Medieval castles in Europe. Secrets that hide medieval castles

Not every castle is actually a castle. Today, the word "castle" we call almost any significant building of the Middle Ages, whether it be a palace, a large estate or a fortress - in general, the dwelling of a feudal lord of medieval Europe. This everyday use of the word "castle" is at odds with its original meaning, because the castle is primarily a fortification. Inside the castle territory there could be buildings for various purposes: residential, religious, and cultural. But still, first of all, the main function of the castle is defensive. From this point of view, for example, the famous romantic palace of Ludwig II - Neuschwanstein is not a castle.

location, and not the structural features of the castle - the key to its defensive power. Of course, the layout of the fortification is important for the defense of the castle, but what really makes it impregnable is not the thickness of the walls and the location of the loopholes, but the correctly chosen construction site. A steep and high hill, which is almost impossible to get close to, a sheer cliff, a winding road to the castle, which is perfectly shot from the fortress, determine the outcome of the battle to a much greater extent than any other equipment.

Gates- the most vulnerable place in the castle. Of course, the fortress should have had a central entrance (in peaceful moments, it happens that you want to enter beautifully and solemnly, the castle is not always defended). When capturing, it is always easier to break into the entrance that already exists than to create a new one by destroying massive walls. Therefore, the gates were designed in a special way - they had to be wide enough for carts and narrow enough for the enemy army. Cinematography often sins by depicting a castle entrance with large wooden gates locked: such would be extremely impractical in defense.

The interior walls of the castle were colored. The interiors of medieval castles are often depicted in gray-brown tones, without any cladding, just like the inside of bare cold stone walls. But the inhabitants of medieval palaces loved bright colors and generously decorated the interior of their living quarters. The inhabitants of the castles were rich and, of course, wanted to live in luxury. Our ideas are connected with the fact that in most cases the paint has not stood the test of time.

Big windows- very rare for a medieval castle. As a rule, they were absent altogether, giving way to multiple small window "slots" in the castle walls. In addition to the defensive purpose, the narrow window openings protected the privacy of the inhabitants of the castle. If you come across a castle building with luxurious panoramic windows, most likely they appeared at a later time, as, for example, in the castle of Roctaiade in southern France.

Secret passages, secret doors and dungeons. Walking through the castle, be aware that somewhere under you lie corridors hidden from the eyes of the layman (perhaps someone wanders through them today?). Poterns - underground corridors between the buildings of the fortress - made it possible to quietly move around the fortress or leave it. But the trouble is if a traitor opens a secret door to the enemy, as happened during the siege of Corfe Castle in 1645.

Assault on the castle was not such a fleeting and easy process as it is portrayed in the movies. A massive attack was a rather extreme decision in an attempt to capture the castle, putting the main military force at unreasonable risk. Castle sieges were carefully thought out and implemented for a long time. The most important thing was the ratio of the trebuchet, the throwing machine, to the thickness of the walls. It took a trebuchet from several days to several weeks to make a breach in the castle wall, especially since a simple hole in the wall did not guarantee the capture of the fortress. For example, the siege of Harlech Castle by the future King Henry V lasted about a year, and the castle fell only because the city ran out of provisions. So the rapid attacks of medieval castles are an element of cinematic fantasies, and not historical realities.

Hunger- The most powerful weapon when taking the castle. Most castles had tanks that collected rainwater, or wells. The chances of the castle inhabitants to survive during the siege depended on the water and food supplies: the option to “sit out” was the least risky for both sides.

For the defense of the castle it didn't take as many people as it seems. Castles were built in such a way as to allow those inside to calmly fight off the enemy, managing with small forces. Compare: the garrison of Harlech Castle, which held out for almost a whole year, consisted of 36 people, while the castle was surrounded by an army numbering hundreds or even thousands of soldiers. In addition, an extra person on the territory of the castle during the siege is an extra mouth, and as we remember, the issue of provisions could be decisive.

At the mention of castles of the Middle Ages, picturesque walls entwined with ivy, beautiful ladies in high towers and noble knights in shining armor come to mind. But it was not these lofty images that motivated the feudal lords to build impregnable walls with loopholes, but harsh reality.

During the Middle Ages, Europe experienced many changes. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the processes of migration of peoples began, new kingdoms and states appeared. All this was accompanied by constant conflicts and strife.

feudal nobleman, who had a knighthood, to protect himself from enemies, and even the closest neighbors could become them, was forced to strengthen his home as much as possible and build a castle.

Wikipedia offers to distinguish between a castle and a fortress. Fortress - walled area land with houses and other buildings. The castle is smaller. This is a single structure, which includes walls, towers, bridges and other structures.

The castle was the private fortress of a noble lord and his family. In addition to the direct function of protection, it was an indicator of power and wealth. But not all knights could afford it. The owner could be a whole knightly order - a community of warriors.

How and from what materials were medieval castles built?

Construction of a real castle was a laborious and costly process. All work was carried out by hand and sometimes lasted for decades.

Before construction began, a suitable site had to be selected. The most impregnable castles were erected on the cliffs of steep cliffs. However, more often they chose a hill with an open view and a river nearby. The water artery was necessary to fill the ditches, and was also used as a way to transport goods.

A deep ditch was dug on the ground and a mound was formed. Then using scaffolding erected walls.

The challenge was building a well.. I had to dig deep down or gouge the rock.

The choice of material for construction depended on many factors. Of decisive importance were:

• terrain;
• human resources;
• budget.

If there was a quarry nearby, the structure was built of stone, otherwise wood, sand, limestone or bricks were used. For the outside, we used facing materials, for example, processed stone. The elements of the walls were connected with lime mortar.

Although glass was known in those days, it was not used in castles. Narrow windows were covered with mica, leather or parchment. Inside the living quarters of the owners of the castle, the walls were often covered with frescoes and hung with tapestries. In the rest of the rooms, they limited themselves to a layer of lime or left untouched masonry.

What elements did castles consist of?

Precise lock configuration depended on local traditions, landscape, wealth of the owner. Over time, new engineering solutions appeared. Previously built structures were often completed and rebuilt. Among all Medieval fortifications, several traditional elements can be distinguished.

Moat, bridge and gate

The castle was surrounded by a moat. If there was a river nearby, it was flooded. Wolf pits were arranged at the bottom - depressions with stakes or sharp rods.

It was possible to get inside through the moat only with the help of a bridge. Huge logs served as supports. Part of the bridge rose and closed the passage inside. The mechanism of the drawbridge was designed in such a way that 2 guards could handle it. In some castles, the bridge had a swing mechanism.

The gate was double-leaf and closed transverse beam that slides into the wall. Although they were knocked together from several layers of durable boards and upholstered with iron, the gate remained the most vulnerable part of the structure. They were protected by a gate tower with a guard room. The entrance to the castle turned into a long narrow passage with holes in the ceiling and walls. If the enemy was inside, a stream of boiling water or resin poured on him.

Apart from wooden gate, a grate was often present, which was closed with a winch and ropes. In an emergency, the ropes were cut off, the barrier fell sharply.

An additional element of the protection of the gate was the barbican - the walls coming from the gate. Opponents had to squeeze in into the passage between them under a hail of arrows.

Walls and towers

The height of the walls of the medieval fortification reached 25 meters. They had a powerful base and withstood the blows of battering rams. The deep foundation was designed to protect against undermining. The thickness of the walls to the top decreased, they became sloping. At the top, behind the battlements, was a platform. Being on it, the defenders fired at the enemies through slot-like holes, threw down stones or poured resin.

Double walls were often built . Overcoming the first hurdle, opponents fell into a narrow space in front of the second wall, where they became easy prey for archers.

At the corners of the perimeter there were watchtowers that protruded forward in relation to the wall. Inside, they were divided into floors, each of which was a separate room. In large castles, the towers had a vertical partition for strengthening.

All the stairs in the towers were spiral and very steep. If the enemy penetrated the inner territory, the defender had an advantage and could throw the aggressor down. Initially, the towers had a rectangular shape. But this interfered with the review during the defense. Replaced by round buildings.

Behind the main gate was a narrow courtyard, which was well shot through.

The rest of the interior space the castle was occupied by buildings. Among them:

In large knightly castles, there was a garden inside, and sometimes a whole garden.

The central and most fortified structure of any castle is the donjon tower. In the lower part there was a storehouse with food supplies and an arsenal with weapons and equipment. Above was the guard room, the kitchen. The upper part was occupied by the dwelling of the owner and his family. A throwing weapon or catapult was installed on the roof. The outer walls of the donjon had small ledges. There were restrooms. Holes opened outward, waste fell down. From the donjon, underground passages could lead to a shelter or neighboring buildings.

Mandatory elements of a castle in the Middle Ages was a church or chapel. It could be located in the central tower or be a separate building.

The castle could not do without a well. In the absence of a source of water, the inhabitants would not have held out for several days during the siege. The well was protected by a separate building.

Living conditions in the castle

The castle provided the need for security. However, other benefits of its inhabitants often had to be neglected.

Little light penetrated inside the premises, since the windows were replaced by narrow loopholes, which were covered with dense materials. Living rooms were heated with fireplaces, but this did not save them from dank dampness and cold. In the harsh winter, the walls froze through through. Using the latrines during the cold season was especially uncomfortable.

Residents often had to neglect hygiene. Most of the water from the well went to maintain life functions and care for animals.

Over time, the structure of castles became more complex, new elements appeared. However, the development of gunpowder guns deprived the castles of the main advantage - impregnability. They were replaced by fortresses with more complex engineering solutions.

Gradually, the castles of the Middle Ages, many of which have survived to this day, turned into architectural monuments and remind of the era of chivalry.

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Functions

The main functions of the feudal castle with suburbs were:

• military (center of military operations, means of military control over the district),
• administrative and political (administrative center of the district, the place where political life country),
• cultural and economic (handicraft and trade center of the district, a place of the highest elite and folk culture).

Defining characteristics

There is a widespread notion that castles only existed in Europe, where they originated, and in the Middle East, where they were moved by the Crusaders. Contrary to this view, similar structures appear in 16th and 17th century Japan, where they develop without direct contact and influence from Europe and have a completely different history of development, are built differently from European castles and are designed to withstand attacks of a completely different nature.

Elements

Hill

A mound of earth, often mixed with gravel, peat, limestone, or brushwood. The height of the embankment in most cases did not exceed 5 meters, although sometimes it reached 10 meters or more. The surface was often covered with clay or wooden decking. The hill was round or nearly square at the base, and the diameter of the hill was at least twice its height.

At the top, a wooden, and later a stone, defensive tower was erected, surrounded by a palisade. Around the hill there was a moat filled with water or dry, from the earth of which a mound was formed. Access to the tower was through a swinging wooden bridge and a staircase built on the hillside.

Courtyard

A large courtyard with an area (with rare exceptions) of no more than 2 hectares, surrounding or adjacent to the hill, as well as various residential and outbuildings - the dwellings of the owner of the castle and his soldiers, stables, a forge, warehouses, a kitchen, etc. - inside it. From the outside, the court was protected by a wooden palisade, then by a moat, which was filled from the nearest body of water, and by an earthen rampart. The space inside the courtyard itself could be divided into several parts, or several adjoining courtyards were built near the hill.

donjon

The castles themselves appeared in the Middle Ages and were the dwellings of the noble feudal lords. Due to feudal fragmentation and, as a result, frequent internecine wars, the dwelling of the feudal lord had to perform a defensive task. Castles were usually built on high ground, islands, rock ledges, and other hard-to-reach places.

With the end of the Middle Ages, castles began to lose their original - defensive - task, which has now given way to a residential one. With the development of artillery, the defensive task of castles disappeared completely; features of castle architecture were preserved only as decorative elements (French castle Pierrefonds, late XIV century).

A regular layout with a pronounced symmetry prevailed, the main building acquired a palace character (Madrid Castle in Paris, XV-XVI centuries) or Nesvizh Castle in Belarus (XVI century). In the XVI century, castle architecture in Western Europe was finally replaced by palace architecture. The defensive task was preserved for the longest time by the castles of Georgia, which were actively built until the 18th century.

There were castles that belonged not to one feudal lord, but to a knightly order. Such castles were larger, as an example, the Königsberg Castle.

Castles in Russia

The main part of the medieval castle was the central tower - donjon, which served as a citadel. In addition to its defensive functions, the donjon was the direct dwelling of the feudal lord. Also in the main tower there were often living rooms of other inhabitants of the castle, a well, utility rooms (food warehouses, etc.). Often in the donjon there was a large front hall for receptions. Donjon elements can be found in the castle architecture of Western and Central Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, etc.

Wasserschloss in Schwerin

Usually the castle had a small courtyard, which was surrounded by massive battlements with towers and well-fortified gates. This was followed by the outer courtyard, which included outbuildings, as well as the castle garden and vegetable garden. The whole castle was surrounded by a second row of walls and a moat, across which a drawbridge was thrown. If the terrain allowed, then the moat was filled with water and the castle turned into a castle on the water.

The centers of defense of the walls of the castle were the towers protruding beyond the plane of the walls, which made it possible to organize flanking shelling of those going to attack. In Russian fortification, sections of the walls between the towers were called paraslas. In this regard, the castles were in terms of a polygon, the walls of which followed the terrain. Numerous examples of such structures have survived to this day in the UK, Germany, France, Ukraine and Belarus (for example, Mir Castle in Belarus or Lutsk Castle in Ukraine).

Over time, the structure of castles became more complex; the territory of the castles already included barracks, a court, a church, a prison and other structures (Cousy Castle in France, XIII century; Wartburg Castle in Germany, XI century; Harleck Castle in Great Britain, XIII century).

Rosenberg Castle in Kronach. moat and ventilation towers of the auditory gallery

With the beginning of the mass use of gunpowder, the decline of the era of castle building begins. So, the besiegers began to carry out, if the soil allowed it, sapper work - quietly dig saps, which made it possible to bring large explosive charges under the walls (storming the Kazan Kremlin in the 16th century). As a measure of struggle, the besieged dug an underground gallery in advance at a noticeable distance from the walls, from which they listened in order to detect tunnels and destroy them in a timely manner.

However, the development of artillery and the increase in its destructive effect eventually forced the abandonment of the use of castles as the basis of defensive strategy and tactics. The time has come for fortresses - complex engineering structures with a developed system of bastions, ravelins, etc.; the art of building fortresses - fortification - developed. The recognized fortification authority of this era was Chief Engineer Louis XIV Marshal of France Sebastien de Vauban (1633-1707).

Such fortresses, sometimes developed over time from castles, were also used during World War II to pin down enemy forces and delay his advance (see: Brest Fortress).

Building

The construction of the castle began with the choice of location and building materials. A wooden castle was cheaper and easier to build than a stone castle. The cost of building most castles has not survived to this day; most surviving documents on the topic are from royal palaces. A castle made of wood with a motte and a bailey could have been built by unskilled labor - peasants dependent on the feudal lord who already had the skills necessary to build a wooden castle (they knew how to cut wood, dig and work with wood). Forced to work for the feudal lord, the workers most likely were not paid anything, so building a castle out of wood was cheap. According to experts, it took 50 workers and 40 days to build a medium-sized hill - 5 meters high and 15 meters wide. The famous architect en: James of Saint George, responsible for the construction of the Beaumaris castle, described the costs associated with the construction of the castle:

If you think where so much money can be spent in a week, we report that we needed and will need in the future 400 masons, as well as 2000 less experienced women, 100 carts, 60 wagons and 30 boats for the supply of stone; 200 workers at the quarry; 30 blacksmiths and carpenters to lay cross beams and floors, and to complete another necessary work. That's not including the garrison... and the purchase of materials. required a large number of... Payments to the workers are still delayed, and we have great difficulty keeping the workers because they simply have nowhere to live.

A study was conducted examining the costs associated with the construction of the castle of Lange, built in 992 in France. The stone tower is 16 meters high, 17.5 meters wide and 10 meters long with walls averaging 1.5 meters. The walls contain 1200 square meters of stone and have a surface of 1600 square meters. It was estimated that the tower took 83,000 man-days to build, most of which required unskilled labor.

Stone castles were not only expensive to build, but also to keep in good condition because they contained a large amount of timber, which was often unseasoned and in need of constant care.

Medieval machines and inventions proved indispensable during construction; antique timber frame construction methods have been improved. The search for stone for construction was one of the main problems; often the solution was a quarry near the castle.

Due to the scarcity of stone, alternative materials were used, such as brick, which was also used for aesthetic reasons, as it was in vogue. Therefore, even despite the sufficient amount of stone, some builders chose brick as the main material for building the castle.

The material for construction depended on the area: in Denmark there are few quarries, so most of its castles are made of wood or brick, in Spain most castles are made of stone, while in Eastern Europe castles were usually built using wood.

Castles today

Nowadays, castles perform a decorative function. Some of them are turned into restaurants, others become museums. Some are being restored and sold or rented.

For some reason, at the mention of the word "fairy tale", medieval castles and fortresses first of all come to mind. Maybe because they were built in those ancient times, when wizards freely roamed the fields and meadows, and fire-breathing dragons flew over the mountain peaks.

Be that as it may, even now, looking at the castles and fortresses that have been preserved in some places, one involuntarily imagines princesses sleeping in them and evil fairies conjuring over magic potions. Let's look at the once luxurious housing of the powers that be.

(German: Schloß Neuschwanstein, literally “New Swan Stone”) is located in Germany, near the town of Füssen (German: Fussen). The castle was founded in 1869 by King Ludwig II of Bavaria. The construction was completed in 1891, 5 years after the unexpected death of the king. The castle is magnificent and attracts curious tourists from all over the world with its beauty of architectural forms.

This is the "dream palace" of the young king, who was never able to see her incarnation in her full glory. Ludwig II of Bavaria, founder of the castle, ascended the throne too young. And being a dreamy nature, imagining himself as the fairy-tale character Lohengrin, he decided to build his own castle in order to hide in it from the harsh reality of the defeat of Bavaria in alliance with Austria in 1866 in the war with Prussia.

Away from state concerns, the young king demanded too much from the army of architects, artists and artisans. Sometimes he set completely unrealistic deadlines, the observance of which required round-the-clock work of masons and carpenters. During the construction, Ludwig II went deeper and deeper into his fictional world, for which he was later recognized as crazy. The architectural design of the castle was constantly changing. So the rooms for guests were excluded and a small grotto was added. The small audience hall was transformed into the majestic Throne Room.

A century and a half ago, Ludwig II of Bavaria tried to hide from people behind the walls of a medieval castle - today they come by the millions to admire his fabulous refuge.

(German: Burg Hohenzollern) - an old castle-fortress in Baden-Württemberg, 50 km south of Stuttgart. The castle was built at an altitude of 855 m above sea level on the top of Mount Hohenzollern. Only the third castle has survived to this day. The medieval castle fortress was first built in the 11th century and completely destroyed after the capture, at the end of a grueling siege by the troops of the cities of Swabia in 1423.

A new fortress was built on its ruins in 1454-1461, which served as a refuge for the House of Hohenzollern throughout the Thirty Years' War. Due to the complete loss of the fortress of strategic importance, by the end of the 18th century, the castle was noticeably dilapidated, and some parts of the building were finally dismantled.

The modern version of the castle was erected in 1850-1867 on the personal instructions of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who decided to completely restore the family castle of the Prussian royal house. The construction of the castle was led by the famous Berlin architect Friedrich August Stüler. He managed to combine new, large-scale castle buildings in the neo-Gothic style and the few surviving buildings of the former ruined castles.

(Karlštejn), built by decree of the Czech king and emperor Charles IV (named after him) on a high limestone rock above the Berounka River, as a summer residence and a place of storage of sacred relics of the royal family. The first stone in the foundation of Karlštejn Castle was laid by Archbishop Arnošt, close to the Emperor, in 1348, and in 1357 the construction of the castle was completed. Two years before the end of construction, Charles IV settled in the castle.

The stepped architecture of Karlštejn Castle, which ends with a tower with the Grand Cross Chapel, is quite common in the Czech Republic. The ensemble includes the castle itself, the Church of the Virgin Mary, the Catherine Chapel, the Big Tower, the Mariana and Well Towers.

The majestic Student Tower and the imperial palace, which housed the king's quarters, take tourists back to the Middle Ages, when a powerful monarch ruled the Czech Republic.

Royal palace and fortress in the Spanish city of Segovia, in the province of Castile and Leon. The fortress is built on a high rock, above the confluence of the Eresma and Clamores rivers. Such a good location made it almost impregnable. Now it is one of the most recognizable and beautiful palaces in Spain. Originally built as a fortress, the Alcazar was once a royal palace, a prison, and an artillery academy.

The Alcazar, which was a small wooden fortress in the 12th century, was later rebuilt into a stone castle and became the most impregnable defensive structure. This palace became famous for great historically significant events: the coronation of Isabella the Catholic, her first marriage to King Ferdinand of Aragon, the wedding of Anna of Austria with Philip II.

(Castelul Peleş) was built by King Carol I of Romania near the city of Sinai in the Romanian Carpathians. The king was so fascinated by the local beauty that he bought up the surrounding land and built a castle for hunting and summer recreation. The name of the castle was given by a small mountain river flowing nearby.

In 1873, the construction of a grandiose building began, under the leadership of the architect Johann Schulz. Along with the castle, other buildings necessary for a comfortable life were built: royal stables, guard houses, a hunting house and a power station.

Thanks to the power plant, Peles became the first electrified castle in the world. The castle officially opened in 1883. At the same time, central heating and an elevator were installed in it. The construction was completed in 1914.

It is a symbol of the small city-state of San Marino on the territory of modern Italy. The beginning of the construction of the fortress is considered to be the 10th century AD. Guaita is the first of three San Marino fortresses built on the peaks of Mount Titano.

The construction consists of two rings of fortifications, the inner one has retained all the signs of the forts of the feudal era. Main entrance gate were located at a height of several meters, and it was possible to pass through them only by a drawbridge, now destroyed. The fortress was restored many times in the 15th-17th centuries.

Well, so we looked at some medieval castles and fortresses in Europe, of course, not all of them. Next time we will admire the fortresses on the tops of impregnable rocks. There are so many exciting discoveries ahead!

We have indicated before how the churches adapted themselves to the needs of defense, and also what obstacles were created on bridges and roads against the advance of the enemy army; According to the most important monument of military architecture are city fortifications and castles.

The fortifications of the city consist of a wall and a citadel, or castle, which at the same time serves as a defense against the enemy and as a means to keep the population in obedience.

The fence of the city is reduced to curtains, towers and gates, the location of which depends on the terrain and the details of which we have already described. Let's proceed to the review of the lock device. The castle was almost always located closer to the city wall: in this way, the lord better protected himself from rebellion. Sometimes they chose a place even outside the city fortifications - such was the location of the Louvre near Paris.

Just as the fortifications of the city consist of a fence and a castle, so the castle, in turn, is divided into a fortified courtyard and the main tower (donjon), which served as the last stronghold for the defenders when the enemy had already captured the rest of the fortress.

In the beginning, living quarters played no role in defense. They were grouped at the foot of the main tower, scattered in the fence of the courtyard, like pavilions in the fence of a villa.

Choisy's opinion that at first the feudal lord's dwelling was outside the donjon tower, at its foot, is wrong. In the early Middle Ages, in particular in the 10th and 11th centuries, the donjon combined the functions of defense and housing for the feudal lord, while the donjon housed outbuildings. See Michel, Histore de l "art, vol. 1, p. 483.

Choisy refers the castle of Loches to the 11th century, while this castle has an exact date: it was built by Count Fulque Nerra in 995 and is considered the earliest surviving castle (stone) in France. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

In the castles of the 11th century, like Lanzhe, Beaugency, Loches, the entire defense force was concentrated in the main tower, not to mention some secondary structures.

Only by the XII century. extensions are combined with the main tower to form a defensive ensemble. Since then, all structures are located around the courtyard or at the entrances to the courtyard, opposing their walls to the attack. New plan finds for the first time application in the Palestinian constructions of the crusaders; here we see a courtyard surrounded by fortified buildings with the main tower - a donjon. The same plan was used in the castles of Krak, Mergeb, Tortoz, Ajlun and others, built during the 70 years of Frankish rule in Palestine and representing the most important buildings of the military architecture of the Middle Ages.

Also in the fortresses of Syria, the Franks for the first time used the device of defensive structures, in which the main fortress wall was surrounded by a lower line of fortifications, representing the second fence.

In France, these various improvements appear only in the last years of the XII century. in the castles of Richard the Lionheart, especially in the fortress of Andeli.

At the end of the XII century. in the West, the formation of military architecture is coming to an end. Its most daring manifestations date back to the first quarter of the 13th century; these are the castles of Coucy and Chateau Thierry, erected by major vassals during the period of civil strife, in the infancy of St. Louis.

From the beginning of the XIV century, the era of disasters for France, there are very few monuments of military architecture, as well as religious architecture.

The last castles that can be compared with castles of the 12th and 13th centuries are those that protect the royal power under Charles V (Vincennes, Bastille), and those that the feudal lords oppose to it under Charles VI (Pierrefonds, Ferte Milon, Villers Coterray).

On fig. 370 and 371 are shown in in general terms the castles of the two main eras of feudal claims: Cusi (Fig. 370) - the period of infancy of St. Louis, Pierrefonds (Fig. 371) - the reign of Charles VI.

Consider the main parts of the building.

Main tower (donjon). - The main tower, which sometimes constitutes a whole castle by itself, is arranged in all its parts in such a way that it can be defended independently of the rest of the fortifications. So, in the Louvre and in Coucy, the main tower is isolated from the rest of the fortress by a moat dug in the courtyard itself; the main tower in Kusi was supplied with a special supply of provisions, had its own well, its own bakery. Communication with the castle buildings was maintained by means of removable gangways.

In the XI and XII centuries. the main tower was often located in the center of a fortified fence, on top of a hillock; in the thirteenth century she is deprived of this central position and placed closer to the wall so that she can be helped from outside.

The idea of ​​changing the position of the donjon tower in the castle of the XII and XIII centuries. due to military-defense considerations, it is not substantiated by Choisy. The central position of the donjon tower in the castle, or rather inside the castle wall, in the 11th-12th centuries, as well as the change in this position in the 13th century, can be explained not only by defense considerations, but also by architectural, artistic order. In such. the position of the donjon in the XI and XII centuries. one can see the presence of compositional features of the monuments of Romanesque art (architecture, painting, etc.), where we often see the coincidence of semantic and compositional centers with geometric ones. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

Square towers are found in all eras, and from the XI and XII centuries. there are no others left (Loches, Falaise, Chambois, Dover, Rochester). The round tower appears in the 13th century. Since that time, round and square towers have been built on a par, with or without corner turrets.

It is believed that round donjons begin to appear only in the 13th century. and that from the 11th and 12th centuries. only square towers survived - wrong. From the 11th and 12th centuries. kept donjons both square and oblong shape - rectangular. Usually, vertically arranged flat and wide buttresses (or blades) went along the outer walls; a square turret with a staircase adjoined the walls. In the earlier towers, the stairs were attached, leading directly to the second floor, from where it was already possible to get through the internal stairs to the upper and lower floors. In case of danger, the ladders were removed.

By the XI-XII centuries. French castles include: Falaise, Arc, Beaugency, Brou, Salon, La Roche Crozet, Cross, Domfront, Montbaron, Saint Susan, Moret. The later ones (XII century) include: Att Castle in Belgium (1150) and French castles: Chambois, Chauvigny, Conflans, Saint-Emillion, Montbrun (c. 1180), Montcontour, Montelimar and others.

At the end of the XI century. there is a polygonal tower: by 1097, the hexagonal donjon of the Gizor castle (Héré department) belongs; it is possible that this tower was rebuilt. This also includes the polygonal donjon of the 12th century. v. Carentane (now in ruins), as well as a slightly newer donjon - in Chatillon. The donjon of the Saint Sauveur castle has the shape of an ellipse. Round donjon towers have castles of the 12th century. Chateaudin and Laval. By the middle of the XII century. includes the donjon of the castle in Etampes (the so-called Ginette tower), which is a group of four round, as if fused towers; The donjon of Houdan Castle, built between 1105 and 1137, is a cylinder with four round turrets adjoining it. Chateau Provins has an octagonal keep with four round turrets adjoining it. Some castles have two donjons (Nior, Blank, Verno). Of the donjons of the second half of the 12th century, which retained a rectangular shape, we note Niort, Chauvigny, Chatelier, Chateaumur. Finally, in the XII century. appear in the enclosure of the keep of the turret. See Michel, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 484; Enlart, Manuel d "archeologie francaisi, vol. II. Architecture monastique, civile, militaire et navale, 1903, p. 215 ff.; Viollet le Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne de l" architecture francaise, 1875. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

The main round tower - Kusi; square shape - Vincennes and Pierrefonds. The main towers at Etampes and Andely have a scalloped shape (Fig. 361, K).

In the XIII century. the main tower serves exclusively as a shelter (Kusi), in the XIV century. it is adapted for habitation (Pierrefonds).

The evolution of the purpose of individual structures of the castle went from the combination in the donjon of the functions of housing, defense and household (more precisely, the functions of storage, storerooms) - in the period of Romanesque architecture, to the differentiation of these functions - in the Gothic era. Later, towards the end of the Gothic-beginning of the Renaissance (from the end of the 14th century), due to a shift in all areas of culture, in particular in connection with the advent of artillery, a new redistribution of functions takes place. The donjon and other fundamental buildings of the castle are given over to housing, that is, the castle begins to turn into a palace, and the defense is transferred to the approaches to the castle - walls, ditches and bastions. Finally, in the era of absolutism, the castle is completely (or with very few exceptions) deprived of defensive functions, ceases to be a fortress and finally turns into a palace or a manor house; along with this, the fortress gains its independence as a military-defense structure, which is part of a single system of offensive and defense of the noble and noble-bourgeois state. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

Rice. 372 shows a section of the main tower at Kusi. For defense, they serve: a ring-shaped fence around the tower, encircling a wide ditch and including a gallery for counter mines, at the top - stocks of projectiles for mounted firing, laid on the upper platform. The walls are not cut through with loopholes, like the walls of ordinary towers, and the halls, located inside the floors, are barely lit; this tower is not adapted either for permanent habitation or for defense with light weapons: it is a redoubt, where, obviously, small means of defense were neglected and everything was prepared for the last defensive effort.

Castle buildings. - The buildings located in the fence are the barracks for the garrison, a large gallery that serves as a place for court and meetings, a hall for festivities and gala dinners, a chapel and, finally, a prison.

The gallery, the "great hall", is the main room. The vaults make it ice-cold vaults, the thrust of which throughout is perceived only by vertical walls, would be fragile when digging with glanders; the large hall is covered only with a wooden roof (Kushi, Pierrefonds).

When the hall is two-story, then for the same reasons that we spoke about the towers, vaults are allowed only on the lower floor.

To make the expansion of the vaults the least dangerous, it is reduced by the introduction of intermediate abutments; these abutments never have supporting elements in the form of buttresses protruding outward, which could facilitate access for the enemy. If there are buttresses, they are placed from the side of the courtyard. From the outside, a blank wall serves as a support.

The chapel is located in the courtyard of the castle: this location reduces the inconvenience resulting from its vaults. In the castle of Coucy and in the palace in the ancient part of Paris (Palais de la Cite), the chapels were two-story, with one floor being on the same level as the living quarters.

Prisons are usually placed in cellars; in most cases, these are dark and unhealthy rooms.

With regard to the halls and wells for torture, only in a few cases can this purpose be established with accuracy: usually, torture rooms are mixed with kitchen buildings, and simple cesspools are mistaken for rooms for imprisoned.

In residential premises, as well as in fortifications, the architect strove primarily for independence. separate parts: as far as possible, each room has a separate staircase, which completely isolates it. This independence, combined with the well-known complexity of the plan, which is easy to confuse, served as a guarantee against plots and surprise attacks; all complex transitions were made intentionally.

Rice. 370.

Rice. 371.

Rice. 372.

The convenience of housing has long been sacrificed for defense. The living quarters were cramped, had no external windows, except for small openings that looked out into the courtyard, gloomy from the high walls.

Finally, in last years 14th century the need for comfort takes precedence over the precautions of defense: the lord's dwelling begins to be illuminated from the outside.

The lighting of the dwelling (castle) of the seigneur with windows pierced in the outer fortress wall is explained not only by the fact that the feudal lords' need for comfort received in the XIV century. superiority over the precautions of defense, and a change in the defense system - when earthen fortifications begin to be erected in front of the castle, etc., to which the main functions of defense are transferred when artillery is put into action. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

In the castle of Coucy, both large halls were redone under Louis d'Orleans: windows were made in them to the outside. The same lord who built the castle of Pierrefonds, gave the living rooms, located in the main tower, a convenient location.

The Louvre, built under Charles V by the architect Raymond du Temple, was one of the first castles - with a library and a monumental staircase.

The plan of the Château de Vincennes seems to be mainly for defensive purposes. Castles Chateaudun, Montargis - at the same time I am comfortable dwellings and fortresses. Such are the palace in the ancient part of Paris, built under Philip the Handsome, the palaces-residences of the Dukes of Burgundy in Dijon and Paris, and the palace of the Comtes de Poitiers.

Krak des Chevaliers Castle (French Crac des Chevaliers - "Castle of the Knights"). Syria

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEFENSE SYSTEM IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Let us return to the review of fortresses in the proper sense of the word. We have already considered them from the point of view of the defense system; we will try to establish precisely the origin of this system and the changes that it is going through as we approach the new time, when firearms also begin to take part in the attack.

Origin. - The most ancient fortresses, which sharply differ in their appearance from the monuments of the Byzantine Empire, are located in Normandy or in areas subject to its influence: Falaise, Le Pen, Donfront, Loches, Chauvigny, Dover, Rochester, Newcastle.

There are reports of the existence of wooden fortifications-castles in the territory of France and Germany in the 9th and 10th centuries, i.e., in the so-called Carolingian time, but we have no reason to consider them a product of the influence of Byzantium and talk about their similarity with the corresponding structures of Byzantium IX-X centuries, especially all. Choisy wants to establish three stages in the development of Western European fortifications, taking as a basis a very shaky and methodologically incorrect criterion for borrowing.

Linking the appearance of early castles in Western Europe with the influence of Byzantine culture, Choisy reflects the theory that existed in Western European science, which recognized the influence of Byzantine culture and art as the main or essential factor in the formation of Romanesque art. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

These castles are from the 11th and 12th centuries. consist of only one square tower (donjon), surrounded by walls. It is the embodiment in durable materials of those palisadeed blockhouses which Norman pirates erected as shelters and strongholds on the coasts where they made their pirate raids.

Although the Norman fortresses impress with their size, at the same time they testify that the military defense art was at that time in its infancy. Only towards the end of the XII century. in the fortresses built by Richard the Lionheart, skilful designs first appear.

Andely Castle creates an era in Western military architecture. It implements a skilfully designed plan of the tower without "dead corners"; in it we find the most early application the idea of ​​machicolation, which took another two centuries to become widespread.

The time of the construction of Andeli Castle coincides with the return of Western European chivalry from the Third Crusade, that is, with the era of the formation of defensive art in Syria.

Krak and Margat even earlier than Andeli Castle had fences with double lines of fortifications, methodically coordinated, walls with machicolations and an impeccable system of flank cover. The fence of the castle of the Counts of Ghent, built in 1180, as Dieulafoy noted, is reminiscent of Iranian art with its architectural details. Dieulafoy sees in these rapprochements proof of Eastern influences; and everything seems to confirm this continuity.

Choisy is a supporter of the theory of borrowings and influences, which, in the field of medieval culture and art, stood, in the person of its largest representatives, on orientalist positions: these researchers were looking for the sources of the emergence and development of medieval culture in the East. From the point of view of the conclusions of this theory, they are trying to resolve the issue of the origin and formation of the medieval castles of Dieulafoy, and after it Choisy. Both the first and the second completely bypass the theory of the origin of the medieval castle from late Roman turres or burgi, i.e. towers (see note 1), which had various shapes: square, round, elliptical, octagonal and complex - semicircular on the outside, but tetrahedral on the inside . Some of these towers, or rather, their foundations, were used in the construction of feudal castles, some were turned into church towers, some were preserved in ruins (see Otte, Geischen. Baukunst in Deutschland, Leipzig 1874, p. 16).

The theory of the origin of the medieval castle from burgi, in terms of a number of valuable facts and interesting considerations, nevertheless suffers from schematism and does not take into account the cultural interactions with which the development of a medieval castle is associated. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

We have already given a description of a fortified front with two lines of defense. It refers equally to the French fortifications of Andeli and Karkassoya, to the Syrian castles of Krak and Tortosa, and to the Byzantine fortifications of Constantinople, or, going back to antiquity, to the fortified places of Iran and Chaldea. All data suggests that. these building techniques - as ancient as Asiatic civilization itself - were carried over by the crusaders.

local options. - But different countries, inspired by the traditional principles of the East, managed to give military architecture its own special character: just as cult art has its schools and successively changing hearths, fortress architecture also has its centers.

In the 11th century, in the era of William the Conqueror, fortification was awakening, apparently, in Normandy. From there it is transferred to Touraine, Poitou and England.

In the 12th century, when the "holy land" was conquered by the crusaders, Palestine was the classical country of fortification. Here, in the most colossal fortresses that the Middle Ages have left us, the system, the principles of which were brought to France by Richard the Lionheart, apparently took shape.

Then, during the 13th century, the center moved to Ile de France, from where cult art was already spreading. Here the type of medieval castle finally takes shape, and here we find its fullest application; it was in central France that it was built in the 13th century. Kusi castle, at the end of the 14th century - Pierrefonds and Ferte Milon. The fortifications of Carcassonne and Aigues Mortes, built under the administration of the royal seneschals, belong to the same school.

Choisy establishes three stages, three stages in the development of a medieval castle: the first, as indicated, is the period of influence of Byzantium, the second is the period of spread throughout Europe of the type of castle that developed in Normandy, and finally, the third is the time of the influence of the fortifications of Syria and Palestine, even Iran; local options include the castles of Ile de France (XIII century), the type of which spreads throughout France in the XIII-XIV centuries. Thus, following Choisy, here we can talk about the fourth stage - the period of influence of Ile de France. On the continuity between the indicated structures of the XII-XIII centuries. and buildings of the 11th century. and earlier Choisy is silent, as this would contradict the theory he adopted.

The question of the origin of a medieval castle is one of the particulars of the problem of the formation of medieval architecture and should be resolved in the same plane as questions relating to the formation of other architectural types, in particular religious buildings - Western European basilicas. Mastering the ancient heritage and the heritage of various "new" peoples (in particular, the Normans) who conquered Europe, the new class - the feudal lords - adapted the remaining burgi to the needs of housing and to the tasks of defense and attack in a feudal war. Among the typological diversity of burgi or turres, the square tower begins to displace other forms, but at the same time it itself changes its shape: the type of rectangular tower with its own characteristics becomes predominant. In this essentially new type, medieval castles began to be built in the 9th-10th centuries; At first, these were predominantly wooden structures, then stone ones, which, during their development, could not but master a number of features of similar structures in other countries (cf. the change of the T-shaped basilica, the so-called early Christian, into a cruciform basilica of the Romanesque style). The successive connection (but not borrowing) of the medieval castle and the late Roman castella and burg is emphasized in the names of the castle: in Germany "Burg", in England - "Castle". approx. ON THE. Kozhin

Fortifications closest to the French type are found in the German countries: in Landeck, Trifels and Nuremberg. Flanking covers are more rare here; with this exception, the general system remains the same.

In England, the castle at first adhered to the form of a tower (donjon) of a Norman fortress. But, as the feudal regime gives way to the authority of the central government, the castle turns into a villa, the buildings of which are located in a barely fenced area and which, since the XIV century. retains only the decorative side of the defense structures.

In Italy, the fortress has a simpler appearance: the towers are usually square or octagonal, the plans are correct, as in the castle of Frederick III, known as Castel del Monte; in the latter, all buildings are inscribed in an octagonal plan, with towers at eight corners.

The Neapolitan castle was a square fort with adjoining towers. In Milan, where the dukes were related to the great builder of fortresses, Louis of Orleans, there was a castle, the plan of which, on the whole, was close to the French type. In general, Italy from the 15th century. is an agglomeration of small republics. The monuments of its military architecture are predominantly city walls and fortified municipal town halls, rather than castles.

The Milan castle, whose plan is close to a square (rectangular), is equipped with towers both in the corners and in terms of flank defense. When establishing the distance between the towers and in other features, the instructions of Vitruvius were apparently used, but taking into account the new conditions of defense in connection with the introduction of firearms. Vitruvius in "De Architectura", book 1, chapter V. says:

"2. Further, the towers must be taken out of the outer part of the wall, so that during the attack of the enemies it was possible to hit their sides facing the towers with projectiles from the right and left. why encircle it along the edge of the steep in such a way that the roads to the gates do not lead directly, but from the left. For if this is done, the attackers will find themselves facing the wall with their right tank, an uncovered shield. The outline of the city should not be rectangular and not with protruding corners, but rounded so that the enemy can be observed from several places at once.Cities with protruding corners are difficult to defend, since the corners serve more as a cover for enemies than for citizens.

3. The thickness of the walls, in my opinion, should be such that two armed men walking along them towards each other could disperse without hindrance. Then, through the entire thickness of the walls, beams of burnt olive wood should be laid as often as possible, so that the wall, connected on both sides by these beams, like staples, forever retains its strength: for such a forest cannot be damaged by rot, bad weather, or time, but it is both buried in the ground and immersed in water is preserved without any damage and remains always fit. So, this applies not only to city walls, but also to retaining structures, and all those walls of them, which should be built in the thickness of city walls, being fastened in this way, will not soon be destroyed.

4. The distances between the towers should be made in such a way that they are separated from each other no further than the flight of an arrow, in order to be able to repel an enemy attack on any of them with scorpions and other projectile weapons, shooting from the towers both from the right and from left side. And the wall adjoining the inner parts of the towers must be divided by intervals equal to the width of the towers, and the transitions in the inner parts of the towers should be made of stone blocks and without iron fasteners. For if the enemy occupies any part of the wall, then the besieged will break such a platform and, if they manage quickly, will not allow the enemy to penetrate the remaining parts of the towers and the wall without the risk of headlong flying down.

5. Towers should be made round or polygonal, because square ones are more likely to be destroyed by siege weapons, because the blows of rams break off their corners, while when rounded, they, as if driving wedges to the center, cannot cause damage. At the same time, the fortifications of the wall and towers turn out to be the most reliable in connections with earthen ramparts, since neither sheep, nor tunnels, nor other military weapons are able to damage them.

For an illustration of the Milan Castle, see the book by S.P. Bartenev, Moscow Kremlin, 1912, v. 1, pp. 35 and 36. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

The Italian school seems to have had a fairly strong influence on southern France: the connection between the two countries was established by the Angevin dynasty. The castle of King Rene at Tarascon was built according to the same plan as the Neapolitan castle; the papal palace at Avignon, with its large square towers, is in many ways reminiscent of an Italian fortress.

Influence of firearms. - The defense system we have described, designed almost exclusively for assault, for undermining with grapples or for a frontal attack with ladders, seemed to have to be abandoned. From the moment when firearms made it possible to attack from far distances. But this did not happen. The cannon appears on the battlefields from 1346; but for a whole century the defense system did not take this new force into account, which may be explained by the slow development of siege artillery. The most skilful application of the medieval defense system belongs precisely to this transitional age; the great era of defensive art based on battlements coincides with the period of internal unrest in the reign of Charles VI. Pierrefond dates back to around 1400.

In the castle of Pierrefonds, as can be seen in the illustration in the book of Choisy, there are not only corner towers, but there are also towers in the walls, in the middle of each side of the fortress. These intermediate towers are essential for flank defense and give some reason to believe that Vitruvius' instructions were taken into account not only in Italy, but also in Northern Europe. approx. ON THE. Kozhin

The only innovation brought about by the new means of attack was the small earth mounds that covered the guns and were placed in front of the walls with towers and machicules.

At first glance, one method of defense seems to exclude the other, but the engineers of the 15th century. judged differently.

In those days, the cannon was still too imperfect a weapon to destroy walls from afar, despite the enormous size of the shells it threw out. To make a breach, single blows are not enough, it is necessary to concentrate accurate shooting on a certain point; but the sight was not accurate, and the shooting caused only a concussion, which could destroy the parapet, but not make a breach. They fired only "bombs", and their impact on the wall was of little danger. The high walls were able to withstand the action of this rudimentary artillery for a long time. The means used at Pierrefonds were sufficient: batteries installed in front of the walls kept the attacker at a distance. If the enemy crossed the line of fire of the advanced batteries, then he had to put his artillery under fire from the fortress or to dig; in the first case, the advantage of the defenders was given by mounted shooting from the crest of the fortress walls, in the other case, the Gothic fortification completely retained its significance.

The resulting combination of the two systems continues to exist until such time as firearms acquire sufficient aim fidelity to make holes at a distance.

Among the first fortresses with platforms or casemates for firing guns, it is necessary to name: in France - Langres; in Germany, Lübeck and Nuremberg; in Switzerland, Basel; in Italy, the Milanese castle, in which the bastions with casemates covered the curtains, still equipped with massive towers with machicolations.

In the XVI century. earthen fortifications are considered almost the only serious defense; they no longer count on the towers, and the further they go, the more and more wide windows are cut through in their walls. However, continue to be preserved - especially in those countries where the feudal system left its deep imprint - the external forms of the defense system, which, in essence, have already been abandoned: the castle of Amboise with massive towers was built under Charles VII, Chaumont - under Louis XII, Chambord - under Francis I.

The traditional parts of the castle are adapted, as far as possible, for another purpose: in the Chaumont castle, inside the round towers, there are more or less well-fitted square rooms; in the castle of Chambord, the towers serve as offices or stairwells; machicules turned into a deaf arcature. These are completely free decorative options based on the motifs of ancient fortress architecture.

A new society has been created, the needs of which are no longer satisfied by medieval art - it needs a new architecture. The general foundations of this new architecture will be created in accordance with the new requirements, and the forms will be borrowed from Italy. It will be the Renaissance.

August Choisy. History of architecture. August Choisy. Histoire De L "Architecture