spoken by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement.
However, not all of the questions encountered in speeches refer to means of expression. They can also perform a compositional function, i.e. delimit one part of the speech from another.

5. Using someone else's speech

The means of expressiveness include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quote. Sometimes, it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides that need to be considered. For example, some are perplexing, i.e. listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, there is an abundance of quotations, since it is difficult to hear by ear which of what has been said belongs to the author, and which to those whom he quotes. Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, original or less well-known from the quotes selected for the speech.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in context.
You cannot change the text arbitrarily, i.e. rearrange words, enter another word instead of one, change the grammatical form of words.
The quote must be accurate.
You need to know who owns the quoted words, from what source they are taken, what is the output of the source. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the used literature is called, or when answering questions from the audience, if any of those present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which one has to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about the feelings of people, approximate direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, and attracts the attention of the audience.
Experienced orators not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, define their attitude towards it, and sometimes act in polemics with a specific person whose speech is being quoted.
As a form of transferring someone else's utterance in a speech, indirect speech is also used, transmitting someone's words from a third person. Indirect speech is less expressive and expressive in comparison with direct speech. A skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the presentation gives a good effect.

List of used literature

1. Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G. Culture and the art of speech. Contemporary rhetoric. Rostov-on-Don. Phoenix Publishing House. 2007 - 576 p.
2. Gabdulkhakov V.F. rhetoric. Tutorial for students of the Tatar school. - Kazan: Magarif, 2006 .-- 143 p.
3. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics. M .: "High school", 2007.
4. Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of the culture of speech: Textbook. for universities on specials. "Russian language and lit." - 2nd ed., Rev. - M .: Higher. shk., 2008.
5. Golovin I.B. Foundations of the culture of speech. St. Petersburg: Word, 2007
6. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2008.
7. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M .: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 2006.
8. Lvov M.R. Rhetoric. A culture of speech. Textbook for students of humanitarian universities. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 272 p.
9. Ozhegov SI Lexicology. Lexicography. A culture of speech. Textbook. manual for universities. M .. "High School", 2007.
10. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics. M .: Knowledge, 2008
11. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Stylistics secrets: the rules of good speech M. Knowledge, 2009
12. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook. for universities / Ed. V.D. Chernyak. - M .: Higher school, 2008 .-- 509 p.
13. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. V.I. Maksimova. - M .: Gardariki, 2007 .-- 413 p.
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Expression of speech

Anaphora

synth.

Same start of several adjacent sentences

Take care of each other,
Warm me with kindness.
Take care of each other,
Let’s not offend. (O. Vysotskaya)

synth.

Comparison of sharply contrasting or opposing concepts and images to enhance the impression

"Sleep and Death" by AA Fet, "Crime and Punishment" by FM Dostoevsky.

Assonance

sound.

One of the types of sound writing, repetition of the same vowel sounds in the text

Me lo, me lo on sune th se mle
In the sune etce de ly.
Ste cha mountainse la on the tablee ,
Ste cha mountainse la ... (B. Pasternak)

lex.

Artistic exaggeration

wide trousers with the width of the Black Sea (N. Gogol)

Gradation

synth.

Arrangement of words, expressions in ascending (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance

Howl, sang, took off a stone under the sky,
And the whole quarry was covered with smoke. (N. Zabolotsky)

Nominative themes

synth.

A special type of nominative sentences, calls the topic of the statement, which is revealed in subsequent sentences

Bread!.. What could be more important than bread ?!

Inversion

synth.

Violation of direct word order

Drops the forest your scarlet dress,
Shaves the frost withered field ... (A. Pushkin)

Irony

lex.

Subtle mockery, use in the opposite sense of the direct

Count Khvostov,
The poet loved by heaven
I was already singingimmortals poems
The misfortune of the Neva banks ... (A. Pushkin)

Composite joint

synth.

Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it

At dawn, the zoryanka began to sing. She sang and miraculously combined all the rustles, rustles in her song ... (N. Sladkov)

Lexical repetition

lex.

Repetition in the text of the same word, phrase

Around the city on the low hills stretchedforests , mighty, untouched. Vforests there were large meadows and deaf lakes with hugepine trees along the banks.Pines they made a quiet noise all the time. (Yu.Kazakov)

Litotes

lex.

Artistic understatement

"Tom Thumb"

lex.

Similarity-based figurative meaning

Sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok). Snowdrifts white calves (B. Akhmadulina)

lex.

Replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts

Here on new waves
All flags will visit us. (A.S. Pushkin)

Multi-Union

synth.

Intentionally using a repeating union

There is coal, uranium, rye, and grapes.
(V. Inber)

Occasionalisms

lex.

Some stunning absurdities began to take root in our midst, the fruits of the New Russianeducation ... (G. Smirnov)

synth.

A combination of opposite words

Tourists in their hometown. (Teffi)

lex.

Transfer of human properties to inanimate objects

Silent sorrow will be comforted,
And playful joy will reflect ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Parcelling

synth.

Deliberate division of a sentence into meaningfully meaningful segments

He loved everything beautiful. And he understood a lot about this. A beautiful song, poetry, beautiful people. And smart.

lex.

Replacing a word (phrase) with a descriptive turnover

"people in white coats" (doctors), "red cheat" (fox)

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

synth.

Statement expression in interrogative form;
to attract attention;
increased emotional impact

Oh Volga! My cradle!
Did anyone love you as I do? (N. Nekrasov)

Rows, paired connection of homogeneous members

synth.

Using homogeneous members for more artistic expressiveness of the text

Amazing combinationyou just anddifficulties , transparency anddepths in Pushkinpoetry andprose ... (S. Marshak)

Sarcasm

lex.

Caustic, stinging mockery, one of the techniques of satire

The works of Swift, Voltaire, Saltykov-Shchedrin are saturated with sarcasm.

lex.

Replacing quantitative relations, using the singular instead of the plural

Swedish, Russian pricks, chops, cuts ... (A. Pushkin)

Syntactic concurrency

synth.

Similar, parallel construction of phrases, lines

To be able to speak is an art. To be able to listen is culture. (D. Likhachev)

Comparison

lex.

Comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have a common feature

Yes, there are words that burnlike a flame. (A. Tvardovsky)

Default

synth.

An interrupted utterance, which makes it possible to conjecture, reflect

This fable could be further explained - Yes, so that the geese do not irritate ... (I.A. Krylov)

Ellipsis

synth.

Abbreviation, "skipping" of words that are easily reconstructed by meaning, which contributes to the dynamism and conciseness of speech.

We sat down - in ashes, hails - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows. (V.A. Zhukovsky)

lex.

A figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon

But I love springgold ,
Your solidwonderfully mixed noise...
(N. Nekrasov)

synth.

The same ending of several sentences

Conjure the springsee off the winter .
Early, earlysee off the winter.

The Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex languages. Last but not least, the presence of a large number of means of verbal expression makes it so.

In this article, we will analyze what a language tool is and what types it can be. Consider examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.

Language tools in Russian - what is it?

The description of the most ordinary subject can be made beautiful and unusual by using language

Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conventionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (they are also tropes) and stylistic figures.

To answer the question of what a language tool is, let's get to know them better.

Lexical means of expressiveness

Paths are linguistic means in Russian, which are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical meaning. They are widely used in works of art.

Trails are used to create visual, auditory, olfactory images. They help to create a certain atmosphere, to produce the desired effect on the reader.

At the heart of lexical means of expression is implicit or explicit comparison. It can be based on external similarity, personal associations of the author, or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.

Basic language aids: trails

We push the paths back from the school bench. Let's recall the most common ones:

1. The epithet is the most famous and widespread trope. Often found in poetry. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition based on implicit comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: "rosy dawn", "light character", "golden hands", "silver voice".
2. Comparison is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often, it is drawn up in the form of a comparative turnover. You can find out by using the unions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, how, exactly what. Let's consider examples: "transparent like dew", "white like snow", "straight like a reed".
3. Metaphor is a means of expression based on implicit comparison. But, unlike it is not formalized by unions. The metaphor is constructed by relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: "onions of churches", "whisper of grass", "tears of heaven".
4. Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning, but differ in spelling. In addition to the classic synonyms, there are contextual ones. They take on a certain meaning within a specific text. Let's get acquainted with examples: "jump - jump", "watch - see".
5. Antonyms are words that have exactly the opposite meaning to each other. Like synonyms, they are contextual. Example: "white - black", "shout - whisper", "calm - excitement".
6. Impersonation is the transfer to an inanimate object of signs, characteristic features of an animate one. For example: "the willow swayed with branches", "the sun smiled brightly", "the rain pounded on the roofs", "the radio was chirping in the kitchen."

Are there other paths?

There are a lot of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language. In addition to the group familiar to everyone, there are those that are unknown to many, but are also widely used:

1. Metonymy is the replacement of one word for another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's get acquainted with examples: "hey, blue jacket (referring to the person in the blue jacket)", "the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class)."
2. Sinekdokha - transfer of comparison from part to whole, and vice versa. Example: “it was heard how the Frenchman was jubilant (the author speaks of the French army)”, “the insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd”.
3. Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, a fox symbolizes cunning, a hare - cowardice, a wolf - anger.
4. Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration. Serves to make the text more expressive. Emphasizes on a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's get acquainted with examples: “words destroy hope”, “his act is the highest evil”, “he has become more beautiful forty times”.
5. Litota is a special understatement of real facts. For example: “it was thinner than a reed”, “it was not taller than a thimble”.
6. Periphrase - replacement of a word, expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: "the fox is a cunning cheat", "the text is the brainchild of the author."

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain figurativeness and expressiveness. Change the emotional coloring of its meanings.

They have been widely used in poetry and prose since the time of ancient poets. However, modern and outdated interpretations of the term differ.

In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form significantly differ from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech are an integral part of the spoken language.

What are the stylistic figures?

Stylistics offers a lot of its own means:

1. Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional joint) are expressive linguistic means that include the repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next. For example: “It was a great sound. It was best voice that I have heard in recent years. "
2. Antithesis - one or more sentences based on opposition. For example, let us consider the phrase: "I drag myself in the dust - and I wind in the sky."
3. Gradation is the use of synonyms in a sentence, arranged according to the degree of increase or extinction of a feature. Example: "The sparkles on the New Year tree shone, burned, shone."
4. Oxymoron - the inclusion in a phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning, cannot be used in one composition. The most striking and famous example of this stylistic figure is Dead Souls.
5. Inversion is a change in the classical order of the words in a sentence. For example, not "he ran," but "he ran."
6. Parceling is the division of a single sentence into several parts. For example: “Opposite Nikolay. Looks without blinking. "
7. Multi-union - the use of unions to connect homogeneous members of the proposal. It is used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: "It was a strange and wonderful and beautiful and mysterious day."
8. Non-union - connections of homogeneous members in a proposal are carried out without unions. For example: "He rushed about, shouted, cried, moaned."

Phonetic means of expression

Phonetic means of expression are the smallest group. They involve the repetition of certain sounds in order to create painterly artistic images.

Most often this technique is used in poetry. Authors use sound repetition when they want to convey the sound of thunder, rustling leaves or other natural phenomena.

Also, phonetic means help to give poetry a certain character. Due to the use of certain combinations of sounds, the text can be made harder, or vice versa - softer.

What phonetic means are there?

1. Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: "I was dreaming of catching the outgoing shadows, the outgoing shadows of an extinct day."
2. Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: "Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple."
3. Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain stomp of hooves, the sound of waves, the rustle of foliage.

The use of speech means of expression

Linguistic means in Russian have been widely used and continue to be used in literary works, be it prose or poetry.

The writers of the golden age demonstrate excellent mastery of stylistic figures. Due to the skillful use of means of expression, their works are colorful, figurative, pleasing to the ear. No wonder they are considered a national treasure of Russia.

We come across linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, epithets in their speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.

TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or turns of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Trails - important element artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litota, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- turns of speech used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of an utterance: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a kind of path based on exaggeration ("rivers of blood", "sea of ​​laughter"). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what makes fun of. Hyperbole is already found in the ancient epic of different nations, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian liter, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky ("I", "Napoleon", "150,000,000"). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc.). The opposite is litotes.

LITOTA (Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; figurative expression, turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength, meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. There is litota in folk tales: "a boy with a finger", "a hut on chicken legs", "a little man with a fingernail".
The second name of litota is meiosis. The opposite of a lithote is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often addressed the littote:
“Such a small mouth that it cannot miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - trope, hidden figurative comparison, transfer of properties of one object or phenomenon to another on the basis of common signs ("work is in full swing", "forest of hands", "dark personality", "stone heart" ...). In metaphor, unlike

comparisons, the words "as", "as if", "as if" are omitted, but implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

A cruel age indeed!

Into the darkness of the night, starless

A careless abandoned man!

A. Block

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification ("water runs"), reification ("nerves of steel"), distraction ("field of activity"), etc. Various parts of speech can act as metaphors: a verb, a noun, an adjective. The metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

There is a fragrant lilac in each carnation,
Singing, a bee creeps in ...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds ...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both terms are easily seen:

With a sheaf of her oat hair
You settled on me forever ...
Dog eyes rolled
Gold stars in the snow ...

S. Yesenin

In addition to the verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or expanded metaphors are widespread in artistic creation:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
The song captivity sucked me in
I am condemned to the hard labor of feelings
Turn the millstones of the poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work is a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on the proximity of meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "forest rustling" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes shine;

Parterre and chairs, everything is boiling ...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or an object is designated with the help of other words and concepts. At the same time, signs or connections that bring these phenomena closer together remain; so, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of "a steel orator dozing in a holster," the reader can easily guess in this image the metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a rich feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was perishing; grave dream
Was hovering over her head ...

A. Pushkin

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When it falls asleep forever
Pen, my joy ...

A. Pushkin

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - a roundabout turnover, allegory) is one of the tropes in which the name of an object, a person, a phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic, enhancing the depiction of speech. ("King of birds" instead of "eagle", "king of beasts" - instead of "lion")

PERSONALIZATION(prosopopeia, personification) - a kind of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays ...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

What are you looking at me

Dark blue?

And what are you ringing about

Happy May Day

Among the unmown grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one subject to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche - expressive means typing. The most common types of synecdoches:
1) The part of the phenomenon is called in the meaning of the whole:

And at the door -
pea jackets,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats ...

V. Mayakovsky

2) Whole in the meaning of part - Vasily Terkin in a fist duel with a fascist says:

Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet?
Well, isn't it a vile fellow!

3) The only number in the meaning of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains ...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn ...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. Us - darkness and darkness and darkness.

A. Block

5) Replacement of a generic concept with a specific one:

We beat you with a penny. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacement of a specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, shine!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON - a word or expression containing the assimilation of one object to another, one situation to another. ("Strong as a lion", "said how he cut it off" ...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

How the beast she will howl

It will cry like a child ...

A.S. Pushkin

"Like the steppe scorched by fires, the life of Grigory became black" (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloominess of the steppe also evokes in the reader that melancholy, painful feeling that corresponds to the state of Gregory. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - "scorched steppe" to another - the inner state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare certain phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where without obstacles,
Exciting only the silver feather grass,
Flying Aquilon roams
And before him freely drives the dust;
And where around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of birch two or three,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the evening in the empty distance.
Life is so boring when there is no struggle
Having penetrated into the past, to distinguish
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do everyday
I would like to make immortal like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't what it means to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of unfolded S. Lermontov conveys a whole gamut of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually combined by conjunctions "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
"I have curls for a fine fellow - combed flax" N. Nekrasov. The union is omitted here. But sometimes it is not supposed to be:
"Execution in the morning, a familiar feast for the people" A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by unions:

And she is
At the door or at the window
An early star is lighter
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She is sweet - I will say between us -
The thunderstorm of the court knights,
And it is possible with southern stars
Compare, especially with verses,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The sun does not shine on the palate,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
At the meal he sits in a crown of gold
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is the instrumental forms used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your eyes closed with bliss,
Towards northern Aurora
Appear as the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I do not soar - I sit as an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition "under":
"Sergei Platonovich ... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak-like wallpaper ..."

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE -generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Frost - Voivode of the Watch

Bypasses his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY(Greek. allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images date back to Greek and Roman mythology. So, the image of a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential sides, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - bizarre, comical) - depicting people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Furious at the meeting, I burst into an avalanche

Wild curses belching dear.

And I see: half of the people are sitting.

O devilry! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - an expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or utterance acquires, in the context of speech, a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calls into question.

Servant of powerful gentlemen

With what courage noble

Smash with the speech you are free

All those who got their mouth shut.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, literally - tearing meat) - contemptuous, sarcastic mockery; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or respond) - repetition of uniform vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

A dream without end and without edge!

A. Block

ALLITERATION (SOUND)(lat. ad - to, at and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

The storm is near. Beats on the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment ...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Lat.allusio - a joke, a hint) - stylistic figure, a hint by means of a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work ("the glory of Herostratus").

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You and wretched

You are abundant

You and downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Russia! ...

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a pronounced opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush, like poppies,

I am like death, and skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You and wretched
You are abundant
You and mighty
You are powerless ...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been covered, so many mistakes have been made ...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the whole work is built on the principle of antithesis.

APOCOPE(Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificial shortening of a word without losing its meaning.

... When suddenly from the woods

The bear opened its mouth on them ...

A.N. Krylov

Bark, laugh, sing, whistle and clap,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeon) - a sentence with no conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives dynamics and richness to speech.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least a quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no way out.

A. Block

MULTI-UNION(polysindeon) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating an additional intonation coloration. The opposite figure isnon-union.

Slowing down speech by forced pauses, multi-union emphasizes individual words, enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves are crowding and rushing back
And again they come, and they beat on the shore ...

M. Lermontov

And it's boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to ...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION- from lat. gradatio - gradualness) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - the increase or decrease in their emotional and semantic significance. The gradation enhances the emotional resonance of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION(lat. inversio - permutation) - a stylistic figure that violates the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

The doorman is past him with an arrow

Soared up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting, opposite words in meaning (a living corpse, a giant dwarf, the heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to it) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

In the blue sea, waves are splashing.

Stars shine in the blue sky.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is high that mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially typical for works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic characteristics literary works("Song about the merchant Kalashnikov" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Who lives well in Russia" by N. A. Nekrasov, "Vasily Terkin" by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic character in content, for example, in M. Yu. Lermontov's poem "Heavenly Clouds - Eternal Wanderers."

Parallelism can be both verbal-figurative and rhythmic, compositional.

PARCELATION- an expressive syntactic technique of intonational division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. ("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching" PG Antokolsky. "How courteous! Kind! Nice! Simple!" Griboyedov. "Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee.

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that's why. " G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - mismatch of syntactic division of speech and division into verses. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or semi-verse is stronger than at its end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

Shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's all like a storm of God.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME(Greek "rhythmos" - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphores ; consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. The rhyme emphasizes the border between the verses and links the verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - loss, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily reconstructed by meaning (most often predicate). This achieves the dynamism and conciseness of speech, a tense change of action is conveyed. Ellipsis is one type of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker's emotion or the intensity of the action:

We sat down - in ashes, hails - in dust,
In swords - sickles and plows.

Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transference) - the type of trail formed by principle of similarity; one of the means of enhancing the pictorial and expressiveness of speech. The first attempts at a scientific interpretation of M. date back to antiquity (the doctrine of the so-called dhvani in Indian poetics, the judgments of Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and others). In the future, a revival of interest in M. arises already in the 19th century. in connection with the development compare. linguistics and poetics. Some authors are mainly interested in the genesis and evolution of M. (the works of A. A. Potebnya, A. Bizet, K. Werner and others), others - the "statics" of this phenomenon, its internal. structure and function.
M. is based on the ability of a word to a kind of doubling (multiplication) in speech, denoting functions. So, in the phrase: “The crew ... was ... similar to ... thick-cheeked bulging watermelon , put on wheels ... The watermelon was filled with calico pillows ..., stuffed with sacks of bread, rolls ... "(N. V. Gogol," Dead Souls ") - the word" watermelon "(in the second case) means both two items: "carriage" (in this context only) and "watermelon". Any figuratively assimilated facts of reality - phenomena of inanimate nature, plants, animals, people, their internal ones can act as the first and second objects. peace. Conjugated in "subject pairs", they form combinations characterized by a great variety.
Main types M.: 1) inanimate - inanimate (about the month: “behind a woman’s hut hangs bread crumb ...", mystery); 2) alive - alive (about a girl: "a nimble and thin snake", M. Gorky); 3) living - inanimate (about muscles: "cast iron"); 4) inanimate - living ("ridges of waves"). More complex are M. based on synesthesia, that is, bringing together phenomena perceived by different senses ("to the r and to the colors on the canvas", etc.). The objective similarity between objects, which makes it possible to create M., most often consists in such properties as: 1) color - “trees in winter silver” (AS Pushkin); 2) shape - "blade of the month" (M. A. Sholokhov), "ring" (about a snake); 3) size (often in combination with other properties) - "crumb", "bug" (about a child), tobacco "stuffed his nose from both entrances" (Gogol; about large nostrils); 4) density - "gas" (about light fabric), "milk" (about thick fog), cf. also "bronze of muscles" (V.V. Mayakovsky); 5) dynamism - "a pile of a fat body crushed by sleep" (Gorky), "idol" (about motionless standing man), cf. "Lightning", "give lightning" (about the telegram). General property in the first subject (image object) m b. both constant and variable; in the second (means of assimilation) - only constant. Often, objects in M. are compared simultaneously for several. features: "thick pasta glitters on the epaulette - generals" (Gogol; color and shape).

Metonymy(Greek metonymía - renaming) - the type of trail, which is based on adjacency principle... Like a metaphor, M. is a word denoting, in order to enhance the depiction and expressiveness of speech, simultaneously two (or more) phenomena that are actually connected with each other. So, in the phrase "All flags will visit us "(A. Pushkin," The Bronze Horseman ") The word" flags "means: ships with the flags of various states, merchants and sailors sailing on them, as well as these flags themselves - keeping so. and its usual meaning.
Several can be distinguished. types metonymic. subject pairs. one) The whole is a part, that is, the cinecdoch; the subject as a whole is designated through k.-l. a conspicuous detail (edges become a representative of this subject). Wed about a person: “a human foot has never set foot here”; “Hey beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin? ... ”(N. V. Gogol); about the tsarist gendarmes - "And you, blue uniforms ..." (M. Yu. Lermontov); "A detachment of two hundred sabers" (cavalrymen). 2) A thing is a material. On the dishes: “Not so on silver, - I ate on gold” (A. S. Griboyedov); on the pipe: “Amber was smoking in his mouth” (Pushkin). 3) Content - containing. “I ate three plates” (IA Krylov); about the wood in the stove: "A flooded stove is bursting" (Pushkin); "No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head" (Pushkin). 4) The carrier of a property is a property. Instead of a thing, the candidate is indicated. int. its property, a cut, as it were, distracted from its carrier and objectified. About brave people: “The boldness of the city takes” (last); in the addresses: “my joy” (about a person who brings joy). 5) The product of the action is the producer of the action. "A peasant ... Belinsky and Gogol will be carried from the bazaar" (N. A. Nekrasov). 6) The product of the action is the place of production. Wed in Gogol's case, Captain Kopeikin in the St. Petersburg reception room "huddled ... in his corner so as not to nudge ... some America or India - a kind of gilded, you know, porcelain vase" (M. with its immediate "decoding"). 7) Action is an instrument of action. "Their villages and fields for a violent raid he Doomed to swords and fires" (ie destruction and burning; Pushkin).

Multi-Union(from the Greek polysyndeton - multi-union), - special the use of unions in stylistic. purposes; such a construction of the phrase, with which all the homogeneous members of the sentence are connected by unions, while usually only the last two homogeneous members are connected by a union. P. is often associated with anaphora and usually emphasizes vnutr. the relationship of the enumerated:
AND more insidious than the northern night,
AND drunker than golden ai,
AND Gypsy love is shorter
There were your terrible caresses ... (A. Blok).
P. also enhances the perception of the unity of the events described: “And, finally, they swirled him around, and laid him down, and the whole thing was done” (Yu. Tynyanov).