Paths and their meaning. Major tropes and stylistic figures

Fine- means of expression Languages ​​allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical expressive means make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of oneself, a product, a company without the use of special language tools.

The word is the basis of figurative expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in the direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to a description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in various meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are spelled the same, they change meaning depending on the stress set (lock - lock);
• homophones - words when written differ in one or more letters, but are perceived the same way by ear (the fruit is a raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same but refer to different parts speech (flying in an airplane - I'm flying a runny nose).

Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their ambiguity.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different angles, have a different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Synonym types:

• full - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (semantic) - designed to give shade to words (conversation-conversation);
• stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time refer to different styles speech (finger-finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different shade of meaning, refer to different styles of speech (do - bungled);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms - words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.

Trail definition

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of the expression through light mockery.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole - the properties and qualities of the subject are deliberately underestimated.
personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection in one sentence of incompatible concepts (dead souls).
paraphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without a precise name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes, appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison, unions are often present - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. There is always no object of comparison in it, but there is something with which they are compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at an external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

The name of the syntactic construction	Description
Anaphora	The use of the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a section of text or a sentence.
Epiphora	The use of the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech give the text emotionality, allow you to clearly convey intonations.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in the same form. Often used to reinforce a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
gradation	Each subsequent word in the sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. Reception allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new sound.
Default	Conscious understatement in the text. It is designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical address	Emphasized appeal to a person or inanimate objects.
Rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its purpose is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression, tension of speech. Make the text emotional. Grab the reader's or listener's attention.
polyunion	Repeated repetition of the same unions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of unions. This technique gives dynamism to speech.
Antithesis	Sharp opposition of images, concepts. The technique is used to create a contrast, it expresses the author's attitude to the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such turns are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases is more important than emotions.

trail view	Definition
1. Comparison	Figurative definition of an object, phenomenon, action based on its comparison with another object, phenomenon, action. Comparison is always binomial: it has a subject (what is being compared) and a predicate (what is being compared).	Under blue skies splendid carpets, Glittering in the sun snow lies(Pushkin). Seven hills as seven bells (Tsvetaeva)
2. Metaphor	The transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their similarity. A metaphor is a convoluted comparison in which the subject and predicate are combined in one word.	At seven bells- bell towers (Tsvetaeva). Lit east dawn new (Pushkin)
3. Metonymy	Transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their adjacency	Only heard on the street somewhere Lonely wanders harmonic(Isakovsky)
	Figurative (metaphorical, metonymic) definition of an object, phenomenon or action	Through wavy fogs The moon is sneaking, On sad glades liet sadly she is the light (Pushkin)
5. Personification	Such a metaphor in which inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of a living being or non-personal objects (plants, animals) with human properties	Sea laughed(M. Gorky).
6. Hyperbole	Figurative exaggeration	Tears the mouth of a yawn wider than the Gulf of Mexico(Mayakovsky).
	figurative understatement	Below a thin blade We must bow our heads (Nekrasov)
8. Paraphrase	Replacing a word with a figurative descriptive phrase	With a clear smile, nature meets through a dream morning of the year(Pushkin). Morning of the year Spring.
	The use of a word in a sense opposite to the literal, for the purpose of ridicule	breakaway, smart, are you heading? (referring to the donkey in Krylov's fable)
10. Allegory	Biplanar use of a word, expression or a whole text in a literal and figurative (allegorical) sense	"Wolves and Sheep" (the title of the play by A. N. Ostrovsky, implying the strong, those in power and their victims)

2.3 Figure is a set of syntactic means of speech expressiveness, the most important of which are stylistic (rhetorical) figures.

Stylistic figures - these are symmetrical syntactic constructions based on various kinds of repetitions, omissions and changes in the order of words in order to create expressiveness.

The main types of figures

Type of figure	Definition
1. Anaphora and epiphora	Anaphora (unity) - repetition of words or expressions at the beginning of adjacent fragments of text. Epiphora (ending) - repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent fragments of text.	Us drove youth On a saber hike Us abandoned youth On the Kronstadt ice. War horses carried away us, On a wide area Killed us(Bagritsky)
	A syntactic construction in which the beginning of the next fragment mirrors the ending of the previous one.	Youth is not lost Youth is alive! (Bagritsky)
3. Parallelism	The same syntactic structure of adjacent fragments of text	We have a road for young people everywhere, Old people are honored everywhere (Lebedev-Kumach).
4. Inversion	Breaking the normal word order	Discordant sounds were heard from calls (Nekrasov)
5. Antithesis	Contrasting two adjacent constructions, identical in structure, but opposite in meaning	I am a king, I am a slave I am a worm - I am God (Derzhavin).
6. Oxymoron	The combination in one construction of words that contradict each other in meaning	"The Living Corpse" (the title of the play by L. N. Tolstoy).
7. Gradation	Such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent one strengthens the meaning of the previous one (ascending gradation) or weakens it (descending gradation).	Go, run, fly and avenge us (Pierre Corneille).
8. Ellipsis	Intentional omission of any implied member of the sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech	We sat down - in the ashes, Cities to ashes In swords - sickles and plows (Zhukovsky).
9. Default	Intentional interruption of the statement, enabling the reader (listener) to independently think it out	No, I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought It was time for the baron to die (Pushkin).
10. Multi-union and non-union	Intentional use of repeated alliances (polyunion) or omission of alliances (non-union)	And snow, and wind, and night flight of stars (Oshanin). Either the plague will pick me up, Or the frost will ossify, Or a barrier will slam into my forehead A sluggish invalid (Pushkin). Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts (Pushkin).
11. Rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals	Questions, exclamations, appeals that do not require an answer, designed to draw the attention of the reader (listener) to the depicted	Moscow! Moscow! I love you like a son (Lermontov). What is he looking for in a distant country? What did he throw in his native land? (Lermontov)
12. Period	Circularly closing syntactic construction, in the center of which is anaphoric parallelism	For everything, for everything you thank you I: Behind secret torments of passions, Behind the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, Behind revenge of enemies and slander Behind the heat of the soul, wasted in a desert, Behind everything that I deceive in life Stand only so that you I won't be long thanked (Lermontov).

three styles:

Tall(solemn),

Average(mediocre),

Short(simple)

Cicero wrote that the ideal orator is one who can talk about the low simply, about the high - importantly and about the average - moderately.

Speech. Analysis of expressive means.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Usually in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets, either in one word or in a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are opposite in meaning	they never said to each other you, but always you.
phraseological units- stable combinations of words close in lexical meaning one word	at the edge of the world (= “far away”), missing teeth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- obsolete words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism- Vocabulary common in a certain area	chicken, goof
book, colloquial vocabulary	daring, associate; corrosion, management; squander money, outback

Trails.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.

Types of trails and examples for them in the table:

metaphor- transferring the meaning of a word by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening an object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison- comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through unions as, as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy- replacement of the direct name with another by adjacency (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foamy wine in glasses)
synecdoche- the use of the name of the part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: a boat, a ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of "Woe from Wit" (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet- the use of definitions that give the expression imagery and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory- expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales - justice, cross - faith, heart - love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	in a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned
litotes- underestimation of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule	Where, smart, are you wandering, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora- repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following one another	I would like to know. Why am I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation- construction of homogeneous members of the sentence by increasing meaning or vice versa	came, saw, conquered
anaphora- repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following one another	Ironthe truth is alive with envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun- play on words	It was raining and two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) - exclamatory, interrogative sentence or an offer with an appeal that does not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing, swaying, thin mountain ash? Long live the sun, long live the darkness!
syntactic parallelism- the same construction of sentences	young everywhere we have a road, old people everywhere we honor
polyunion- repetition of an excess union	And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger Years spare the winner ...
asyndeton- construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without unions	Flickering past the booth, women, Boys, benches, lanterns ...
ellipsis- omission of implied word	I'm behind a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion- indirect word order	Our amazing people.
antithesis- opposition (often expressed through the unions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where the table was food, there is a coffin
oxymoron- a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation- transmission in the text of other people's thoughts, statements indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below the thin bylinochka ...”
questionable-reciprocal the form statements- the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: "Live under minute houses ...". What do they mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the proposal- enumeration of homogeneous concepts	He was waiting for a long, serious illness, leaving the sport.
parceling- a sentence that is divided into intonation-semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Above your head.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates that agree with omissions, etc.

It will facilitate the task and the division of the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Parsing the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it is constantly self-renewing and thus keeps billions of passengers traveling for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through space deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the oceans. (5) If on a small spaceship astronauts will fussily cut the wires, unscrew the screws, drill holes in the skin, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) Wound up, multiply, swarm microscopic, on a planetary, and even more so on a universal, scale of being. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their work, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations.

(13) Unfortunately, just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress, are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a man twitched by an inhuman rhythm modern life, crowding, a huge flow of artificial information, weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world brought to such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communion with him.

(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use a trope like _______. This image of the "cosmic body" and "cosmonauts" is the key to understanding the author's position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ (“they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations”) convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said by the author is far from being indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the argument a sad ending, which ends with a question.

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and insert structures
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parceling
7. question-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members of a sentence

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first - epithet, litote, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parcelling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start the task with passes that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission #2. Since the whole sentence is given as an example, some syntactic means is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous departures” rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the place of the gap should be a plural word. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous member sentences. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately “discarded”, since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute the masculine term, since the adjective “used” must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms - epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here, the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet in front of us.

It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, people, as an image of a cosmic body and astronauts is rethought. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, chirped on his accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher strictly told him: “Valery Petrovich, higher!” (Z) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose always had a beet red color, like that of a clown. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And at first in the kindergarten, and then at school, I carried the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who has any fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid harmonica. (8) I would play at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often straying, he sighed thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink through the ground with shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in the third grade when I had a bad cold. (12) I have otitis media. (13) In pain, I screamed and pounded my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver shrillly, like a woman, began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) The father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, repeated: “What a fool I am!” (19) The father thought and quietly said to his mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a snowflake blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, with a clanging jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow was falling on the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomed into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was lit up with bright headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and through my eyelashes I saw my father. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time later he was ill with bilateral pneumonia.

(32) ... My children are perplexed why, when decorating a Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, a father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if stealthily wants to see his daughter among the dressed up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.

The sequence of numbers in the order in which they are written by you in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives expressive power to the depicted picture, and such paths as _____ ("pain circled me" in sentence 20) and _____ ("the driver began to scream shrillly, like a woman" in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.

A polysemantic word, except for its direct meaning, i.e., the primary one, directly related to the object or phenomenon of reality ( varnish- “lacquer”), can also have a figurative meaning, secondary, not directly related to the real object ( varnish- to embellish, to represent something in at its best than it actually is).

Tropes are turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness, figurativeness.

Types of trails:

1. An epithet is a figurative definition that allows you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of objects or phenomena: deceived steppe, tanned hills, dissolute wind, drunken expression of a cloud(Chekhov).

General epithets are distinguished, constantly used ( bitter cold, quiet evening), folk poetic ( red girl, clean field, damp land), individually-author's: marmalade mood(Chekhov), globe belly(Ilf, Petrov), rough smell of naphthalene balls(Nabokov).

2. Metaphor - a type of path, which is based on the transfer of meaning based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of action, quality, etc. It is customary to define a metaphor as a hidden comparison.

According to the degree of figurativeness, metaphors are erased, common language ( the prow of the ship, the gold of the hair, the speech flows) and original, individual author's, speech: I open the pages of my palms(Okudzhava); this vobla lives(about a human ) on his wife's estate(Chekhov).

According to the composition of words, metaphors are simple (see above) and complex, detailed, cf. metaphorical image of a storm: Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong hug and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the cliffs, breaking emerald masses into dust and spray.(Bitter).

3. Metonymy is a type of path, which is based on the transfer of contiguity, contact of objects, phenomena, their close connection in space and in time. This is the relationship between a) an object and the material from which it is made: Not on silver - on gold ate(Griboyedov); b) content and containing: The theater is already full: the boxes are shining, the stalls and chairs, - everything boils(Pushkin); c) action and instrument of action: The pen of his revenge breathes(A.K. Tolstoy); d) the author and his work: I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(Pushkin), etc.

4. Synecdoche - transferring meaning from part to whole or vice versa: All flags will visit us(Pushkin); the use of the singular instead of the plural or vice versa: And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced(Lermontov).

5. Comparison - a figurative expression based on the likening of one object to another on the basis of a common feature. The comparison is expressed: a) by the instrumental case of the noun: Ippolit Matveyevich, who could not bear all the upheavals of night and day, laughed like a rat's laugh.(Ilf, Petrov); b) using the words "similar", "similar": crying song(Chekhov); c) turnovers with comparative conjunctions “like”, “as if”, “exactly”: Tables, chairs, creaky cabinets scattered around the rooms ... like the bones of a disassembled skeleton(Nabokov); Life was rough and low like a bass clef(Ilf, Petrov); d) the form of the comparative degree of adjectives, adverbs: Under it, a stream of lighter azure(Lermontov).

6. Allegory - allegory, the image of an abstract concept using a specific image, for example, in fables, cowardice appears in the form of a hare, cunning - in the form of a fox, carelessness - in the form of a dragonfly, etc.

7. Hyperbole - a strong exaggeration: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol); Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream!(Block).

8. Litota - an underestimation of the size, strength, significance of an object, phenomenon (this is an inverse hyperbole): Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble(Griboyedov).

9. Irony is an allegory in which words take on the opposite meaning, denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and consent. Often used in fables: Otkle, smart, you wander, head(about a donkey)? (Krylov).

10. Personification - attributing to inanimate objects the properties of living beings: And the star speaks to the star(Lermontov); What are you howling about, night wind, What are you so madly complaining about?(Tyutchev); The steppe threw off the morning penumbra, smiled, sparkled(Chekhov).

11. Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words in meaning: Mum! Your son is beautifully ill(Mayakovsky); And the snow all around burned and froze(Parsnip).

Types of figures of speech

In addition to tropes, to increase the figurativeness and emotionality of artistic speech, stylistic syntax techniques (figures of speech) can be used:

1. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of any phenomena, signs, etc. to give speech a special expressiveness: They agreed. Wave and stone, Poetry and prose, Ice and fire Not so different from each other…(Pushkin); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech(A.K. Tolstoy).

2. Inversion - indirect word order, which has a certain stylistic and semantic meaning: The servants do not dare to die, waiting for you around the table(Derzhavin); Smooth horns rustle in the straw A sloping cow's head(Zabolotsky).

3. Repetitions (words, several words, whole sentences) - are used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm.

There are repetitions:

a) at the beginning of sentences (anaphora):

I know the city will

I know the garden is blooming

When such people

In the Soviet country there is(Mayakovsky);

b) at the end of phrases (epiphora):

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me.

Can't find me a place in a quiet house

Near peaceful fire(Block);

c) at the junction of poetic lines (anadiplosis), which gives the effect of "enlarging" the overall picture of the depicted:

He fell on the cold snow

On the cold snow, like a pine(Lermontov).

4. A rhetorical question that does not require an answer serves to emotionally affirm or deny something: What Russian does not like fast driving?(Gogol); Didn't you first so viciously persecute His free, bold gift?(Lermontov).

5. Rhetorical appeal - an appeal to an absent person, inanimate object to enhance the expressiveness of speech: I greet you, a deserted corner, a haven of tranquility, work and inspiration.(Pushkin).

6. Gradation - alignment of homogeneous members according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a sign, action: You were, you are, you will be forever!(Derzhavin).

Tropes and figures of speech are used not only in fiction, but also in journalism, in oratory speeches, as well as in proverbs and sayings, in works of oral folk art.

Tasks for self-study

1. Specify trails and stylistic figures used in this text.

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,

Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

Withering gold embraced,

I won't be young anymore.

Now you won't fight so much

Cold touched heart

And the country of birch chintz

Not tempted to wander around barefoot.

Wandering spirit! You are less and less

You stir the flame of your mouth.

Oh my lost freshness

A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings.

Now I have become more stingy in desires,

My life, or did you dream of me?

Like I'm a spring echoing early

Ride on a pink horse.

All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,

Copper quietly pours from maple leaves ...

May you be blessed forever

That came to flourish and die.

(S. Yesenin)

2. Determine in what functional style the passage of this text is written, argue your answer.

This day has been preserved in me as a memory of the gentle smell of dusty homespun rugs with a cozy, gaudy old-fashioned pattern, the feeling of warmth with which the recently whitewashed walls were soaked through and through, and the image of a huge stove, like a formidable black ship, rooted into one of the white walls.

We drank fragrant, village-smelling tea from dull glasses, mixed with the city cookies we had brought, and flowed down on the striped oilcloth of the table in thick bloody waterfalls. raspberry jam. The glasses clinked festively on the coasters, a freshly woven silver cobweb shone cunningly in the corner, and somehow natively floated into the room from the cold vestibule a dope of worn, frosted boots and wicker mushroom baskets.

We go to the forest, the winter forest frozen in crystal. I was given earflaps eaten by more than one generation of moths, felt boots that belonged to the once deceased Pooh's grandfather, and a cheburashka fur coat that belonged to Pooh himself. We walk along a drizzled path leading to Nowhere, since near the forest itself, ceasing to wind, it sticks into the snowdrift pulp. Further only on skis. Skis, too, Pooh, with one stick, in scales of peeling paint, like two flat skinny fish.

Frost burns bare hands, pitifully peeking out of the stubby, not the height of the quilted jacket. Shrouded in mirror blue, the branches tinkle above our heads like a theatrical chandelier. And silence. (S.-M. Granik "My Fluff")

trails

trails

TROPES (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics, denoting artistic comprehension and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most controversial issues already in the ancient theory of style. “A trope,” says Quintilian, “is a change in the proper meaning of a word or verbal turn, in which an enrichment of meaning is obtained. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an irresolvable dispute about genders, species, the number of tropes and their systematization.
The main types of T. for most theorists are: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche with their subspecies, i.e. T., based on the use of the word in a figurative sense; but along with this, a number of phrases are also included in the number of phrases, where the main meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (meanings) in it - what are the epithet, comparison, paraphrase, etc. In many cases, already ancient theorists hesitate, where to attribute this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. So, Cicero refers the paraphrase to the figures, Quintilian - to the paths. Leaving aside these disagreements, we can establish the following types of theory described by the theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin appositum) - a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed Pushkin: "ruddy dawn"; Theorists pay special attention to the epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and the epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. an oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: "wretched luxury").
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another on some common basis (tertium comparationis). Wed Pushkin: "Youth is faster than a bird." The disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrase (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - "a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex turns." Wed Pushkin has a parodic paraphrase: “Young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (inc. young talented actress). One of the types of paraphrase is euphemism - a replacement by a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason recognized as obscene. Wed in Gogol: "get by with a handkerchief."
In contrast to the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - "the use of a word in a figurative sense."
The classic example given by Cicero is "the murmur of the sea". The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - "the case when the whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole." The classic example given by Quintilian is "stern" instead of "ship".
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - "replacement of one name of an object by another, borrowed from related and close objects." Wed Lomonosov: "read Virgil".
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacement own name to others, "as if from the outside, a borrowed nickname." The classic example given by Quintilian is "destroyer of Carthage" instead of "Scipio".
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement representing, as it were, a transition from one path to another.” Wed in Lomonosov - "ten harvests have passed ...: here, through the harvest, of course, summer, after summer - a whole year."
Such are the T., built on the use of the word in a figurative sense; theorists also note the possibility of the simultaneous use of the word in a figurative and literal sense (the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a confluence of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a number of T. is distinguished, in which not the main meaning of the word changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - an exaggeration brought to the point of "impossibility". Wed Lomonosov: "running, speedy wind and lightning."
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing, through a negative turnover, the content of a positive turnover (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony - an expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed Lomonosov's characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a fearful and meek person ... ".
The theoreticians of the new time consider three theories to be the main ones, built on shifts in meaning - metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of the theoretical constructions in the style of the XIX-XX centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical substantiation of the selection of these three T. (Bernhardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Bain, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to substantiate the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms of sensory perception (Wakernagel) or as between “means of visualization” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same plan, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in the synecdoche the expression of "direct view" (Anschaung), in metonymy - "reflection" (Reflexion), in the metaphor - "fantasy" (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, linguistic facts are the direct material of observation, a number of theorists of the 19th century refers to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of t. and figures; this is how Gerber opposes the stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of the language - to the figures as the stylistic use of the syntactic-grammatical structure of the language; Potebnya and his school insistently point to the connection between stylistic language and the range of semantic phenomena in language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find the linguistic foundations of stylistic language do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic T. and figures, in particular, explain the fluidity of their boundaries as a result of the fluidity of the boundaries between semantics and grammar in the language - see Semasiology, Syntax, Language. It should further be remembered that the linguistic substantiation of stylistic expressions by no means replaces or eliminates the need for their literary criticism as phenomena. artistic style(as the futurists tried to claim). Evaluation of the same T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of a specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., to-rye found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; however, even the best minds of antiquity did not evaluate t.
Stylistics, Semasiology.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

trails

(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech turns, in which the word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor- the transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual features (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their objective logical connection (transfer by adjacency); synecdoche as a kind of metonymy - the transfer of a name from an object to an object based on their generic ratio (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or asteism - the transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages ​​and are used in everyday speech. In it, they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units (for example: drip on the brain or pull yourself together), or arise as a result of a grammatical or syntactical error. In artistic speech, tropes are always used deliberately, they introduce additional meanings, enhance the expressiveness of images, and draw the attention of readers to an important fragment of the text for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Separate tropes in artistic speech are developing, unfolding over a large space of text, and as a result, an overgrown metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. In addition, certain types of tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy - with realism(images-types can be considered images-synecdoches), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech, within the framework of a phrase or phrase, the overlap of tropes can occur: in his idiom, his eye is trained, the word trained is used in a metaphorical sense, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as metonymy (instead of the word vision).

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

See what "Trails" are in other dictionaries:

TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech), ..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of direct and figurative meanings the words… … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Modern Encyclopedia

- (Greek) Rhetorical figures of allegory, that is, words used in a figurative, allegorical sense. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of the publishing house of the Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial staff: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V., ... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of the direct and figurative meanings of the word ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary