The leading branches of industrial activity in ancient Russia were the extraction and processing of iron. Iron and steel in the industry, economy and life of the ancient Russian people were widespread and used in many ways. The main tools of the farmer and builder are made of iron and steel. All the tools of numerous specialized artisans were made of steel and iron, like all the weapons of Russian soldiers. Iron is widely included in home life. Only among the archaeological materials can currently be counted more than 150 types of iron and steel products ( See B. A. Kolchin. Ferrous metallurgy and metalworking in ancient Russia. (Pre-Mongol period). MIA, No. 32. M., 1953, p. 18.).
The technical basis for the production of ferrous metal was the technology of direct reduction of iron ore into metallic iron. This raw iron production process for almost three thousand years before the advent of cast iron was the only way receiving iron; and cast iron in Russia began to be produced only at the beginning of the 17th century.
In the raw iron production process, finely crushed iron ore, which is a natural mixture of iron oxide with rock, was loaded into a blast furnace mixed with a large amount of charcoal. As a result of the intensive combustion of coal in the lower part of the furnace, the carbon monoxide formed and heated to a high temperature rises, heats the ore and coal, and enters with them into chemical reaction. At the start of this reaction, the iron oxide of the ore is reduced to ferrous oxide. Part of the ferrous oxide continues to recover, turns into metallic iron, and the other part reacts with the ore rock, slags it and separates it from the metal. The resulting liquid slag flows down to the bottom of the furnace, from there it is periodically released to the outside, and the reduced fine grains in the solid state sink as the coal burns out to the bottom of the furnace, weld and form a lump of iron - kritsu. The spongy mass of iron crackle, taken out of the furnace, is still impregnated with some amount of molten slag ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 42.).
It is interesting to note that in ancient Russia the reduction process of iron production was called "iron smelting". Daniil Zatochnik, the author of "Words to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich", exclaims: "It would be better for me to cook iron than to be with an evil wife" ( "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" according to the editions of the 12th and 13th centuries. and their alterations .. Prepared. to press N. N. Zarubin. L., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1932, p. 16.).
Domnitsa, in which iron was "boiled", is a stationary structure that was erected for quite a long time. The term "domnitsa" was first mentioned in scribe books only at the end of the 15th century, but similar structures were probably called that way in the 13th and 14th centuries. ( See B. A. Rybakov. Craft of ancient Russia. M., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1948, p. 130.).
The old Russian domnitsa had a shaft-shaped furnace, round or slightly oval in plan with an inner diameter of about 50-60 cm, made of stone coated with clay, or knocked down entirely of clay. The thickness of its walls reached 20 cm or more. The stove was placed on a massive base made of cobblestones or clay. The height of the furnace shaft varied from 0.8 to 1.2 m. The furnace shaft resembled the shape of a high truncated cone. At the top of her inner diameter they made less by 15-25 cm. There was a hearth hole in the front wall of the furnace at the level of the bottom of the shaft, through which the coal loaded into the furnace was lit; through this hole, the blowing nozzles of the bellows were inserted and the finished bellows were taken out. From the outside, the furnace was strengthened with earthen filling or enclosed in wooden frame ny casing, covered with earth ( See A. A. Gaiduk. Production of raw iron in the Yakutsk region. ZhRMO, St. Petersburg, 1911, No. 3, p. 293.).
In the pre-Mongolian period and probably in the XIII and XIV centuries. domnitsy made with one oven ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 26.), but with the development of metallurgical production, possibly from the second half of the 14th century. Domnitsa begin to build already with two furnaces. Novgorod scribe books, compiled at the very end of the 15th century, referring to the "old letter", quite often mention "they have one house, and two ovens", and then we read about the neighbor's house: "they have one house, and the stove one w" ( NPK, vol. III, p. 609.). In subsequent centuries, domnitsa were made with an even greater number of furnaces. For example, in the Solovetsky Monastery in the 17th century. there was a "domnitsa, there are four furnaces in it, where bloomery iron is boiled from ore" ( AN. Popov. Mining of the Solovetsky Monastery in the 17th century. (On the history of mining in the North). BS-VOBK, Arkhangelsk, 1926, No. 2, p. 32.).
A domnitsa with two furnaces is a structure consisting of paired ordinary shaft-shaped furnaces enclosed in one common wooden frame with earthen backfill. They were more productive, since iron was boiled in two furnaces. In addition, during the repair of one furnace, another could work.
The most important unit in the house, in addition to the furnace, was also a blower. In the production of iron in a domnitsa furnace, it is necessary to maintain a fairly high temperature and an intense draft of gases capable of breaking through a column of ore and coal about 1 m high. The process of reducing iron oxide to metallic iron proceeds at a rather low temperature: from 400 to 900 °. In addition to the reduction process in the furnace, it is necessary to separate the metal from the ore rock, that is, turn it into slag: this requires a higher temperature. The slagging of the ore rock with ferrous oxide begins at a temperature of about 1200°C. And since the slagging of the rock, or its melting, is carried out only by ferrous oxide, it is necessary that such a high temperature be in the entire volume of the furnace shaft. If the temperature in the furnace is lower, then the ferrous oxide formed from iron oxide will turn into metallic iron, the grains of which will remain inside the unmelted solid rock of the ore. In the lower part of the furnace, where individual grains of iron accumulate, in order to bring them to a welding state, the temperature must be even higher (about 1300-1400 °).
To obtain such a high temperature, ancient Russian metallurgists used powerful artificial blast. This was the most time-consuming work in the smelting of iron. The same Daniil Zatochnik wrote: "It is not the fire that creates the ignition of the iron, but the puffing up of the bag" ( "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" according to the editions of the 12th and 13th centuries. and their alterations, p. 19.).
The blowing device consisted of two blower bellows, forcing air, with lever devices for setting them in motion and refractory nozzles, which supplied the air jet to the furnace. To characterize the stable traditions of metallurgical technology, it is interesting to note that the design and dimensions of the blast channel for all ancient Russian nozzles of the 10th-15th centuries. were exactly the same. Their channel diameter ranged from 22 to 25 mm ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 33.).
Iron ores suitable for the production of iron in domnitsa were distributed almost everywhere on the territory of Russia ( See B. A. Rybakov. UK. cit., p. 124.). In terms of chemical composition, they were predominantly brown iron ore (limonite). Depending on the origin, the ore occurs in three main types: brown iron ore proper, swamp or meadow ore, and lake ore. Most widely metallurgists used marsh, or meadow, ore.
For the raw-blast process, which produces high-iron slag, an ore very rich in iron is needed, since a large transition of iron into slag is due to the process of iron production itself, in which the slagging of the ore rock was carried out with ferrous oxide. To obtain a high concentrate, the iron ores going into the "boiling" were enriched by ancient Russian metallurgists, that is, they removed waste rock from them.
This operation is very important. technical condition production of iron in raw furnaces. The following methods were used to enrich the ore: drying (weathering), roasting, crushing and airing.
High temperature and an abundance of carbon monoxide during combustion in a raw-blood furnace can only be produced by high-calorie fuel. At the same time, the fuel should also be easily extractable. Such fuel in ancient Russia was charcoal. The abundance of forests and the ease of coal burning provided Russian metallurgy with cheap and high-quality fuel. The burning of firewood for coal was carried out in the forests in coal pits.
Iron production in ancient Russia has always been carried out by rural and rural residents. The most favorable conditions for the development of metallurgical production, quite naturally, were where there were rich and easily accessible deposits of marsh, or meadow, ores, forests suitable for burning coal. In such places, large centers of metallurgical production were formed, which supplied iron to a wide market for urban blacksmiths. In the XV century. there were several large iron-working regions. The time of their occurrence is unknown. Metallurgical centers were formed in the Vodskaya Pyatina on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, in the Ustyuzhna-Zheleznopolskaya region, the Belozersky Territory, Zaonezhye and in the areas between Tikhvin and Olonets.
Novgorod scribe books on the Vodskaya Pyatina of 1500 and 1504-1505, which have come down to us far from complete, mention in a small area running from the eastern shore of the Luga Bay in a narrow strip of 30-40 km, more than 204 houses belonging to the peasants of local villages and sat down. The owners of domnitsa - very often several families owned one domnitsa - although they did not break with agriculture (scribe books very rarely call any yards unplowed), they were actually mainly engaged in the production of iron. This is evidenced by the large proportion of iron in their dues. Domniki, as the scribe books of peasant metallurgists are called, dug ore on their own land, that is, belonging to the community, or traveled to princely or other lands. In the latter case, they paid the owners of the land "squabbles" - rent for the right to mine the ore. The dues from the domnikov went with iron and partly with products.
In order to give an approximate volume of the annual production of iron in this area, it is enough to mention that according to the "old income", that is, the quitrent before the 1500 census, except for food products, metallurgists from each house also paid with iron - from a few kritz to 110 kritz per year ( NPK, vol. III, pp. 501, 908, 916, etc.). If it is conditionally assumed that each blast furnace could produce up to 300 blasts per year (this is quite realistic even if the furnace is loaded only during 3-4 winter months), then even then the total productivity of blast furnaces only on the Luga Bay will be about 60,000 blasts, or in translation by weight (at that time about 3 kg were made) more than 11,000 pounds of iron.
The iron industry in this area was developed to a greater extent. early time. This is evidenced by archaeological materials. For example, near the village of Zaozerye, mentioned in the cadastral books of 1500, whose inhabitants had more than 5 houses, during archaeological exploration in 1948, several objects associated with metallurgical production were unearthed. Among them, a cheese-blowing oven dated from the 12th to the beginning of the 13th century was completely excavated. ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 28.).
A huge mass of ferrous metal produced by the metallurgists of the Vodskaya Pyatina in the 14th-15th centuries, as in earlier times, came to Novgorod and Pskov, where specialized blacksmiths forged steel and iron tools, weapons and household equipment for the village and the city. Part of the iron went to the stackers for the conversion into steel.
The crack of iron, taken out of the blast furnace after the end of cooking, had a loose spongy structure and was impregnated with liquid slag. This kritsa immediately, while it was still heated to welding heat, was forged in order to free it from slag and finally weld the iron into a monolithic piece. The weight of ancient Russian kritz ranged from 2 to 6 kg. Found in Novgorod in the layers of the second half of the XIII century. and the beginning of the 14th century. the iron bars weighed 2.76; 2.65 and 2.92 kg ( See B. A. Kolchin. Ironworking craft of Novgorod the Great. (Products, technology). MIA, No. 65. M, 1959, p. 12.). The metallurgists gave commodity kritsa a rounded, cake-like shape. The compressed and welded chick has moved on into the semi-finished products section.
The special tools of the housekeeper were rather small and simple device. Only tongs were made of metal - large, with long handles and characteristic: large rounded lips for gripping the jaws. The length of the screaming mites reached 84 cm. The round lips for the girth of large screams had a mouth of 16.5 cm. The hammer, with which the cry was forged, was made entirely of wood or with a stone striker. The anvil was a stone or wooden block ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 43.).
Along with iron in ancient Russia, iron was widely used carbon steel. The working elements of cutting and chopping tools, weapons and numerous tools were made of steel (an alloy of iron and carbon). Compared with iron, steel has improved physical and mechanical properties. An increase in the carbon content in steel increases its hardness and strength, but its quality is especially significantly improved by heat treatment. Quenching and quenching and tempering increase the hardness and improve other mechanical properties of the steel.
A massive structural analysis of steel products of ancient Russia revealed two types of steel that were used by Russian blacksmiths. The first type is cemented (stewed) steel with a homogeneous structure and carbon evenly distributed throughout the mass of the metal. The second type is welding steel of a heterogeneous structure with ferritic (purely iron) fields and different concentrations of carbon.
Two types of steel structure are two production methods, two different technologies for its production.
The first method for the production of carburized steel was well known in ancient Russia. After preliminary preparation, a carburetor was poured into a refractory vessel (muffle-pot), made of clay, - usually finely crushed charcoal with any additives (potash, salt); then iron was placed in the vessel in the form of small bars, strips or other semi-finished products and filled to the top with the same carburetor. The vessel was closed and placed in a forge or a furnace specially made for this purpose, and the fire was maintained for quite a long time. At a temperature slightly above 910°, when the muffle, coal, and iron were heated, the carbon from the coal diffused into the iron, turning it into an iron-carbon alloy, steel. In the second method of producing welding steel, an iron kritsa was placed in a conventional forge, covered with charcoal and heated. At a temperature slightly above 900°, the carbon diffused into the iron. After a certain time, the master took the kritsa out of the forge and cooled it in water or snow. The steel surface of the crown with rapid cooling received hardening and brittleness. After that, the brittle steel crust was separated from the hammer with blows of a hammer or other tools. A similar operation was performed until the entire crest was turned into steel plates, then these plates were placed in bars and in the usual way welded ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 51.).
Steel production in the XIV-XV centuries. handled by specialized craftsmen. The name of this profession comes from the term "way" (as some steel grades were called at that time). We also know the workshops of stackers. In Novgorod in the layers of the XI, XII and XV centuries. The destroyed production workshops of layers were opened, in which, in addition to the usual finds of a production nature (slag, coal, pieces of metal, etc.), refractory muffles were also found. They had a shape close to the usual kitchen pots of that time ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 13.).
Old Russian steel, including steel in the 14th-15th centuries, was mostly hypoeutectoid, that is, the carbon content did not exceed 0.9%. The most common was medium carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.5-0.7%.
A huge mass of ferrous metal was forged into products mainly by specialized urban blacksmiths. The share of village blacksmiths, of which there were quite a lot in the villages and villages of Russia, accounted for "any blacksmithing" (terminology of the 16th-17th centuries) - the manufacture, repair and alteration of all kinds of iron agricultural and household implements.
We will begin the description of the ironworking craft with a review of blacksmith equipment and tools.
The main equipment of the forge consisted of a forge and bellows. Sources of the mid-XV! in. mention: "they set up a forge and made a forge" ( N. K. Nikolsky. Kirillo-Belozersky monastery and its structure until the second quarter of the 17th century. (1397-1625), no. 2. St. Petersburg, 1910, p. 97.). The horn was a brazier located on an adobe or stone elevation with a wall at one of the edges. Near the wall in the hearth there was a small recess for coals and heated forgings. In this recess, passing through the wall, a clay nozzle came out, through which air was brought to the coals. The nozzles burned out rather quickly and were often changed. In the sources of the XVI century. it says: "a dozen snots were bought in the forge, 3 altyns 2 dengi were given" ( RIB, vol. XXXVII, p. 119.).
The blacksmith's tools consisted of an anvil, a hammer, a hammer, tongs, chisels, and barbs. In addition, blacksmiths had nailers, undercuts, crimps, linings, dies, files, vise and circular grindstones.
The anvil is a solid support on which the forging of products takes place. blacksmith anvil had quite modern look- a massive bar of elongated shape with a flat top and an outgoing elongated horn. In the lower part of the anvil, the wedge-shaped process was driven into a wooden block. The weight of the anvil reached 15 kg ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 59.). Locksmiths, as well as jewelers, worked on anvils of smaller size and weight.
Hammer - a tool for striking during forging. Hammers were distinguished by weight into hammers-handbrakes up to 1 kg and hammers-sledgehammers over 1 kg.
The blacksmith's tongs, with which the blacksmith held red-hot iron in his hands, can be divided into a group of large ones (for large forgings) and a group of small one-handed tongs with well-fitted lips for medium and small items in terms of shape and size. The average length of large ticks ranged from 40 to 55 cm. The average size small ticks - about 20 cm.
All pincers, as well as hammers and anvils, were made from ordinary bloomery iron.
A chisel is a wedge-shaped cutting tool. When working with a chisel, a series of blows are applied to it with a hammer; There were two types of chisels: a chisel for hot cutting of metal and a chisel for cold cutting. The chopping blade of the chisel was made of steel.
Barbs - tools for punching holes in forgings, had the form of an elongated rod with a pointed end, which was made of steel and heat treated.
From the specialized tools of blacksmiths, we will describe the nail machine and the file. Nail smiths used blacksmiths to make nail heads and rivets. These are thick plank plates with one or more round and square holes, on which nail heads were upset and riveted. A well-preserved nail-house was found in Novgorod in the layers of the very end of the 14th century. in the blacksmith's house. It is a thick plate 215mm long, 34mm wide and 19mm thick. It had 4 holes of different sizes.
The most complex specialized tool for metalworking craftsmen was a file. It served for filing metal in a cold state and was widely used in plumbing. This is a tool in the form of a long bar of various sections with teeth cut on its surface and a handle for the handle. The length of the file blade ranged from 68 to 135 mm. The notch of the teeth on all files known to us is manual, single-row - both straight, and oblique and cross. Currently, more than 40 ancient Russian files are known. The files were made of steel and subjected to heat treatment - hardening. For example, a file found in Novgorod in the cultural layer of the second half of the 14th century is made of three steel strips - the outer ones are made of high carbon steel(carbon content about 0.8%) and mild steel inner. The structural state of the metal is martensite with troostite, that is, the file was hardened and then given a short vacation ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 18.).
One of the types machining metal was turned on emery stones. For most quality products, after forging, the surface was treated on stone, and for some products even structural elements forms were carved with a simple or figured stone. This was the only type of technological operation of cold working of ferrous metal, apart from file processing. Therefore, a grinding wheel with a manual or foot drive has become a very important device in the blacksmith's workshop. Among the archaeological material, several finds of massive round grindstones. For example, one of the stones found in Novgorod in layers of the 14th century had a diameter of 270 mm and a thickness of 60 mm. The size of the rectangular hole for the axis is 50 × 60 mm ( IIMK AS USSR. Laboratory. NAE Collection, No. 57-7625.).
The only source of studying the technology of iron-working crafts are archaeological finds - the products of the craft itself in the form of a variety of iron and steel products.
An external, morphological study of an object, as a rule, only allows one to establish its form, but does not reveal the production technique. To study the technology of processing iron and steel best method research turned out to be a comprehensive metallurgical analysis, which made it possible to resolve most issues of the technology of production of tools and weapons.
More than 730 items from among the products of ancient Russian blacksmiths of the X-XV centuries. were subjected to microstructural analysis. Of these items, by the second half of the XIII, XIV and XV centuries. includes 225 samples ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 9.).
As a result of a comprehensive study a large number tools, weapons, handicraft tools, utensils and other metal products, it became possible to summarize individual specifications and to reveal various technological methods of metal processing in ancient Russia. The main type of processing in the XIV and XV centuries, as in previous centuries, was the processing of metal by pressure (in a hot state by forging and stamping). In addition, there were metal cutting operations (file filing, turning on a grinding wheel, cutting with a chisel, etc.).
The basis of a diverse and complex technology for processing ferrous metal was: 1 - all kinds of free forging techniques; 2 - welding of iron and steel; 3 - cementation of iron and steel; 4 - heat treatment of steel; 5 - cutting metal on grinding wheels and a file; 6 - soldering of iron and steel; 7 - coating and inlay of iron and steel with non-ferrous and noble metals; 8 - polishing of iron and steel; 9 - artistic blacksmith forging.
We will describe only some of the technological operations - welding, heat treatment, soldering and artistic forging- the most technically complex or artistically interesting.
Forge welding, that is, the process of obtaining an integral connection of two pieces of metal, especially the welding of iron and steel, was a widespread technological technique in ancient Russia. The basis of the ancient Russian technology for the manufacture of a cutting blade, which was the main working part in most tools and weapons, there was a combination of two materials - iron and steel - by welding. To bring the metal into a plastic state, in which welding could occur, as is known, heating to a high temperature is necessary. For iron and steel with different carbon content, the heating temperature is different. For pure iron, this temperature fluctuates around 1425-1475°; for steels, the temperature decreases according to the carbon content. In case of insufficient heating or severe overheating of the metal, welding will not occur, therefore heating the metal is the most important operation in welding; the slightest omission, oversight during heating affects its quality.
As the microstructure of welds shows, the majority of their mass on ancient Russian products has a very clean and fine structure, and, consequently, strong connection. Seams when welding iron and high-carbon steel are durable and clean; most of the seams have almost no slag inclusions. This suggests that the ancient Russian blacksmiths were able to very accurately determine the degree of heating of the metal: in the conditions of ancient Russia, this was possible only by the colors of heat, and for iron and each grade of steel this color is different. It was necessary to know very well the properties and composition of the metals to be welded (iron or steel and what kind of steel) in order to determine the color of heat required for them.
In the welding technique of ancient Russia, the ability of blacksmiths to work with very small volumes of metal is striking. For example, the welding of iron and steel in key springs was of great difficulty. Springs with a thickness of 0.8 to 2 mm were welded from two strips - iron and steel: therefore, each half had a thickness of 0.4 to 1 mm. If we assume that the blacksmith welded spring blanks of a thicker section and then pulled them out, then all iron and steel blanks could not exceed 2-5 mm in thickness. To simultaneously heat strips of iron and steel 2-5 mm thick to welding heat and not burn the metal (and it quickly begins to spark, that is, burn) is a great technical difficulty. Welding equipment of ancient Russian blacksmiths stood on high level. The well-mastered and finely developed technology of welding iron and steel made it possible for ancient Russian artisans to produce high-quality tools, weapons, and tools.
Having empirically comprehended many properties of steel and the influence of different modes of heating and cooling on these properties, artisans created a practical, finely developed technology for the heat treatment of steel. Of the more than 600 old Russian items made of steel or with steel blades, more than 90% have retained their heat treatment. Structures of martensite, martensite and troostite, troostite and sorbite were found on these products ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 171.).
The microstructure of the overwhelming mass of heat-treated steel products shows that they were subjected to heating in the range of 800-950°. Only in some specimens coarse-acicular martensite is observed, indicating that the quenching temperature was higher than indicated; there are also single structures of incomplete hardening, which are obtained when hardening is carried out at an insufficiently high temperature.
The structure of martensite indicates the use of a fast coolant, which can be water at normal temperature. The structure of troostite and sorbitol indicates the use of quenching media that give slower cooling than water. Such media could be heated water and various mixtures of vegetable and animal oils. Blacksmiths used and different tricks object cooling. Many products were hardened as a whole, that is, they were completely immersed in water or liquid. Other products were hardened partially - only the working part.
The structure of troostite and tempering sorbite indicates a two-stage heat treatment. For example, the structure of tempered troostite shows that the product was first hardened, that is, heated to 800-950° and cooled in water, and then additionally heated to 500-600°. Such processing gave the metal of the product additional viscosity. In the hardening-tempering mode, control over the heating temperature is important. At 800-950°, as in quenching, heat is captured by the color of the heat.
For the temperature of the secondary, lower heating, the tint colors served as a control.
Very important element heat treatment technology, which speaks of the high technical culture of the old Russian blacksmith, is a differentiated approach to the choice of hardening and tempering mode, depending on the purpose of the product. For products subjected to impact loads, such as axes, high tempering was used. Sickles, scythes and scissors were subjected to medium tempering. The overwhelming majority of knives were hardened for tempering martensite. Files were only hardened for martensite or martensite and troostite without subsequent tempering. Accordingly, tempering was differentiated on products and soft hardening. All of the above modes fully satisfied the operating conditions of the products.
In ancient Russia, the technology of soldering iron and steel was at a high technical level. Soldering is the process of joining two or more metal objects by introducing between them a fusible metal or solder alloy) than the metals being joined. Soldering as the main method of joining parts was used primarily by locksmiths.
In the study of soldered seams (spectral analysis) on locks and keys, it was found that the lockmaker used copper-based hard solder for soldering iron and steel. In some cases it was pure copper, with only traces of tin and lead, and in other cases it was an alloy of copper with tin and lead.
A structural study of the seams of the locks showed that the lockmaker heated the place of soldering to the temperature of solder melting in a special furnace. This made it possible to simultaneously solder soldered seams on the product. Horn soldering, a major technical achievement of ancient Russian technology, allowed the lockmaker to obtain strong and durable joints of iron and steel parts.
With forge soldering, parts fitted with several seams. On some castles of the XIII-XIV centuries. there were up to 50 and cleaned at the soldering points, coated with solder powder along the seam or laid a thin plate of solder between them. Together with solder, a flux was also placed in the seam to remove oxides that arose during heating. The soldered parts were temporarily fastened together (inserted into clay matrices or clamped with iron clips) and placed in the furnace. At the appropriate temperature in the hearth, the solder melted and diffused into the heated iron or steel. After the parts cooled down, an integral seam was obtained ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 180.).
Locksmiths, as well as jewelers, sometimes soldered with soldering irons or soldering pipes.
The operation of artistic forging, unlike other technological operations, was complex - the master used and blacksmith forging, and welding, and cutting of metal with a chisel and a file, and inlay with non-ferrous metals; in addition, he had to have creative ingenuity and artistic taste. This operation was primarily ornamental in nature. It was used most often in the manufacture of household items or weapons and horse harness. Artistic finish they had armchairs, svetets, all kinds of locks, keys and masks, all kinds of furniture fittings, belt buckles, various pins.
Artistic forging was widely used to decorate bits, stirrups, spurs, various plaques, etc.
A structural analysis of a large number of ferrous metal products showed that the design and manufacturing technology of high-quality products (these include tools and most of the tools and weapons) were based on the principle of combining a steel working part with an iron base. The vast majority of these products are cutting or chopping tools and weapons. Their blades have always been steel.
For the manufacture of a steel blade, four technological methods were used. The first technique is the manufacture of a multilayer blade made of iron and steel. A steel strip was always brought to the cutting edge. Similar blades were welded from two, three and five strips. The second technique is the manufacture of a welded blade. The third is the manufacture of a cemented blade, that is, the carburization of the blade on the finished product; the fourth technique is the manufacture of an all-steel blade.
The most common technological technique was the manufacture of a welded blade.
We will make an overview of the products of the ironworking craft by individual industries forging production, and also consider the technology of production of some types of products.
The main products of specialized blacksmiths-cutters were knives and scissors. These most versatile tools of labor in ancient Russia were extremely widespread. Knives were used in everyday life and households, in crafts and trades. Special knives made for warriors and healers. In the XIV-XV centuries. made knives different types: kitchen, dining, cooperage, bone-cutting, shoemaker, surgical, combat knives "booters" and folding "pen" type, razors. Each type had certain design features. All of them were made with steel blades, which, after hardening, acquired a very high hardness and, consequently, sharpness.
The technology of making knives in connection with the general development of Russian crafts and the economy has changed several times. It was most difficult in the 10th and 11th centuries. At this time, knife blades were made multi-layered. There was a steel strip in the middle of the knife, and iron strips on the sides. At the beginning of the XII century. With the development of the Russian economy and the expansion of sales of Oroto craft products, cutlers, ensuring the mass production of their products, "rationalize" the design of the knife and simplify its technology. Knives are beginning to be made with a welded steel blade. The quality of the knife is deteriorating, but face welding still ensures the reliability of its operation.
In the first half of the XIV century. in connection with the new rise of urban craft and the strengthening of market relations, the technology for the production of knives is again simplified. Now the welded blade of a knife is no longer made by the method of end welding, but by the method of an oblique seam, in which the amount of steel and the labor intensity of production are reduced. At the same time, the quality of the knife worsened again. With this technology, knives were made in the 15th, 16th and subsequent centuries,
In connection with knives it is necessary to mention razors. In ancient Novgorod they were widespread in the 13th century. According to the design of the razor of the second half of the XIII century. close to modern straight razors. The difference lies only in the shape of the blade. Modern razors have a straight blade, while a 13th-century razor has a straight blade. it is curved. The handle of the razor, as now, was made of wood or bone. The thin cutting part of the razor, about 100 mm long, had a welded-on steel blade; it was tempered.
Scissors, as widespread as knives in everyday life, household and craft, were made of two types: spring (type of modern "sheep") and articulated ("two rings, two ends, in the middle of carnations"). Spring scissors were the most common in everyday life and craft. Scissor blades have always been made with a steel welded point, heat-treated. The scissor handles of both types were very often decorated with all sorts of ornamental details.
To characterize the production technique of needle cases, it is enough to cite the technology for manufacturing sewing needles, which are completely similar in design to modern hand sewing needles. Old Russian needles, as now, had 40-70 mm in length and a diameter of 0.7 to 1.1 mm. Important design feature these sewing needles - the presence on the eye, in addition to the hole, is also a groove for the thread. Such grooves were always made on needles of the XIV-XV centuries. A groove on both sides of the eye and a hole for the thread were made on a needle with a diameter of 1 mm or less. All needles were made of steel and hardened. Thus, the needle-making technique was quite complex and very time-consuming. Only a specialized blacksmith could master such a technique, who had to have special micro-cutters, beards and other tools.
From the products of carnations that made different kinds nails, rivets, staples and various fasteners, we will consider only nails. In the XIV-XV centuries, as, indeed, in an earlier era, several types and sizes of nails are known. Archaeological collections include construction crutches, hewn nails, wallpaper, shoe and horseshoe nails. Nails of all types have always been made from ordinary bloomery iron. Some types of nails are distinguished by constructive perfection. For example, shoe and horseshoe nails, both in the XI-XIII centuries and in the XIV-XV centuries. they are identical in design and size with modern shoe and horseshoe nails. The design of the rod and head, as well as the dimensions of modern nails and nails of the XIV century. match to the smallest detail. So, the length of a modern and old Russian shoe nail was 16 mm, the square section of the head shaft was 2.5 × 2.5 mm. Shoe nails for leather shoes and nails for attaching a horseshoe to a horse's hoof already in ancient Russia received the most rational form and have existed to this day. For the work of specialized nailers, in addition to a universal tool, nailers of special shapes were required (for each type and size of a nail, nailers of a certain shape were needed) and undercuts. In the annalistic story about the capture of the city of Yuryev by the Novgorodians in 1262, among the killed Novgorodians, the carpenter Yakov is mentioned - "Jacob the brave carpenter killed" (Nikon Chronicle) ( PSRL, vol. X, p. 143.).
Locksmith products are interesting not only from the side of production technology, but also from the side of their design. Locks and keys in ancient Russia were mass handicraft products that were widely included in the life of residents of cities and villages; they represented rather complex positional mechanisms. The main element of the design was a system of divergent springs, which fixed different positions of the working element of the lock (shackles and bolts). Castles with a similar design scheme existed in Russia for more than seven centuries. They appeared in the ninth century. and were supplanted by castles with a different design scheme in the 17th century. In the XIII, XIV and partly in the XV centuries. spring locks had the largest number constructive types and options.
Depending on the purpose, locks can be divided into fixed (interior and overhead) and removable (hanging). Among removable locks in the XIII-XV centuries. more than 8 design options were produced. The development of the design went along the line of complication of the locking spring mechanism, and consequently, the key, and strengthening the reliability of the lock body.
Basic constructive option The padlock had a complex device: the lock consisted of a body and a shackle with a spring mechanism. The body consisted of two rigidly interconnected cylinders. The large cylinder had two bottoms - the top with cutouts corresponding to the springs on the shackle, and the bottom with a hole for entering the key. The shackle at one thickened end had special rods (one or more), on which springs with ends diverging upwards were attached. The other end of the bow was smooth and slightly pointed. To lock the lock, the shackle was inserted into the body cylinders. One smooth end of the bow freely entered the small cylinder, and the other with springs - into the upper bottom of the large cylinder. When the shackle springs entered the lock body, they were compressed (they were compressed by the walls of the holes in the upper bottom). After the shackle was completely inserted into the case, the springs unclenched and, resting their ends against the upper bottom, locked the lock. To open the lock, it was necessary to compress the springs again with a special key and remove the shackle.
The design of fixed locks had the same scheme of divergent springs. Two types of fixed locks are known: one large for locking doors and another much smaller for chests.
The door lock was made of a combination of metal and wood. The massive locking bolt was made of wood, and the mechanism was made of iron. The wooden bolt that locked the door had a steel spring. The deadbolt was moved to the closed position by hand movement. At this time, the spring on the bolt was compressed. When the deadbolt reached its extreme position, the spring straightened out, jumped over the stop bar of the mechanism and the lock was locked. To unlock the lock, it was necessary to compress the spring with a special key and pull the bolt back by hand.
Small patch locks for chests were of exactly the same design, but were made entirely of iron.
More complex was the technology of manufacturing padlocks. Some types of these locks had more than 40 separate parts, as the locks were made in different sizes - from large "granary" to small ones with a diameter of 10 mm and a height of 30 mm. Separate parts of the locks were soldered with copper solder. Soldering was carried out in a special forge. Quite often, the body of the lock and the brace of the shackle were copper-plated or tinned, that is, they were covered with a tin alloy. All parts of the lock, except for the springs, were made of strip or rod iron. Very thin lock springs (between 0.8 and 2 mm thick) were welded from steel and iron. Locksmiths were well aware that all-steel springs in this design of locks could easily break, so in the spring they combined elastic steel with viscous iron and received a reliable part.
One of the oldest professions of blacksmithing was the profession of armorers. They accounted for the manufacture of extensive defensive armor: all kinds of armor, helmets, masks, and the like. Bronnikov settlements have existed near Novgorod and Moscow since ancient times. The village of Bronnitsy on the Meta near Novgorod was first mentioned in 1269 ( NPL, p. 88.).
In the era under study, in addition to chain mail made from round and flat rings of various sizes, plate armor was widely used. They became known after the Novgorod excavations. Depending on the shape of the plates that make up the chest and written sets, and the methods of their fastening, armor can be divided into several types. Scaly armor was widespread - small plates that were sewn onto the skin. Two types of armor are known from rectangular or square plates (7 × 6 and 6 × 6 cm) and from plates of an elongated trapezoid shape (length 7 cm, width 1 cm).
The technology for the production of armor, especially plate armor, was very complex and required high art and professional experience from the master. Plates of scaly armor were made of steel (their thickness is from 0.5 to 1.0 mm). Microstructural analysis of 6 blades from Novgorod, found in layers of the 14th-15th centuries, revealed a pearlite (steel) structure on all thin sections. In addition to flat plates for armor, dozens of figured plates with a complex profile were needed for collars, shoulders, armlets, etc. Their size changed each time depending on the size of the armor, and armor always had to be made reliable, strong, comfortable and light enough, from very thin plates.
The technology for making chain mail was quite complex and laborious; they were made from small flat iron rings with a diameter of 13 to 22 mm. Sometimes the surface of the rings was ornamented. Chain mail for average height, depending on the size of the rings, consisted of 10-17 thousand rings. The connecting rings, and there were exactly 1/2 of the total number, were riveted with rivets with a diameter of 0.75-1.0 mm.
We will finish our consideration of blacksmithing technology with a description of cannon business.
The first cannons that appeared in Russia in the last quarter of the 14th century were made of iron. Cannons have been made of iron for almost a hundred years. Only in the 70s. 15th century a new technique appears - casting guns from bronze. Only hand squeaks continued to be forged from iron.
Technology for the production of iron cannons of the 15th century. studied in detail from the Brandeiburg collection of 1852 (30 iron-forged pisces from Ustyuzhna). In addition to macrostructural study, two squeakers were subjected to microstructural analysis ( See N. E. Brandenburg. Historical catalog of the St. Petersburg Artillery Museum, part I (XV-XVII centuries). St. Petersburg, 1877, p. 130; I. A. Revis. Some questions of the history of the development of domestic technology. "Collection of works of the general technical department of the Leningrad Institute of Technology refrigeration industry", vol. VIII. L., 1965, p. 80.). Microsections were made on the transverse and longitudinal section of the barrel in the central and breech.
Iron squeaks in the 15th century. produced different calibers from 24 to 110 mm and, respectively, from 60 to 170 kg.
The barrel of the squeak was welded from separate sections - pipes. For example, a pishchal of 50 mm caliber and 1590 mm long was welded from 7 sections. Each section was individually made multi-layered. Microsections on both tweeters showed two welds, that is, the section pipe was welded from three strips.
The squeaker was forged in the following sequence: strips 7-10 mm thick were forged from the bell of iron, for a squeak of medium caliber, one strip was forged from the bell of 3-4 kg. Having prepared the required number of strips, the blacksmith began to manufacture individual sections. A pipe with an overlap weld was made from the first strip on a special iron mandrel, then. a second strip was welded onto this pipe, the edges of which were also overlapped. The longitudinal welding seam of the second strip was located on the opposite side of the seam of the first pipe, that is, the second strip overlapped the seam of the first. Another strip was welded onto the second pipe. Its ends were also overlap welded. The length of the pipe was made depending on the size of the iron strips and the technical capabilities of welding. It ranged from 200 to 230 mm. The ends of the pipes were forged into a "mustache", that is, they were made with conical sections, on one side - with an internal cut, and on the other - with an external one. Having made the appropriate number of pipes (in our case, 7), they began to be welded. Welding with an oblique seam was also carried out with an overlap on the mandrel. Having welded a straight trunk, it was finally finished on the outside with trowels and crimps, and with inside grinded caliber. A bottom was welded to the end of the barrel from the breech, representing a conical washer 30-40 mm thick. For the ignition hole, a small nest was first cut down with a chisel to a depth of up to half the wall thickness, and then a hole with a diameter of 4-6 mm was punched with a punch. After that, a front sight was placed on the barrel and an aiming bar was attached - the iron barrel of the squeak was ready, it remained to attach it to the wooden stock.
The microstructure of the welding seam of iron-forged tweeters showed that the seams are very thin and clean. This speaks of the high skill of blacksmiths. To weld these large surfaces iron, it was necessary to masterfully master temperature regime welding and skillfully use fluxes. Russian blacksmiths had extensive experience and traditions in the technology of forge welding of iron and steel.
May 14, 2016
iron and steel
The leading branches of industrial activity in ancient Russia were the extraction and processing of iron. Iron and steel in the industry, economy and life of the ancient Russian people were widespread and used in many ways. The main tools of the farmer and builder are made of iron and steel. All the tools of numerous specialized artisans were made of steel and iron, like all the weapons of Russian soldiers. Iron is widely included in home life. Only among the archaeological materials can currently be counted more than 150 types of iron and steel products ( See B. A. Kolchin. Ferrous metallurgy and metalworking in ancient Russia. (Pre-Mongol period). MIA, No. 32. M., 1953, p. 18.).
The technical basis for the production of ferrous metal was the technology of direct reduction of iron ore into metallic iron. This raw-iron process for almost three thousand years before the advent of cast iron was the only way to obtain iron; and cast iron in Russia began to be produced only at the beginning of the 17th century.
In the raw iron production process, finely crushed iron ore, which is a natural mixture of iron oxide with rock, was loaded into a blast furnace mixed with a large amount of charcoal. As a result of intensive combustion of coal in the lower part of the furnace, carbon monoxide formed and heated to a high temperature rises, heats the ore and coal and enters into a chemical reaction with them. At the start of this reaction, the iron oxide of the ore is reduced to ferrous oxide. Part of the ferrous oxide continues to recover, turns into metallic iron, and the other part reacts with the ore rock, slags it and separates it from the metal. The resulting liquid slag flows down to the bottom of the furnace, from there it is periodically released to the outside, and the reduced fine grains in the solid state sink as the coal burns out to the bottom of the furnace, weld and form a lump of iron - kritsu. The spongy mass of iron crackle, taken out of the furnace, is still impregnated with some amount of molten slag ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 42.).
It is interesting to note that in ancient Russia the reduction process of iron production was called "iron smelting". Daniil Zatochnik, author of "Words to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich", exclaims:
“It would be better for me to cook iron than to be with an evil wife” ( "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" according to the editions of the 12th and 13th centuries. and their alterations .. Prepared. to press N. N. Zarubin. L., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1932, p. 16.).
Domnitsa, in which iron was "boiled", is a stationary structure that was erected for quite a long time. The term "domnitsa" was first mentioned in scribe books only at the end of the 15th century, but similar structures were probably called that way in the 13th and 14th centuries. ( See B. A. Rybakov. Craft of ancient Russia. M., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1948, p. 130.).
The old Russian domnitsa had a shaft-shaped furnace, round or slightly oval in plan with an inner diameter of about 50-60 cm, made of stone coated with clay, or knocked down entirely of clay. The thickness of its walls reached 20 cm or more. The stove was placed on a massive base made of cobblestones or clay. The height of the furnace shaft varied from 0.8 to 1.2 m. The furnace shaft resembled the shape of a high truncated cone. In the upper part, its inner diameter was made smaller by 15-25 cm. There was a hearth hole in the front wall of the furnace at the level of the bottom of the shaft, through which the coal loaded into the furnace was ignited; through this hole, the blowing nozzles of the bellows were inserted and the finished bellows were taken out. From the outside, the stove was reinforced with earthen bedding or enclosed in a wooden frame casing covered with earth ( See A. A. Gaiduk. Production of raw iron in the Yakutsk region. ZhRMO, St. Petersburg, 1911, No. 3, p. 293.).
In the pre-Mongolian period and probably in the XIII and XIV centuries. domnitsy made with one oven ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 26.), but with the development of metallurgical production, possibly from the second half of the 14th century. Domnitsa begin to build already with two furnaces. Novgorod scribe books, compiled at the very end of the 15th century, referring to the "old letter", quite often mention "they have one domnitsa, and two ovens", and then we read about the neighbor's house: "they have one house, and one oven" (NPK, vol. III, p. 609.). In subsequent centuries, domnitsa were made with an even greater number of furnaces. For example, in the Solovetsky Monastery in the 17th century. had "domnitsa, there are four furnaces in it, where blooming iron is boiled from ore" (AN. Popov. Mining of the Solovetsky Monastery in the 17th century. (On the history of mining in the North). BS-VOBK, Arkhangelsk, 1926, No. 2, p. 32.).
A domnitsa with two furnaces is a structure consisting of paired ordinary shaft-shaped furnaces enclosed in one common wooden frame with earthen backfill. They were more productive, since iron was boiled in two furnaces. In addition, during the repair of one furnace, another could work.
Domnica, 14th century Working model (house diameter 105 cm, height 80 cm). Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
The most important unit in the house, in addition to the furnace, was also a blower. In the production of iron in a domnitsa furnace, it is necessary to maintain a fairly high temperature and an intense draft of gases capable of breaking through a column of ore and coal about 1 m high. The process of reducing iron oxide to metallic iron proceeds at a rather low temperature: from 400 to 900 °. In addition to the reduction process in the furnace, it is necessary to separate the metal from the ore rock, that is, turn it into slag: this requires a higher temperature. The slagging of the ore rock with ferrous oxide begins at a temperature of about 1200°C. And since the slagging of the rock, or its melting, is carried out only by ferrous oxide, it is necessary that such a high temperature be in the entire volume of the furnace shaft. If the temperature in the furnace is lower, then the ferrous oxide formed from iron oxide will turn into metallic iron, the grains of which will remain inside the unmelted solid rock of the ore. In the lower part of the furnace, where individual grains of iron accumulate, in order to bring them to a welding state, the temperature must be even higher (about 1300-1400 °).
To obtain such a high temperature, ancient Russian metallurgists used powerful artificial blast. This was the most time-consuming work in the smelting of iron. The same Daniel Zatochnik wrote:
"It is not fire that irritates the iron, but the puffing up of the bag" ( "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" according to the editions of the 12th and 13th centuries. and their alterations, p. 19.).
The blowing device consisted of two blower bellows, forcing air, with lever devices for setting them in motion and refractory nozzles, which supplied the air jet to the furnace. To characterize the stable traditions of metallurgical technology, it is interesting to note that the design and dimensions of the blast channel for all ancient Russian nozzles of the 10th-15th centuries. were exactly the same. Their channel diameter ranged from 22 to 25 mm ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 33.).
Iron ores suitable for the production of iron in domnitsa were distributed almost everywhere on the territory of Russia ( See B. A. Rybakov. UK. cit., p. 124.). In terms of chemical composition, they were predominantly brown iron ore (limonite). Depending on the origin, the ore occurs in three main types: brown iron ore proper, swamp or meadow ore, and lake ore. Most widely metallurgists used marsh, or meadow, ore.
For the raw-blast process, which produces high-iron slag, an ore very rich in iron is needed, since a large transition of iron into slag is due to the process of iron production itself, in which the slagging of the ore rock was carried out with ferrous oxide. To obtain a high concentrate, the iron ores going into the "boiling" were enriched by ancient Russian metallurgists, that is, they removed waste rock from them.
This operation is a very important technical condition for the production of iron in raw furnaces. The following methods were used to enrich the ore: drying (weathering), roasting, crushing and airing.
High temperature and an abundance of carbon monoxide during combustion in a raw-blood furnace can only be produced by high-calorie fuel. At the same time, the fuel should also be easily extractable. Such fuel in ancient Russia was charcoal. The abundance of forests and the ease of coal burning provided Russian metallurgy with cheap and high-quality fuel. The burning of firewood for coal was carried out in the forests in coal pits.
Iron production in ancient Russia has always been carried out by rural and rural residents. The most favorable conditions for the development of metallurgical production, quite naturally, were where there were rich and easily accessible deposits of marsh, or meadow, ores, forests suitable for burning coal. In such places, large centers of metallurgical production were formed, which supplied iron to a wide market for urban blacksmiths. In the XV century. there were several large iron-working regions. The time of their occurrence is unknown. Metallurgical centers were formed in the Vodskaya Pyatina on the coast of the Gulf of Finland, in the Ustyuzhna-Zheleznopolskaya region, the Belozersky Territory, Zaonezhye and in the areas between Tikhvin and Olonets.
Novgorod scribe books on the Vodskaya Pyatina of 1500 and 1504-1505, which have come down to us far from complete, mention in a small area running from the eastern shore of the Luga Bay in a narrow strip of 30-40 km, more than 204 houses belonging to the peasants of local villages and sat down. The owners of domnitsa - very often several families owned one domnitsa - although they did not break with agriculture (scribe books very rarely call any yards unplowed), they were actually mainly engaged in the production of iron. This is evidenced by the large proportion of iron in their dues. Domniki, as the scribe books of peasant metallurgists are called, dug ore on their own land, that is, belonging to the community, or traveled to princely or other lands. In the latter case, they paid the owners of the land "squabbles" - rent for the right to mine the ore. The dues from the domnikov went with iron and partly with products.
To imagine the approximate volume of the annual production of iron in this area, it is enough to mention that according to the "old income", that is, the quitrent before the census of 1500, in addition to food, metallurgists from each house also paid with iron - from several krits to 110 krits per year ( NPK, vol. III, pp. 501, 908, 916, etc.). If it is conditionally assumed that each blast furnace could produce up to 300 blasts per year (this is quite realistic even if the furnace is loaded only during 3-4 winter months), then even then the total productivity of blast furnaces only on the Luga Bay will be about 60,000 blasts, or in translation by weight (at that time about 3 kg were made) more than 11,000 pounds of iron.
Iron-making production in this area was also developed at an earlier time. This is evidenced by archaeological materials. For example, near the village of Zaozerye, mentioned in the cadastral books of 1500, whose inhabitants had more than 5 houses, during archaeological exploration in 1948, several objects associated with metallurgical production were unearthed. Among them, a cheese-blowing oven dated from the 12th to the beginning of the 13th century was completely excavated. ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 28.).
A huge mass of ferrous metal produced by the metallurgists of the Vodskaya Pyatina in the 14th-15th centuries, as in earlier times, came to Novgorod and Pskov, where specialized blacksmiths forged steel and iron tools, weapons and household equipment for the village and the city. Part of the iron went to the stackers for the conversion into steel.
The crack of iron, taken out of the blast furnace after the end of cooking, had a loose spongy structure and was impregnated with liquid slag. This kritsa immediately, while it was still heated to welding heat, was forged in order to free it from slag and finally weld the iron into a monolithic piece. The weight of ancient Russian kritz ranged from 2 to 6 kg. Found in Novgorod in the layers of the second half of the XIII century. and the beginning of the 14th century. the iron bars weighed 2.76; 2.65 and 2.92 kg ( See B. A. Kolchin. Ironworking craft of Novgorod the Great. (Products, technology). MIA, No. 65. M, 1959, p. 12.). The metallurgists gave commodity kritsa a rounded, cake-like shape. The compressed and welded chick has moved on into the semi-finished products section.
Iron cracks (gray and dark spots - voids and slag). Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
The special tools of the housekeeper were rather small and of a simple device. Only tongs were made of metal - large, with long handles and characteristic: large rounded lips for gripping the jaws. The length of the screaming mites reached 84 cm. The round lips for the girth of large screams had a mouth of 16.5 cm. The hammer, with which the cry was forged, was made entirely of wood or with a stone striker. The anvil was a stone or wooden block ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 43.).
Along with iron in ancient Russia, carbon steel was widely used. The working elements of cutting and chopping tools, weapons and numerous tools were made of steel (an alloy of iron and carbon). Compared with iron, steel has improved physical and mechanical properties. Increasing the carbon content in steel increases its hardness and strength, but its quality is especially significantly improved by heat treatment. Quenching and quenching and tempering increase the hardness and improve other mechanical properties of the steel.
Tools for processing ferrous and non-ferrous metals: 1 - blacksmith hammer, 2 - blacksmith hammer, 3 - large blacksmith tongs, 4 - small tongs, 5 - nailer, 6 - blacksmith anvil, 7 - figured anvil, 8 - undercut, 9 - barbs , 10 - files, 11 - pliers, 12 - jewelry vise, 13 - jewelry tweezers, 14 - blacksmith punch, 15 - soldering iron, 16 - wire cutters, 17 - jewelry anvil, 18 - metal scissors, 19 - chisels, 20 - a hammer for chasing, 21 - a jewelry hammer.
Microstructure of steel products: 1 - tomlenka steel, medium carbon (C = 0.4%), 2 - welding seam (left - iron, right - steel), 3 - heat-treated steel, fine-acicular martensite, 4 - heat-treated steel, coarse-acicular martensite . Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
A massive structural analysis of steel products of ancient Russia revealed two types of steel that were used by Russian blacksmiths. The first type is cemented (stewed) steel with a homogeneous structure and carbon evenly distributed throughout the mass of the metal. The second type is welding steel of a heterogeneous structure with ferritic (purely iron) fields and different concentrations of carbon.
Two types of steel structure are two production methods, two different technologies for its production.
The first method for the production of carburized steel was well known in ancient Russia. After preliminary preparation, a carburetor was poured into a refractory vessel (muffle-pot), made of clay, - usually finely crushed charcoal with any additives (potash, salt); then iron was placed in the vessel in the form of small bars, strips or other semi-finished products and filled to the top with the same carburetor. The vessel was closed and placed in a forge or a furnace specially made for this purpose, and the fire was maintained for quite a long time. At a temperature slightly above 910°, when the muffle, coal, and iron were heated, the carbon from the coal diffused into the iron, turning it into an iron-carbon alloy, steel. In the second method of producing welding steel, an iron kritsa was placed in a conventional forge, covered with charcoal and heated. At a temperature slightly above 900°, the carbon diffused into the iron. After a certain time, the master took the kritsa out of the forge and cooled it in water or snow. The steel surface of the crown with rapid cooling received hardening and brittleness. After that, the brittle steel crust was separated from the hammer with blows of a hammer or other tools. A similar operation was carried out until the entire crown was turned into steel plates, then these plates were placed in bars and welded in the usual way ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 51.).
Steel production in the XIV-XV centuries. handled by specialized craftsmen. The name of this profession comes from the term "way" (as some steel grades were called at that time). We also know the workshops of stackers. In Novgorod in the layers of the XI, XII and XV centuries. The destroyed production workshops of layers were opened, in which, in addition to the usual finds of a production nature (slag, coal, pieces of metal, etc.), refractory muffles were also found. They had a shape close to the usual kitchen pots of that time ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 13.).
Old Russian steel, including steel in the 14th-15th centuries, was mostly hypoeutectoid, that is, the carbon content did not exceed 0.9%. The most common was medium carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.5-0.7%.
A huge mass of ferrous metal was forged into products mainly by specialized urban blacksmiths. The share of village blacksmiths, of which there were quite a lot in the villages and villages of Russia, accounted for "any blacksmithing" (terminology of the 16th-17th centuries) - the manufacture, repair and alteration of all kinds of iron agricultural and household implements.
We will begin the description of the ironworking craft with a review of blacksmith equipment and tools.
The main equipment of the forge consisted of a forge and bellows. Sources of the mid-XV! in. mention: "they set up a forge and made a forge" (N. K. Nikolsky. Kirillo-Belozersky monastery and its structure until the second quarter of the 17th century. (1397-1625), no. 2. St. Petersburg, 1910, p. 97.). The horn was a brazier located on an adobe or stone elevation with a wall at one of the edges. Near the wall in the hearth there was a small recess for coals and heated forgings. In this recess, passing through the wall, a clay nozzle came out, through which air was brought to the coals. The nozzles burned out rather quickly and were often changed. In the sources of the XVI century. says: "bought snot in the forge of a dozen, given 3 altyns 2 dengi" (RIB, vol. XXXVII, p. 119.).
The blacksmith's tools consisted of an anvil, a hammer, a hammer, tongs, chisels, and barbs. In addition, blacksmiths had nailers, undercuts, crimps, linings, dies, files, vise and circular grindstones.
The anvil is a solid support on which the forging of products takes place. The blacksmith's anvil had a completely modern look - a massive elongated bar with a flat top and an outgoing elongated horn. In the lower part of the anvil, the wedge-shaped process was driven into a wooden block. The weight of the anvil reached 15 kg ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 59.). Locksmiths, as well as jewelers, worked on anvils of smaller size and weight.
Hammer - a tool for striking during forging. Hammers were distinguished by weight into hammers-handbrakes up to 1 kg and hammers-sledgehammers over 1 kg.
The blacksmith's tongs, with which the blacksmith held red-hot iron in his hands, can be divided into a group of large ones (for large forgings) and a group of small one-handed tongs with well-fitted lips for medium and small items in terms of shape and size. The average length of large ticks ranged from 40 to 55 cm. The average size of small ticks is about 20 cm.
All pincers, as well as hammers and anvils, were made from ordinary bloomery iron.
A chisel is a wedge-shaped cutting tool. When working with a chisel, a series of blows are applied to it with a hammer; There were two types of chisels: a chisel for hot cutting of metal and a chisel for cold cutting. The chopping blade of the chisel was made of steel.
Barbs - tools for punching holes in forgings, had the form of an elongated rod with a pointed end, which was made of steel and heat treated.
From the specialized tools of blacksmiths, we will describe the nail machine and the file. Nail smiths used blacksmiths to make nail heads and rivets. These are thick plank plates with one or more round and square holes, on which nail heads were upset and riveted. A well-preserved nail-house was found in Novgorod in the layers of the very end of the 14th century. in the blacksmith's house. It is a thick plate 215mm long, 34mm wide and 19mm thick. It had 4 holes of different sizes.
The most complex specialized tool for metalworking craftsmen was a file. It served for filing metal in a cold state and was widely used in plumbing. This is a tool in the form of a long bar of various sections with teeth cut on its surface and a handle for the handle. The length of the file blade ranged from 68 to 135 mm. The notch of the teeth on all files known to us is manual, single-row - both straight, and oblique and cross. Currently, more than 40 ancient Russian files are known. The files were made of steel and subjected to heat treatment - hardening. For example, a file found in Novgorod in the cultural layer of the second half of the 14th century is made of three steel strips - the outer one is made of high-carbon steel (carbon content is about 0.8%) and the inner one is made of low-carbon steel. The structural state of the metal is martensite with troostite, that is, the file was hardened and then given a short vacation ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 18.).
One of the types of mechanical processing of metal was turning on emery stones. For most high-quality products, after forging, the surface was processed on stone, and for some products, even the structural elements of the form were turned with a simple or figured stone. This was the only type of technological operation of cold working of ferrous metal, apart from file processing. Therefore, a grinding wheel with a manual or foot drive has become a very important device in the blacksmith's workshop. Among the archaeological material, several finds of massive round grindstones are known. For example, one of the stones found in Novgorod in layers of the 14th century had a diameter of 270 mm and a thickness of 60 mm. The size of the rectangular hole for the axis is 50 × 60 mm ( IIMK AS USSR. Laboratory. NAE Collection, No. 57-7625.).
The only source of studying the technology of iron-working crafts are archaeological finds - the products of the craft itself in the form of a variety of iron and steel products.
An external, morphological study of an object, as a rule, only allows one to establish its form, but does not reveal the production technique. To study the technology of processing iron and steel, the best method of research turned out to be a comprehensive metallurgical analysis, which made it possible to resolve most of the issues of the technology of production of tools and weapons.
More than 730 items from among the products of ancient Russian blacksmiths of the X-XV centuries. were subjected to microstructural analysis. Of these items, by the second half of the XIII, XIV and XV centuries. includes 225 samples ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 65, p. 9.).
As a result of a comprehensive study of a large number of tools, weapons, handicraft tools, utensils and other metal products, it became possible to summarize individual technical characteristics and identify various technological methods of metal processing in ancient Russia. The main type of processing in the XIV and XV centuries, as in previous centuries, was the processing of metal by pressure (in a hot state by forging and stamping). In addition, there were metal cutting operations (file filing, turning on a grinding wheel, cutting with a chisel, etc.).
The basis of a diverse and complex technology for processing ferrous metal was: 1 - all kinds of free forging techniques; 2 - welding of iron and steel; 3 - cementation of iron and steel; 4 - heat treatment of steel; 5 - cutting metal on grinding wheels and a file; 6 - soldering of iron and steel; 7 - coating and inlay of iron and steel with non-ferrous and noble metals; 8 - polishing of iron and steel; 9 - artistic blacksmith forging.
We will describe only some of the technological operations - welding, heat treatment, soldering and artistic forging - the most technically complex or artistically interesting.
Forge welding, that is, the process of obtaining an integral connection of two pieces of metal, especially the welding of iron and steel, was a widespread technological technique in ancient Russia. The basis of the ancient Russian technology for the manufacture of a cutting blade, which was the main working part of most tools and weapons, was a combination of two materials - iron and steel - by welding. To bring the metal into a plastic state, in which welding could occur, as is known, heating to a high temperature is necessary. For iron and steel with different carbon content, the heating temperature is different. For pure iron, this temperature fluctuates around 1425-1475°; for steels, the temperature decreases according to the carbon content. In case of insufficient heating or severe overheating of the metal, welding will not occur, therefore heating the metal is the most important operation in welding; the slightest omission, oversight during heating affects its quality.
As the microstructure of welding seams shows, the vast majority of them on ancient Russian products has a very clean and fine structure, and, consequently, a strong connection. Seams when welding iron and high-carbon steel are durable and clean; most of the seams have almost no slag inclusions. This suggests that the ancient Russian blacksmiths were able to very accurately determine the degree of heating of the metal: in the conditions of ancient Russia, this was possible only by the colors of heat, and for iron and each grade of steel this color is different. It was necessary to know very well the properties and composition of the metals to be welded (iron or steel and what kind of steel) in order to determine the color of heat required for them.
In the welding technique of ancient Russia, the ability of blacksmiths to work with very small volumes of metal is striking. For example, the welding of iron and steel in key springs was of great difficulty. Springs with a thickness of 0.8 to 2 mm were welded from two strips - iron and steel: therefore, each half had a thickness of 0.4 to 1 mm. If we assume that the blacksmith welded spring blanks of a thicker section and then pulled them out, then all iron and steel blanks could not exceed 2-5 mm in thickness. To simultaneously heat strips of iron and steel 2-5 mm thick to welding heat and not burn the metal (and it quickly begins to spark, that is, burn) is a great technical difficulty. The welding technique of ancient Russian blacksmiths was at a high level. The well-mastered and finely developed technology of welding iron and steel made it possible for ancient Russian artisans to produce high-quality tools, weapons, and tools.
Having empirically comprehended many properties of steel and the influence of different modes of heating and cooling on these properties, artisans created a practical, finely developed technology for the heat treatment of steel. Of the more than 600 old Russian items made of steel or with steel blades, more than 90% have retained their heat treatment. Structures of martensite, martensite and troostite, troostite and sorbite were found on these products ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 171.).
The microstructure of the overwhelming mass of heat-treated steel products shows that they were subjected to heating in the range of 800-950°. Only in some specimens coarse-acicular martensite is observed, indicating that the quenching temperature was higher than indicated; there are also single structures of incomplete hardening, which are obtained when hardening is carried out at an insufficiently high temperature.
The structure of martensite indicates the use of a fast coolant, which can be water at normal temperature. The structure of troostite and sorbitol indicates the use of quenching media that give slower cooling than water. Such media could be heated water and various mixtures of vegetable and animal oils. Blacksmiths also used different methods of cooling the object. Many products were hardened as a whole, that is, they were completely immersed in water or liquid. Other products were hardened partially - only the working part.
The structure of troostite and tempering sorbite indicates a two-stage heat treatment. For example, the structure of tempered troostite shows that the product was first hardened, that is, heated to 800-950° and cooled in water, and then additionally heated to 500-600°. Such processing gave the metal of the product additional viscosity. In the hardening-tempering mode, control over the heating temperature is important. At 800-950°, as in quenching, heat is captured by the color of the heat.
For the temperature of the secondary, lower heating, the tint colors served as a control.
A very important element of heat treatment technology, which speaks of the high technical culture of the Old Russian blacksmith, is a differentiated approach to the choice of hardening and tempering mode, depending on the purpose of the product. For products subjected to impact loads, such as axes, high tempering was used. Sickles, scythes and scissors were subjected to medium tempering. The overwhelming majority of knives were hardened for tempering martensite. Files were only hardened for martensite or martensite and troostite without subsequent tempering. Accordingly, tempering was differentiated on products and soft hardening. All of the above modes fully satisfied the operating conditions of the products.
In ancient Russia, the technology of soldering iron and steel was at a high technical level. Soldering is the process of joining two or more metal objects by introducing between them a fusible metal or solder alloy) than the metals being joined. Soldering as the main method of joining parts was used primarily by locksmiths.
In the study of soldered seams (spectral analysis) on locks and keys, it was found that the lockmaker used copper-based hard solder for soldering iron and steel. In some cases it was pure copper, with only traces of tin and lead, and in other cases it was an alloy of copper with tin and lead.
A structural study of the seams of the locks showed that the lockmaker heated the place of soldering to the temperature of solder melting in a special furnace. This made it possible to simultaneously solder soldered seams on the product. Horn soldering, a major technical achievement of ancient Russian technology, allowed the lockmaker to obtain strong and durable joints of iron and steel parts.
With forge soldering, parts fitted with several seams. On some castles of the XIII-XIV centuries. there were up to 50 and cleaned at the soldering points, coated with solder powder along the seam or laid a thin plate of solder between them. Together with solder, a flux was also placed in the seam to remove oxides that arose during heating. The soldered parts were temporarily fastened together (inserted into clay matrices or clamped with iron clips) and placed in the furnace. At the appropriate temperature in the hearth, the solder melted and diffused into the heated iron or steel. After the parts cooled down, an integral seam was obtained ( See B. A. Kolchin. UK. op. MIA, No. 32, p. 180.).
Locksmiths, as well as jewelers, sometimes soldered with soldering irons or soldering pipes.
The operation of artistic forging, unlike other technological operations, was complex - the master used blacksmith forging, welding, metal cutting with a chisel and a file, and inlay with non-ferrous metals; in addition, he had to have creative ingenuity and artistic taste. This operation was primarily ornamental in nature. It was used most often in the manufacture of household items or weapons and horse harness. Armchairs, svetets, all kinds of locks, keys and masks, all kinds of furniture fittings, belt buckles, and various pins had artistic decoration.
Artistic forging was widely used to decorate bits, stirrups, spurs, various plaques, etc.
A structural analysis of a large number of ferrous metal products showed that the design and manufacturing technology of high-quality products (these include tools and most of the tools and weapons) were based on the principle of combining a steel working part with an iron base. The vast majority of these products are cutting or chopping tools and weapons. Their blades have always been steel.
For the manufacture of a steel blade, four technological methods were used. The first technique is the manufacture of a multilayer blade made of iron and steel. A steel strip was always brought to the cutting edge. Similar blades were welded from two, three and five strips. The second technique is the manufacture of a welded blade. The third is the manufacture of a cemented blade, that is, the carburization of the blade on the finished product; the fourth technique is the manufacture of an all-steel blade.
The most common technological technique was the manufacture of a welded blade.
We will make an overview of the products of the ironworking craft for individual branches of blacksmithing, and also consider the technology for the production of certain types of products.
The main products of specialized blacksmiths-cutters were knives and scissors. These most versatile tools of labor in ancient Russia were extremely widespread. Knives were used in everyday life and households, in crafts and trades. Special knives were made for warriors and healers. In the XIV-XV centuries. knives of various types were made: kitchen, table, cooperage, bone-cutting, shoemaker, surgical, combat knives "shoemakers" and folding "pen" type, razors. Each type had certain design features. All of them were made with steel blades, which, after hardening, acquired a very high hardness and, consequently, sharpness.
The technology of making knives in connection with the general development of Russian crafts and the economy has changed several times. It was most difficult in the 10th and 11th centuries. At this time, knife blades were made multi-layered. There was a steel strip in the middle of the knife, and iron strips on the sides. At the beginning of the XII century. With the development of the Russian economy and the expansion of sales of Oroto craft products, cutlers, ensuring the mass production of their products, "rationalize" the design of the knife and simplify its technology. Knives are beginning to be made with a welded steel blade. The quality of the knife is deteriorating, but face welding still ensures the reliability of its operation.
In the first half of the XIV century. in connection with the new rise of urban craft and the strengthening of market relations, the technology for the production of knives is again simplified. Now the welded blade of a knife is no longer made by the method of end welding, but by the method of an oblique seam, in which the amount of steel and the labor intensity of production are reduced. At the same time, the quality of the knife worsened again. With this technology, knives were made in the 15th, 16th and subsequent centuries,
In connection with knives it is necessary to mention razors. In ancient Novgorod they were widespread in the 13th century. According to the design of the razor of the second half of the XIII century. close to modern straight razors. The difference lies only in the shape of the blade. Modern razors have a straight blade, while a 13th-century razor has a straight blade. it is curved. The handle of the razor, as now, was made of wood or bone. The thin cutting part of the razor, about 100 mm long, had a welded-on steel blade; it was tempered.
Scissors, as widespread as knives in everyday life, household and craft, were made of two types: spring (type of modern "sheep") and articulated ("two rings, two ends, in the middle of carnations"). Spring scissors were the most common in everyday life and craft. Scissor blades have always been made with a steel welded point, heat-treated. The scissor handles of both types were very often decorated with all sorts of ornamental details.
To characterize the production technique of needle cases, it is enough to cite the technology for manufacturing sewing needles, which are completely similar in design to modern hand sewing needles. Old Russian needles, as now, had 40-70 mm in length and a diameter of 0.7 to 1.1 mm. An important design feature of these sewing needles is the presence on the eye, in addition to the hole, of a groove for the thread. Such grooves were always made on needles of the XIV-XV centuries. A groove on both sides of the eye and a hole for the thread were made on a needle with a diameter of 1 mm or less. All needles were made of steel and hardened. Thus, the needle-making technique was quite complex and very time-consuming. Only a specialized blacksmith could master such a technique, who had to have special micro-cutters, beards and other tools.
Of the products of nail makers, who made various types of nails, rivets, staples and various fasteners, we will consider only nails. In the XIV-XV centuries, as, indeed, in an earlier era, several types and sizes of nails are known. Archaeological collections include construction crutches, hewn nails, wallpaper, shoe and horseshoe nails. Nails of all types have always been made from ordinary bloomery iron. Some types of nails are distinguished by constructive perfection. For example, shoe and horseshoe nails, both in the XI-XIII centuries and in the XIV-XV centuries. they are identical in design and size with modern shoe and horseshoe nails. The design of the rod and head, as well as the dimensions of modern nails and nails of the XIV century. match to the smallest detail. So, the length of a modern and old Russian shoe nail was 16 mm, the square section of the head shaft was 2.5 × 2.5 mm. Shoe nails for leather shoes and nails for attaching a horseshoe to a horse's hoof already in ancient Russia received the most rational form and have existed to this day. For the work of specialized nailers, in addition to a universal tool, nailers of special shapes were required (for each type and size of a nail, nailers of a certain shape were needed) and undercuts. In the annalistic story about the capture of the city of Yuryev by the Novgorodians in 1262, among the killed Novgorodians, the carpenter Yakov is mentioned - "Jacob the brave carpenter killed" (Nikon Chronicle) ( PSRL, vol. X, p. 143.).
Scissors of the end of the XIII century. Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
Macro shots: 1 - sewing needle, second half of the 13th century, 2 - modern sewing needle, 3, 4 - shoe nails of the 14th century, 5 - modern shoe nail. Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
Types of padlocks and keys of the XIV century.
TO luchi interior castles of the XIV century. Novgorod. (Collection of the NAE).
Locksmith products are interesting not only from the side of production technology, but also from the side of their design. Locks and keys in ancient Russia were mass handicraft products that were widely included in the life of residents of cities and villages; they represented rather complex positional mechanisms. The main element of the design was a system of divergent springs, which fixed different positions of the working element of the lock (shackles and bolts). Castles with a similar design scheme existed in Russia for more than seven centuries. They appeared in the ninth century. and were supplanted by castles with a different design scheme in the 17th century. In the XIII, XIV and partly in the XV centuries. spring locks had the largest number of design types and options.
Depending on the purpose, locks can be divided into fixed (interior and overhead) and removable (hanging). Among removable locks in the XIII-XV centuries. more than 8 design options were produced. The development of the design went along the line of complication of the locking spring mechanism, and consequently, the key, and strengthening the reliability of the lock body.
The main constructive version of the padlock had a complex device: the lock consisted of a body and a shackle with a spring mechanism. The body consisted of two rigidly interconnected cylinders. The large cylinder had two bottoms - the top with cutouts corresponding to the springs on the shackle, and the bottom with a hole for entering the key. The shackle at one thickened end had special rods (one or more), on which springs with ends diverging upwards were attached. The other end of the bow was smooth and slightly pointed. To lock the lock, the shackle was inserted into the body cylinders. One smooth end of the bow freely entered the small cylinder, and the other with springs - into the upper bottom of the large cylinder. When the shackle springs entered the lock body, they were compressed (they were compressed by the walls of the holes in the upper bottom). After the shackle was completely inserted into the case, the springs unclenched and, resting their ends against the upper bottom, locked the lock. To open the lock, it was necessary to compress the springs again with a special key and remove the shackle.
The design of fixed locks had the same scheme of divergent springs. Two types of fixed locks are known: one large for locking doors and another much smaller for chests.
The door lock was made of a combination of metal and wood. The massive locking bolt was made of wood, and the mechanism was made of iron. The wooden bolt that locked the door had a steel spring. The deadbolt was moved to the closed position by hand movement. At this time, the spring on the bolt was compressed. When the deadbolt reached its extreme position, the spring straightened out, jumped over the stop bar of the mechanism and the lock was locked. To unlock the lock, it was necessary to compress the spring with a special key and pull the bolt back by hand.
Small patch locks for chests were of exactly the same design, but were made entirely of iron.
More complex was the technology of manufacturing padlocks. Some types of these locks had more than 40 separate parts, as the locks were made in different sizes - from large "granary" to small ones with a diameter of 10 mm and a height of 30 mm. Separate parts of the locks were soldered with copper solder. Soldering was carried out in a special forge. Quite often, the body of the lock and the brace of the shackle were copper-plated or tinned, that is, they were covered with a tin alloy. All parts of the lock, except for the springs, were made of strip or rod iron. Very thin lock springs (between 0.8 and 2 mm thick) were welded from steel and iron. Locksmiths were well aware that all-steel springs in this design of locks could easily break, so in the spring they combined elastic steel with viscous iron and received a reliable part.
One of the oldest professions of blacksmithing was the profession of armorers. They accounted for the manufacture of extensive defensive armor: all kinds of armor, helmets, masks, and the like. Bronnikov settlements have existed near Novgorod and Moscow since ancient times. The village of Bronnitsy on the Meta near Novgorod was first mentioned in 1269 ( NPL, p. 88.).
In the era under study, in addition to chain mail made from round and flat rings of various sizes, plate armor was widely used. They became known after the Novgorod excavations. Depending on the shape of the plates that make up the chest and written sets, and the methods of their fastening, armor can be divided into several types. Scaly armor was widespread - small plates that were sewn onto the skin. Two types of armor are known from rectangular or square plates (7 × 6 and 6 × 6 cm) and from plates of an elongated trapezoid shape (length 7 cm, width 1 cm).
The technology for the production of armor, especially plate armor, was very complex and required high art and professional experience from the master. Plates of scaly armor were made of steel (their thickness is from 0.5 to 1.0 mm). Microstructural analysis of 6 blades from Novgorod, found in layers of the 14th-15th centuries, revealed a pearlite (steel) structure on all thin sections. In addition to flat plates for armor, dozens of figured plates with a complex profile were needed for collars, shoulders, armlets, etc. Their size changed each time depending on the size of the armor, and armor always had to be made reliable, strong, comfortable and light enough, from very thin plates.
The technology for making chain mail was quite complex and laborious; they were made from small flat iron rings with a diameter of 13 to 22 mm. Sometimes the surface of the rings was ornamented. Chain mail for average height, depending on the size of the rings, consisted of 10-17 thousand rings. The connecting rings, and there were exactly 1/2 of the total number, were riveted with rivets with a diameter of 0.75-1.0 mm.
We will finish our consideration of blacksmithing technology with a description of cannon business.
The first cannons that appeared in Russia in the last quarter of the 14th century were made of iron. Cannons have been made of iron for almost a hundred years. Only in the 70s. 15th century a new technique appears - casting guns from bronze. Only hand squeaks continued to be forged from iron.
Technology for the production of iron cannons of the 15th century. studied in detail from the Brandeiburg collection of 1852 (30 iron-forged pisces from Ustyuzhna). In addition to macrostructural study, two squeakers were subjected to microstructural analysis ( See N. E. Brandenburg. Historical catalog of the St. Petersburg Artillery Museum, part I (XV-XVII centuries). St. Petersburg, 1877, p. 130; I. A. Revis. Some questions of the history of the development of domestic technology. "Collection of works of the general technical department of the Leningrad Technological Institute of the Refrigeration Industry", vol. VIII. L., 1965, p. 80.). Microsections were made on the transverse and longitudinal section of the barrel in the central and breech.
Iron squeaks in the 15th century. produced different calibers from 24 to 110 mm and, respectively, from 60 to 170 kg.
The barrel of the squeak was welded from separate sections - pipes. For example, a pishchal of 50 mm caliber and 1590 mm long was welded from 7 sections. Each section was individually made multi-layered. Microsections on both tweeters showed two welds, that is, the section pipe was welded from three strips.
The squeaker was forged in the following sequence: strips 7-10 mm thick were forged from the bell of iron, for a squeak of medium caliber, one strip was forged from the bell of 3-4 kg. Having prepared the required number of strips, the blacksmith began to manufacture individual sections. A pipe with an overlap weld was made from the first strip on a special iron mandrel, then. a second strip was welded onto this pipe, the edges of which were also overlapped. The longitudinal welding seam of the second strip was located on the opposite side of the seam of the first pipe, that is, the second strip overlapped the seam of the first. Another strip was welded onto the second pipe. Its ends were also overlap welded. The length of the pipe was made depending on the size of the iron strips and the technical capabilities of welding. It ranged from 200 to 230 mm. The ends of the pipes were forged into a "mustache", that is, they were made with conical sections, on one side - with an internal cut, and on the other - with an external one. Having made the appropriate number of pipes (in our case, 7), they began to be welded. Welding with an oblique seam was also carried out with an overlap on the mandrel. Having welded a straight barrel, it was finally finished on the outside with trowels and crimps, and the caliber was ground on the inside. A bottom was welded to the end of the barrel from the breech, representing a conical washer 30-40 mm thick. For the ignition hole, a small nest was first cut down with a chisel to a depth of up to half the wall thickness, and then a hole with a diameter of 4-6 mm was punched with a punch. After that, a front sight was placed on the barrel and an aiming bar was attached - the iron barrel of the squeak was ready, it remained to attach it to the wooden stock.
The microstructure of the welding seam of iron-forged tweeters showed that the seams are very thin and clean. This speaks of the high skill of blacksmiths. To weld such large surfaces of iron, it was necessary to master the temperature regime of welding and skillfully use fluxes. Russian blacksmiths had extensive experience and traditions in the technology of forge welding of iron and steel.
Forced to lay out, very interesting documents pop up.
Another interesting study.
There was a big dispute about the lack of iron in Russia. Digging through the sources, I found two opinions.
On the one hand, a large domestic production, on the other hand, the import of iron and products from it. I tend to think that there was enough iron for internal needs, but for a large trade in iron goods it was possible to buy cheap (weapons are also for review and tearing!). A real shortage sometimes arose with a big defeat in wars and the disorganization of all production.
According to other sources in Smolensk, the domnitsa was 2.5 meters in diameter compared to the usual 0.5 -1 meter (inner space), the output was corresponding ...
I’ll also rummage through the methods of extracting iron ore, I’m sooo interested. Given the type of lack of iron and, accordingly, its cost, why did the peasants not develop the extraction of swamp ore in winter? Although it is called a swamp, many swamps have dried up and can be obtained without problems. To make a large roof over the dugout, inside there are two furnaces, one for roasting, the other for smelting chick. And the main space of the dugout to dig into the depths, I mine ore in warmth and comfort! There are no problems with coal, although you can burn it right there in a separate furnace, well, at least set up a bath! It looks strange, maybe just a constant squabble interfered with normal stable production?
Cities medieval Europe markedly different from the ancient ones. The former, as a rule, did not have an agricultural agglomeration, being the places of vital activity of the burghers. The feudal lords had their own estates-castles; in cities, their opportunities were limited by local self-government. Most of the ancient Russian cities were under the rule of princes, their posadniks and local landowners, who were willingly engaged in economic and financial activities here; the only exceptions were Novgorod and Pskov, starting from the middle of the 12th century. Therefore, along with free masters, there were dependents who worked on the estates of princes and boyars. The feudal craft was more corporate, better supplied with raw materials and finances; foreign masters often took part in it. Goods produced by the "feudal sector" were sometimes affixed with the Rurik's own marks. development old Russian craft a general medieval trend of deepening specialization and a transition to a market orientation by the 12th century is inherent.
Earlier than others, the carpentry craft stood out, because. most of the buildings in towns, villages and villages were wooden; among his tools are mentioned: an ax, a chisel, a drill, an adze, and rarely a saw. For the construction of bridges, churches, fortifications, etc., artels were created. This form was closer to the patrimonial craft than to the free one. The head of the construction artel in Kyiv at the end of the eleventh century took part in the work on the "Pravda" of the Yaroslavichs. The builder of fortress wooden fortifications was called - gorodnik. The city wall was made from separate log cabins ( gorodnitsy), tightly attached to each other and covered to the top with earth. Above the log cabins from the outside were arranged zaborola who protected the soldiers from arrows. City service has been compulsory since at least the thirteenth century. Meaning bridgeman reflected in the charter of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda: his assistant was called lad, and for work he, like gorodnik received payment from the treasury nogatah And kunah. Bridges on important roads were at the disposal Mytnikov who collected duties on them ( washed).
Among the most ancient are: mining, weaving, cooperage, leather and linen craft. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths were of particular importance. Craftsmen made: plows, sickles, axes, swords, arrows, shields, chain mail, locks, keys, bracelets and rings of gold and silver.
Posadas were the places of concentration of free craft. By the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII centuries. Kyiv Hem reaches largest sizes and highest development. In the XII century. there is an increase in the size of settlements in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Galich, Suzdal, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir and Novgorod, as well as a noticeable increase in handicraft production. About 50 crafts were presented in Kyiv.
Urban artisans settled in groups according to their occupation and occupied the streets or quarters of the city, for example, Goncharsky end or Shitnaya street in Novgorod, the Kozhemyaki quarter in Kyiv. Excavations of leather workshops in Novgorod testify that handicraft production grew along with the growth of cities and towns: in the layers from the middle of the 11th to the end of the 12th century, the number of finds of leather shoes increased by 5 times.
In the conditions of the prevailing natural economy of Russia in the 9th-12th centuries. a significant role was played by home production, rural crafts, product processing Agriculture and crafts. They were often practiced in winter time free from agricultural problems. In a number of rural communities there were industrial metallurgical facilities - raw furnaces. They were located on the outskirts of settlements or outside them, near sources of raw materials and fuel that were used by local blacksmiths. Domniki owned a specific technology of the cheese-making process, they knew the simplest methods for producing steel. Community blacksmiths produced jewelry made of copper, bronze and low-grade silver, which were in demand among the population. The use of the potter's wheel in the X century. led to the displacement of molded circular dishes. Pottery was fired in home ovens and in special pottery kilns.
Fabrics were made from linen, wool and hemp. They knew complex pattern weaving and embroidery. Men's and women's clothing was made from linen and hemp. In addition to making clothes, linen and hemp yarn were necessary for technical needs - ropes and ropes. Military tents and sails were made from canvas and canvas. Yarn and cloth, which were mainly used in winter and outerwear, were made from wool. For making hats and winter shoes felt was used.
Initially, most of the canvas and linen was homespun, and woolen cloth was home felted; they were produced by rural and urban artisans and in monasteries. The women spun and wove, while the men felted cloth and twisted rope. At the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. in Novgorod, a horizontal loom appears, replacing the more ancient - vertical; which allows you to significantly increase the productivity of the weaving craft, after which the production of simpler and cheaper plain weave fabric increases.
The yarn was spun with spindles. Women liked to wear jewelry: silver or bronze temporal rings suspended from the kokoshnik, monista, bracelets, beads.
Pistons, worms, boots, etc. were sewn from soft leather without hard soles; bast shoes were woven from the bast of linden, birch and other tree species.
Initially, weapons were produced by blacksmiths, and then a specialization arose: shield-makers, archers, etc. Once borrowed samples began to be independently produced by the local Baltic and Russian population. The armament of the squad was mixed: through the Vikings, Carolingian swords and scramasaxes, northern tips of sword scabbards, some forms of foreign spears, axes, arrows, round shields, and samples of horse equipment fell into Russia. From the east - came: saber, chain mail, conical helmet, nomadic peak, eastern coinage; there were also original products of local craftsmen.
At the end of the X century. there is a complex production of enamels. B XII century. in Kyiv, Novgorod and Vladimir, icon-painting workshops appeared, the activities of which continued the Byzantine traditions.
The meaning of the name diamond is sonan
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