1. Prerequisites for perestroika
E - early 1990s - a period of world history, which was characterized by major changes in international relations, socio-economic and political development. In the capitalist states, a new upsurge of the economy was observed. Against this background, the central event was perestroika in the USSR (1985-1991), which caused many responses and conflicting opinions, both in the Soviet Union and in the West, even during its implementation.
The need to characterize the results of perestroika in the USSR forces us, first of all, to turn to an analysis of the causes that led to the events that radically changed life in our country.
All researchers agree that by the mid-1980s the USSR was in a state of deep economic, political and social crisis of the system.
M.S. himself Gorbachev, during his February speech in 1991 at the Minsk Tractor Plant, spoke about the fact that already in the late 70s and early 80s. it became clear that the situation in the country only at first glance could seem normal, in reality it was impossible to continue doing business like this. He outlined the problems in the economy (lag in economic indicators; congestion of the country's economy with heavy industries with an insufficient number of enterprises for the production of consumer goods; the militarized nature of the economy), pointed out the difficulties associated with the need to develop the extraction of natural resources in uninhabited areas, and also mentioned that the leadership of the country was not interested in the opinion of the working class, the peasantry, and the intelligentsia.
In the speech of the ex-president of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev at a meeting with representatives of the US political and public circles in Washington on October 21, 2005, the reasons for perestroika were already more clearly identified. It spoke about the dominance of bureaucracy at all levels of government, which prevented the implementation of urgent changes, about the lagging behind of the economy in world technological competition and its acquisition of a wasteful and costly nature. “The rate of economic growth has fallen. Labor productivity was lower than in Western countries: in industry - 3.5 times, in agriculture - 5 times.<…>The quality of products only in the military-industrial complex corresponded to the world level.” M.S. Gorbachev also drew attention to the lack of freedom and the system generated by Stalinism and rejected at the cultural level, to the fact that the richest country in both intellectual and natural resources was unable to provide decent living conditions for its citizens.
Really continued reproduction in the country on the technical basis of industrialization, the accumulation of gigantic means of production, the involvement in circulation of gigantic material resources (with inefficient use of capital investments), and the depletion of resources led to a steady deterioration in indicators. For example, the average annual growth rate of national income fell from 9% in the 1950s to 4.4% in the first half of the 1960s and continued to fall in the 1970s. Since the end of the 1950s, the rate of economic growth has been constantly falling and dropped to almost zero by the mid-1980s. The general level of prices for goods and services in 1971-1983 increased by no less than 43%, i.e. about 3% per year. Since 1979, the production of steel, coal, and cast iron began to fall. The inefficient subsistence economy required increasing investments. The production of meat, milk and butter has decreased. Other indicators also steadily worsened: the material and energy intensity of products grew, jobs were continuously created that were not provided with workers, and so on.
It turned out that many gigantic costly projects were actually resource depletion. Thus, in regions where land reclamation has received the greatest development, grain production has decreased. The dependence of the most important branches of industry on Western technology has increased. The dystrophy of technology, organization of labor, and reproduction increased at every point. From October 1983, monthly productivity began to fall. In 1984, for the first time since the war, oil production fell, the export of which provided 60% of hard currency. The low quality of goods blocked the way to world markets.
Taking upon itself, unlike Western society, the burden of organizing almost the entire economy, the Soviet state was obliged to have an apparatus capable of well or at least acceptable coordinating the efforts of all subsystems of the economy and the distribution of resources. However, the system of the state itself began to lose its integrity and implicitly “break up” into many subsystems that follow not general, but their own optimization criteria. Departmentalism became a clear expression of this. This well-known defect in the system of sectoral ministries manifested itself in the USSR already in the 1920s, but with particular force during the period of stagnation. Over time, as S.G. Kara-Murza, the department tends to turn into a closed organism, so that a conflict of interest arises: departments with the state as a whole and departments with other departments. Departmentalism undermined one of the main foundations of the Soviet system, which gave strength to its economy - the nationwide character of property and economy.
The management system that existed in the Soviet economy for a long time, based on administrative methods of the order type, and, despite the fact that it no longer corresponded to the new conditions of scientific and technological development, it was not possible to break it, although some attempts were made to do this. This system was characterized by the presence of partitions and barriers between departments, organizations, between science, design, all this, in turn, was separated from production.
The essence of the administrative management system consisted of three elements: strict administrative and directive tasks, a centralized system of material and technical supply, and strict regulation of the activities of enterprises and organizations.
Management of the economy as a whole, each of its branches and each enterprise, large or small, was carried out mainly by administrative methods with the help, first of all, of targeted directive tasks.
The command-and-order form of government alienated people both from labor itself and from its results, turning public property almost into "no man's". This mechanism, this system was personified in the person of the people who carried it out. The bureaucratic apparatus in every possible way supported such a system that allowed its ideas to occupy profitable positions, to be "at the top", regardless of the actual state of affairs in the national economy. By the 80s. petty corruption and arbitrariness of officials are expanding: in 1984, the Central Committee of the CPSU received 74,000 anonymous letters of complaint.
The deterioration of the country's economic situation had a particularly negative impact on the development of the social sphere. The lag in solving social problems gradually accumulated. At first, this was due to the fact that, for a number of objective reasons, funds had to be redistributed in order to develop heavy industry or strengthen the country's defense, or to restore the economy destroyed by the war, etc. But subsequently, the lag in solving social problems turned out to be associated primarily with negative trends in economic development over the past 15 years.
During these years, the former leadership of the country, trying to slow down the deterioration of the economic situation, went to a significant redistribution of resources from the social to the production sphere. Funds for social purposes began to be allocated according to the so-called "residual principle". And by the mid-80s, the country took a step back in comparison with 1960-1965 in a number of social indicators.
All these negative socio-economic, political, spiritual processes in the Soviet Union weakened its foreign policy positions. It was no longer possible to postpone the overdue changes.
It should not be forgotten that the rest of the world also needed cardinal changes, since already at that time, according to M.S. Gorbachev, was characterized by sharp bloc confrontation, confrontation in international relations and a dangerous arms race, primarily nuclear; unresolved burning problems of the world community - backwardness, poverty, environmental threat on a global scale; existence of numerous regional conflicts.
All this combination of internal and external factors objectively dictated the need for change, and the April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, headed by M.S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary on March 11, proclaimed a new strategy - accelerating the socio-economic development of the country.
2. Progress of perestroika
March 1985, K.U. died. Chernenko, and the next day, March 11, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU elects M.S. Gorbachev. A month after his election, in April 1985, M.S. Gorbachev convened a plenum of the Central Committee, at which he proclaimed a course towards "radical renewal of Soviet society" and towards "acceleration of the country's socio-economic development, improvement of all aspects of society's life." Everything was supposed to "accelerate": the development of the means of production, the social sphere, the activities of party organs and scientific and technological progress. On February 8, 1986, speaking to VAZ workers, Gorbachev first used the word perestroika to name his policy.
The announced new policy was received by both the party and society with approval, even with enthusiasm, with hopes for long-awaited changes.
The reforms began with the personnel renewal of the top of power. So, in the very first years after Gorbachev came to power - in 1985-1986 - serious personnel changes began: A.A. Gromyko was appointed to the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia E.A. Shevardnadze became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, B.N. Yeltsin and L.N. Zaikov, N.I. Ryzhkov was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. By the beginning of 1987, 70% of the members of the Politburo, 60% of the secretaries of regional party organizations, 40% of the members of the Central Committee of the CPSU, who received their posts under Brezhnev, were replaced.
The process of personnel renewal at the top of the government was completed in 1988.
The economic concept of M.S. Gorbachev, as noted by R.G. Pikhoy, was formulated by him in a report delivered at the All-Union Conference on the Problems of Scientific and Technological Progress, held on June 11-12, 1985. The Secretary General proclaimed the concept of the economic mechanism, which included the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the reconstruction of the domestic engineering industry, the production of new machinery and equipment, and the use of high technologies. Along with this, the idea of decentralizing economic management, expanding the rights of enterprises, introducing economic accounting, increasing the responsibility and interest of labor collectives was put forward.
In the field of economic policy, the scope for private initiative was gradually expanded. In November 1985, the Law “On Individual Labor Activity” was issued, according to which private activity in 30 types of production of goods and services was legalized. The private initiative, however, encountered bureaucratic obstacles, production difficulties caused by a shortage of material resources, and the ideological attitudes of the population, which were hostile to the "private traders". Thus, on the one hand, cooperative entrepreneurship developed, and on the other hand, contradictory legal acts were issued (1986 resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU “On measures to strengthen the fight against unearned income”, Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council “On strengthening the fight against the extraction of unearned income”), exacerbating economic and financial difficulties in the country, which hurt the non-state sector. The economic and social consequences of the fight against unearned income convinced the reformers of the need to expand the non-state sector, as a result of which the basis was prepared for truly restructuring solutions in the field of the economy.
The decentralization of management assumed a number of transformations in the higher management structures. So, in November 1985, on the basis of six ministries, the USSR State Agrarian Industry was formed. In April 1989 it was abolished. In August 1986, the Ministry of Construction of the USSR was "zoned" - four ministries were created on its basis, in charge of construction in different regions of the USSR. In 1989 they were abolished.
An attempt to improve the quality of products, realized in attempts to apply military administrative methods in managing the economy - the introduction of a system of state acceptance of products at industrial enterprises, led to the fact that instead of the consumer, the quality of products began to be controlled by an official. This, in turn, led to an increase in bribery, increased administration and bureaucratization of production.
The direction of the government's activity related to the improvement of labor discipline also remained important. Started under Yu.V. Andropov, this activity was continued in a somewhat new form - an anti-alcohol campaign (this is due to the fact that by 1980 per capita alcohol consumption in the USSR increased by about 10.4 times compared to 1950 and amounted to 11.3 liters pure alcohol). In May 1985, a resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism, to eradicate moonshine" was issued, and a few days later - the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness", which just laid the foundation for the anti-alcohol campaign, which lasted until 1988. Restrictions on the sale of alcohol were introduced, prices were raised and coupons for the purchase of vodka were introduced, measures were introduced to stimulate a sober lifestyle, penalties for moonshine were increased. In 1985-1986, the results of the anti-alcohol campaign were positive: drunkenness became less, there were fewer criminal offenses and administrative offenses caused by alcohol intoxication, industrial and transport injuries were sharply reduced, the morale of society became healthier, its negative consequences made themselves felt somewhat later .
The key activity of the government of the USSR under the leadership of N.I. Ryzhkov was the intensification of scientific and technological progress. Many of the developments begun in stagnant times were put into practice.
In the 1980s, significant progress was made in the development of outer space. In 1986, the Mir orbital station was launched, which has been in orbit for more than 15 years. In 1987, the world's most powerful launch vehicle Energia was launched for the first time with a Soviet spaceship reusable "Buran" (still in unmanned mode).
In the mid-1980s, the computerization of Soviet society began. In 1985, the first Soviet IBM-compatible personal computers, Agat and Corvette, were created, which were not inferior to the best world models of electronic equipment, mass production of cheap BK home computers also began. Computerization of schools was declared a priority program. A course was taken for "computer education".
Fundamental changes have taken place in the automotive industry. Several of the largest automobile plants in the USSR switched to the production of front-wheel drive cars: VAZ-2108, VAZ-2109, VAZ-1111 (Oka), Moskvich-2141, ZAZ-1102 (Tavria). The launch of mass production of these models for some time eliminated the backlog of the Soviet automobile industry from the West.
It is clear that many of these technical achievements were developed not during the period of “perestroika”, but in previous years, however, these developments were put into practice at a time when Soviet production leaders, in their own way, understanding the slogans of “acceleration” and “intensification production", used them to prepare for new breakthroughs in Soviet technology.
the year that became the year of man-made disasters caused serious damage to the development of Soviet technology. On April 26, 1986, a powerful accident occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, where, during the experiment, the 4th power unit exploded, and a large number of radioactive isotopes scattered around for several hundred kilometers. The remains of the reactor were localized (walled up in a concrete "sarcophagus").
Another tragedy occurred on August 31, 1986, when the passenger ship "Admiral Nakhimov" collided with the dry cargo ship "Pyotr Vasev" in the Tsemess Bay near Novorossiysk. Both ships sank, killing several hundred people.
These catastrophes inflicted enormous damage on the Soviet Union, as many people began to experience fear both of nuclear energy and of scientific and technological progress in general.
In the second half of 1986, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the country's social and economic progress could be ensured only through a radical restructuring of the system of social relations. The transformations were supposed to start with the democratization of society and change political system in USSR. A special role here was assigned to the policy of publicity and the strengthening of the influence of the mass media.
In the lexicon of M.S. Gorbachev, the term glasnost appeared at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February-March 1986). However, by that time it was still too early to talk about the policy of glasnost.
As conceived by M.S. Gorbachev, the main content of this concept was nothing more than a renewal of the official ideology. Glasnost was supposed to help strengthen socialism. In order to gain confidence in himself and his intentions, Gorbachev had to critically review the activities of his predecessors. And at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU held in January 1987, the policy of "glasnost" and "democratization" was proclaimed. Officially, this was presented as the introduction of "freedom of speech."
Sharp exposés began to appear in the press, the crimes of the past were made public; book stalls and publishing centers were filled with literature, until recently forbidden; films that were previously censored were shown on television. The central theme is the historical past of the country.
The liberation of the word and creativity took place in a sharp political struggle, fierce clashes. The proclamation of the policy of glasnost contributed to the liberation of society from ideological restrictions, which is irreversible.
Economic reforms, political transformations, the spiritual opening of society, could not but lead to a serious rethinking of the relations between the USSR and outside world. Since 1985, the desire of the Soviet government to reduce international tension and start a positive dialogue with Western countries and the United States has come to the fore in foreign policy.
Thus, in the summer of 1985, the USSR announced a unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing, which, however, was canceled in 1987, since the United States did not join it. In addition, the USSR came up with initiatives to completely ban strike space weapons, to reduce the nuclear weapons of the USA and the USSR by 50%.
In April 1986 M.S. Gorbachev announced the readiness of the USSR to go for the simultaneous dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and NATO, since by that time the situation in the world was already tense to the limit. As a result, a General Agreement was signed on contacts in the field of science, technology, education, culture and other fields, on the resumption at the end of April of regular air traffic between the USSR and the USA.
At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, for the first time in the entire period of Soviet history, it was stated that in modern international conditions, the principle of de-ideologized human values should replace the principle of socialist internationalism. And, beginning with the 27th Congress, every major domestic affair has not been left without linking with foreign policy.
By the beginning of 1987, it was already clear that the reform efforts of previous years had failed, and this was recognized by M.S. Gorbachev. At the January Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the question "On the restructuring and personnel policy of the party" was considered. M.S. Gorbachev put forward the concept of perestroika, political reform, alternative elections, secret ballot in party elections. By autumn, serious changes had already begun to take shape in the socio-political life of the country: a new ideology of reforms began to take shape, based on the denial of the positive experience of building socialism under I.V. Stalin and L.I. Brezhnev.
At the same time, at the January Plenum, a reform plan was adopted. The main ideas were aimed at awakening the activity of the masses interested in the processes of renewal. Significant changes have taken place in economic policy. They were determined by the Law on the State Enterprise (Association) adopted by the USSR Supreme Council, as well as the Law "On Cooperation" (May 1988). The 1st act significantly expanded the independence of enterprises, the 2nd act revived private entrepreneurship, but gradually private initiative began to be drawn into the sphere of the "shadow" economy.
From 1987 to 1990, the planned system of resource distribution was curtailed: at the end of 1987, there was a reduction in the range of planned types of products that the State Planning Committee brought to enterprises in the form of a state order. During this entire period, the middle management was liquidated and the transition to a two-tier formula - "ministry - factory" was carried out. Thus, the enterprises received a fairly broad autonomy. Enterprises could set their own wages, determine the number of employees, and choose economic partners. Most enterprises took advantage of the law to increase wages and increase the expensive range of goods, which, however, led to a growing imbalance between the increasing amount of money in the hands of the population and the output of goods and services lagging behind it. Since 1988, many previously available goods have become scarce, and this has led to widespread exacerbation of social problems.
The crisis in the sphere of consumption, intensifying every month of reforms, led to the fact that by the spring of 1992, cooperation, on which great hopes were placed and which was called upon to “work for socialism”, formally left Russian life, since the very concept of cooperation disappeared from the legislation. To some extent, this disappearance was compensated by the development of small enterprises and, accordingly, small business.
In 1987, the creation of commercial banks began, the corporatization of enterprises, many of which were leased by the state with the right to purchase.
The beginning of the self-organization of society was manifested in the emergence of various associations and groups, informal movements.
Within the ruling party structures at this time, a division gradually began between those who sought to radicalize the transformations, those who occupied more cautious positions, and those who did not want any changes. Political demarcation and the formation of anti-perestroika opposition to the course of reforms led to an attempt to limit glasnost. Meanwhile, subscription restrictions imposed in December on 44 popular publications at the time were lifted in 1989.
In the spring of 1988, a mass campaign began to prepare for the 19th All-Union Conference of the CPSU, which was to be held in July. In the report made by M.S. Gorbachev at this conference, declared the need to create a "lawful state" in the USSR, spoke about the need to narrow the competence of party bodies, assigning exclusively state functions to the councils. The decisions of the 19th party conference provided for the creation of new state institutions: the Congress of People's Deputies and a permanent parliament. This was exactly what should have contributed to the democratization of society, strengthening the influence of citizens on the preparation and adoption of government decisions. The gradual departure of the CPSU from the sphere of operational management of social processes was supposed. As a result, in September 1988, the apparatus of the Central Committee of the CPSU was reorganized, and the total number of employees of the apparatus was reduced.
Against the background of internal changes, the formation of the concept of “new political thinking” in the foreign policy of the USSR continued, which finally took shape by the end of 1988. Thus, at the end of 1987, a meeting between R. Reagan and M.S. Gorbachev in Washington, where the first agreements were reached: the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles was signed; in February 1988, the start of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was officially announced; during 1988, negotiations were underway to resolve the conflicts in Kampuchea, the indicators of trade, scientific, technical and cultural cooperation with China were going up, etc.
On December 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted the Law "On the Election of People's Deputies of the USSR", resolutions "On Further Steps to Implement Political Reform in the Field of State Building" and "On Calling Elections of People's Deputies of the USSR", which took place in March next year. At the I Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. At the same time, an opposition Interregional Deputy Group was formed (B.N. Yeltsin, A.D. Sakharov, Yu.N. Afanasyev, and others).
Changes in the state-political system of the USSR were continued at the III Congress of People's Deputies (1990); It was then that Article 6 was withdrawn from the Constitution, which fixed the leading and guiding role of the party in the life of society, and the institution of the presidency in the USSR was established. M.S. was elected to this position at the Congress. Gorbachev. In the spring of 1990, elections of people's deputies to local (republican, city, etc.) Soviets began throughout the country. Election of M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in March 1990 changed the system of political power.
At a meeting with representatives of political and public circles in the United States, dedicated to the 20th anniversary of perestroika, which took place in Washington on October 21, 2005, M.S. Gorbachev said that “during the years of perestroika, the following were provided:
exit from totalitarianism to democracy;
pluralism in the political and economic spheres;
approval of the principles of freedom of choice, freedom of conscience and religion;
recognition of dissent;
the country opened up to the world by passing a law on freedom of movement, including freedom to travel abroad;
Through the joint efforts of the republics, a new Union Treaty was prepared for signing.
Valeria Novodvorskaya in her article "Gorbachev's Ten Feats" says that "Mikhail Sergeevich gave" (in this case Gorbachev's name acts as a synonym for perestroika), more specifically (despite the sarcasm): 1. glasnost, the release of all political prisoners until 1990. , cessation of arrests under the articles “undermining and weakening the system” and “slandering Soviet reality”, 3. withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, 4. beginning of the liquidation of the military bloc, 5. introduction of the word and concept of “consensus” into political use, 6. cooperation, permission of stock exchanges, the beginning of currency liberalization, 7. 70% facilitation of travel abroad, 8. pre-parliament, 9. rejection of the Chinese model (modernization in half with blood), 10. there was no attempt to retain power and the Union by force in 1991.
The results of a study conducted by the ROMIR Monitoring holding in 2005 (the 20th anniversary of perestroika) clearly demonstrated the opinion of the population of our country regarding the results of Gorbachev's policy. Thus, 48% of the Russians who took part in the survey consider the collapse of the Soviet Union to be the main result, many are sure that perestroika led to the fact that our country lost the status of a superpower, the same number blame it for the collapse of the socialist economy. Few thought that perestroika was an attempt to improve socialism and put an end to the arms race.
Similar studies have been carried out before. The professor on the results of a survey of the Russian population (February 1995), dedicated to the events of 1985-1991, spoke about the high assessment by the population of Gorbachev's foreign policy (the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, the end of the Cold War, the arms race, the confrontation between the USSR and the West and etc.), state policy regarding former political prisoners as well as in the field of civil liberties. V. Kuvaldin also noted the favorable attitude of Russians to the first steps of economic reforms (election of leaders by labor collectives, expansion of economic independence of enterprises, the beginning of legislative registration of the right to private property). At the same time, the rejection of many Russians at the time of the decade since the beginning of perestroika caused the renaming of cities, streets, enterprises, institutions, the anti-alcohol campaign, the lifting of the ban on erotic publications, films, and performances.
Of course, not all results were listed. In this regard, it makes sense to consider the results of perestroika in three aspects: in the aspect of the country's political, economic, and socio-cultural life.
The inconsistency and ill-conceivedness of many economic reforms led to a serious crisis in this area human life, the emergence of a shortage of consumer goods, the collapse of the former Soviet economy.
The policy of "new thinking" pursued in M.S. Gorbachev in the field of foreign policy, put an end to the war in Afghanistan, contributed to the end of the Cold War between the two superpowers - the USA and the USSR, and the resolution of many armed conflicts in the world.
If we talk about perestroika in a broader sense, expanding the historical context, it will become obvious that its process is still ongoing, since the main goal of this process is to build a civil society that is stable and acceptable to the majority of the socio-political system.
Bibliography
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.Akhiezer A.S. Russia: Criticism of historical experience. Volume 1. - Novosibirsk, 1997.
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4.Butenko A.P. Where and Where We Go: A Philosopher's View of the History of Soviet Society. - L., 1990.
5.Gorbachev M.S. 20 years since the beginning of perestroika in the USSR [Main content of M.S. Gorbachev at a meeting with representatives of political and public circles of the United States in Washington on October 21, 2005]. - www.gorby.ru
6.Kara-Murza S.G., "Soviet Civilization", Vol. II.
7.Novodvorskaya V. Ten deeds of Gorbachev // Novoye Vremya, 2005, No. 12.
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Perestroika in the USSR: Causes, Characteristics and Results.
Perestroika is a name used to refer to a huge number of reforms in the Soviet Union, primarily in the political, economic and social spheres. Perestroika began under Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s and continued until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The date of the beginning of Perestroika is considered to be 1987, when this reform program was declared a new state ideology.
Reasons for Perestroika.
Before the start of Perestroika, the Soviet Union was already experiencing a deep economic crisis, which was also joined by political and social crises. The situation in a huge state was very difficult - the people demanded changes. The state demanded cardinal changes in all spheres of life that they had.
Unrest began in the country after people learned about life abroad. They were frankly shocked when they saw that the state in other countries controls all spheres of life of the population: everyone is free to wear whatever they want, listen to any music, eat not in certain portions, but as far as funds allow, and the like.
In addition, the people were very angry because the stores started having problems with essential goods, with various equipment. The state drove the budget into minus and could no longer produce the required amount of products on time.
In addition, we can add problems with industry and the agricultural sector: all enterprises have long been outdated, as well as equipment. The goods produced were already of such poor quality that no one wanted to buy them. The USSR gradually began to turn into a resource-based state. But even in the middle of the century, the Union was one of the most developed countries in the world, with a powerful economy.
In 1985, Gorbachev came to power, who highlighted the need for global reforms that could at least try to save the country from disintegration, which had been brewing for quite a long time.
All of the above could not remain so for too long, the country demanded changes, and they began. Although it was already too late to change anything, the collapse was still inevitable.
Specifications.
Gorbachev provided for measures of complete technological "re-equipment" at all obsolete enterprises, especially in heavy industry. He also planned to seriously increase the effectiveness of the human factor by making specially trained specialists from the workers. In order for enterprises to give even greater profits, they had to begin to be controlled by the state.
What Gorbachev really managed to reform was the sphere of the state's foreign policy. We are talking about relations, first of all, with the United States, with which the USSR had for several decades continued a deep economic, political, cultural and ideological confrontation - the so-called "cold war".
In order to effectively conduct such a struggle on all fronts, the USSR spent huge amounts of money, only 25% of the entire state budget was required to be spent on maintaining the army, and this huge amount of money was very much needed for other needs. Having rid the USSR of such an adversary as the United States, Gorbachev was able to transfer funds to the reorganization of other spheres of state life.
As a result of the "peace policy" with the West, relations between the two states began to improve and the two peoples stopped looking at each other as an enemy.
Returning to the deep economic crisis, it should be noted that the Soviet leadership did not fully realize how deep it was - the situation was really catastrophic. Unemployment began to rise in the country and, in addition, drunkenness on a global scale began to spread among the male population. The state tried in every possible way to fight drunkenness and unemployment, but there was no particular success from this.
The Communist Party was losing its influence and authority among the people with every new day. Liberal views began to actively emerge, which were eager to completely sweep away power and rebuild the state according to a new type, because such communism was simply not feasible.
In order to reassure the population a little, every citizen was allowed to speak about his political views, although earlier this was disastrously forbidden - for this, under Stalin, they could not only be put in the Gulag, but shot. Previously inaccessible literature has now become publicly available - books by foreign authors, previously banned by the party, began to be imported into the country.
At the first stages, changes in the economy took place with little success, the country really began to produce more quality products, but by 1988 this policy had exhausted itself. Then it became clear that nothing could be changed, the collapse of communism was inevitable, and the USSR would soon cease to exist.
Results of Perestroika.
Despite the fact that Perestroika was not able to change the situation in the Union so that it continued to exist, a number of important changes did occur and should be noted.
The victims of Stalinism were fully rehabilitated;
Freedom of speech and political views appeared in the country, strict censorship was removed, including on literature;
The one-party system was abandoned;
There was a possibility of free exit / entry from the country / to the country;
Students no longer serve in the military while they are in training;
Women were no longer sent to prison for cheating on their husbands;
The state gave permission for rock in the country;
The Cold War has ended.
These were the positive results of Perestroika, but there were much more negative results. Among the most important are economic ones.
The gold and foreign exchange reserves of the USSR decreased by about 10 times, which led to such a phenomenon as hyperinflation;
The international debt of the USSR increased and at least tripled;
The pace of economic development has slowed down to almost zero mark The country just froze.
49. Perestroika in the USSR: its causes and consequences (1985-1991). Economic reforms of perestroika.
In March 1985, after the death of Chernenko, at an extraordinary plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, MS Gorbachev was elected General Secretary.
The new Soviet leadership was aware of the need for reforms in order to improve the economy and overcome the crisis in the country, but it did not have a scientifically based program for such reforms developed in advance. The reforms began without comprehensive preparation. Gorbachev's reforms were called the "perestroika" of Soviet society. Perestroika in the USSR lasted from 1985 to 1991.
Reasons for restructuring:
Stagnation in the economy, the growth of scientific and technological backwardness from the West.
Low standard of living of the population: constant shortage of food and industrial goods, rising prices of the "black market".
The political crisis, expressed in the decomposition of the leadership, in its inability to ensure economic progress. The merging of the party-state apparatus with the businessmen of the shadow economy and crime.
Negative phenomena in the spiritual sphere of society. Due to strict censorship, there was a duality in all genres of creativity: official culture and unofficial (represented by "samizdat" and informal associations of creative intelligentsia).
Arms race. By 1985, the Americans announced that they were ready to launch nuclear weapons into space. We did not have the means to launch weapons into space. It was necessary to change foreign policy and disarm.
The purpose of the restructuring: improve the economy, overcome the crisis. MS Gorbachev and his team did not aim to turn to capitalism. They only wanted to improve socialism. So, the reforms began under the leadership of the ruling CPSU party.
April 1985 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, an analysis was given of the state of Soviet society and a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country was proclaimed. The main attention was paid to scientific and technological progress (STP), the technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering and the activation of the "human factor". MS Gorbachev called for strengthening labor and technological discipline, increasing the responsibility of personnel, etc. To improve the quality of manufactured products, state acceptance was introduced - another body of administrative control. The quality of this, however, has not radically improved.
In May 1985, the anti-alcohol campaign began., which was supposed to provide not only "universal sobriety", but also an increase in labor productivity. The sale of alcoholic beverages has declined. Vineyards began to be cut down. Began speculation in alcohol, home brewing and mass poisoning of the population with wine surrogates. During the three years of this campaign, the country's economy lost 67 billion rubles from the sale of alcoholic beverages.
The fight against "unearned income" began. In fact, it came down to another offensive by local authorities on personal subsidiary farms and touched a layer of people who grew and sold their products in the markets. At the same time, the “shadow economy” continued to flourish.
In general, the national economy of the country continued to work according to the old scheme, actively using command methods, relying on the enthusiasm of workers. The old methods of work did not lead to "acceleration", but to a significant increase in accidents in various sectors of the national economy. The term "acceleration" disappeared from the official vocabulary a year later.
To rethink the existing order prompted disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in April 1986.
After the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the government decided that it was necessary to rebuild and start economic reforms. The program of economic reforms was developed for a whole year. Well-known economists: Abalkin, Aganbegyan, Zaslavskaya presented a good Pproject of reforms in the economy, approved in the summer of 1987. The reform project included the following:
Expanding the independence of enterprises on the principles of cost accounting and self-financing.
Gradual revival of the private sector in the economy (initially through the development of the cooperative movement).
Recognition of equality in the countryside of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agro-combines, rental cooperatives, farms).
Reducing the number of sectoral ministries and departments.
Rejection of the monopoly of foreign trade.
Deeper integration into the global market.
Now it was necessary for these economic reforms to develop and adopt laws.
Let's see what laws have been passed.
In 1987, the "State Enterprise Law" was adopted. This law was to come into force on January 1, 1989. It was envisaged that enterprises would be endowed with broad rights. However, the ministries did not give enterprises economic independence.
With great difficulty, the formation of the private sector in the economy began. In May 1988, laws were passed that opened up the possibility of private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector. And another 1 million people - self-employed. True, this led not only to the entry of new free entrepreneurs into the market, but also to the actual legalization of the “shadow economy”. Every year the private sector "laundered" up to 90 billion rubles. per year (in prices up to January 1, 1992). Cooperatives did not take root in our country, because cooperators were taxed at 65% of their profits.
It was too late to start agricultural reforms. These reforms were half-hearted. The land was never transferred to private ownership. Rental farms did not take root, since all the rights to allocate land belonged to the collective farms, which were not interested in the appearance of a competitor. By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated on lease terms and 3% of the livestock was kept. As a result, the food issue has not been resolved in the country. The shortage of elementary foodstuffs led to the fact that even in Moscow their rationed distribution was introduced (which has not happened since 1947).
As a result, laws that meet the dictates of the times have not been adopted. Yes, and the introduction of the adopted laws was stretched for a long time. On the whole, the economic reforms of perestroika were inconsistent and half-hearted. All reforms were actively resisted by the local bureaucracy.
Outdated enterprises continued to produce useless products. Moreover, a general decline in industrial production began.
There was no reform of credit, pricing policy, centralized supply system.
The country found itself in a deep financial crisis. Inflation growth reached 30% per month. Foreign debts exceeded 60 billion (according to some sources, 80 billion) US dollars; gigantic sums went to pay interest on these debts. The foreign exchange reserves of the former USSR and the gold reserves of the State Bank were depleted by that time.
There was a general shortage and a flourishing "black" market.
The standard of living of the population fell. In the summer of 1989, the first workers' strikes began.
As the economic reforms failed, Gorbachev began to focus on the transition to the market. In June 1990, a resolution “On the concept of transition to a regulated market economy” was issued, and then specific laws. They provided for the transfer of industrial enterprises to lease, the creation of joint-stock companies, the development of private entrepreneurship, etc. However, the implementation of most measures was postponed until 1991, and the transfer of enterprises to lease was stretched until 1995.
At this time, a group of economists: academician Shatalin, deputy. Chairman of the Council of Ministers Yavlinsky and others proposed their plan for the transition to the market in 500 days. During this period it was supposed to carry out the privatization of state enterprises of trade and industry, and significantly curtail the economic power of the Center; remove state control over prices, allow unemployment and inflation. But Gorbachev refused to support this program. The socio-economic situation in the country was continuously deteriorating.
In general, under the influence of perestroika, significant changes took place in all spheres of society. For 6 years of perestroika, the composition of the Politburo was updated by 85%, which was not even during the period of Stalin's "purges". Ultimately, perestroika got out of control of its organizers, and the leading role of the CPSU was lost. Mass political movements appeared and the "parade of sovereignties" of the republics began. Perestroika, in the form in which it was conceived, failed.
Politicians, scientists, publicists have several points of view on the results of perestroika:
Some believe that perestroika enabled Russia to begin to develop in line with world civilization.
Others see that as a result of perestroika, the ideas of the October Revolution were betrayed, there was a return to capitalism, and a huge country fell apart.
Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991 - large-scale changes in the economic, political, and ideological life of the country, achieved through the introduction of radically new reforms. The goal of the reforms was the complete democratization of the political, social and economic system that had developed in the Soviet Union. Today we will take a closer look at the history of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991.
Stages
The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991:
- March 1985 - early 1987 The phrases "acceleration" and "more socialism" became the slogans of this stage.
- 1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: "glasnost" and "more democracy".
- 1989-1990 Stage of "confusion and vacillation". The perestroika camp, which had been united before, split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
- 1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a result, the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Reasons for perestroika in the USSR
The beginning of major reforms in the Soviet Union, as a rule, is associated with the coming to power of MS Gorbachev. At the same time, some experts consider one of his predecessors, Yu. A. Andropov, to be the "father of Perestroika". There is also an opinion that from 1983 to 1985, Perestroika experienced an “embryonic period”, while the USSR entered the stage of reform. One way or another, due to the lack of economic incentives to work, the ruinous arms race, the huge costs of military operations in Afghanistan, and the growing lag behind the West in the field of science and technology, at the dawn of the 1990s, the Soviet Union needed a large-scale reform. The gap between the slogans of the government and the real situation was huge. Distrust of communist ideology grew in society. All these facts became the reasons for Perestroika in the USSR.
The beginning of change
In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The following month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course towards the accelerated development of the country in the social and economic spheres. This is where the real Perestroika began. "Glasnost" and "acceleration" as a result will become its main symbols. In society, more and more often one could hear slogans like: "we are waiting for changes." Gorbachev also understood that changes were urgently needed by the state. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, who did not disdain communication with the common people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.
Working on the implementation of the set course for the development and implementation of the Perestroika reforms in the USSR in 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the sectors of the economy needed to be transferred to new ways of managing. From 1986 to 1989 laws were gradually issued on state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, and labor conflicts. The last law provided for the right of workers to strike. As part of the economic reforms, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, economic accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.
It is worth recognizing that all these measures not only did not lead to the main goal of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 - positive improvements in the country's economic situation, but also worsened the situation. The reason for this was: the "dampness" of reforms, significant budget spending, as well as an increase in the amount of money in the hands of the common population. Due to state deliveries of products, the communications established between enterprises were disrupted. The shortage of consumer goods has intensified.
"Publicity"
From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with "acceleration of development." In spiritual and political life, the so-called "glasnost" became its main leitmotif. Gorbachev declared that democracy is impossible without "glasnost". By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and the processes of the present. The ideas of changing “barracks socialism” to socialism with “human appearance” began to appear in the journalism and statements of party ideologists. Culture during the years of Perestroika of the USSR (1985-1991) began to "come to life". The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. Camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.
The policy of "glasnost" gained special momentum in 1987. The legacy of the writers of the 1930s and 1950s and the works of Russian philosophers have returned to the Soviet reader. The repertoire of theatrical and cinematographic figures has expanded significantly. The processes of "glasnost" found expression in magazine and newspaper publications, as well as on television. The weekly "Moscow News" and the magazine "Spark" were very popular.
Political transformation
The policy of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. As a result, the question of the need for political reforms was put on the agenda. Major events in the domestic political life of the USSR were: the approval of the reform of the state system, the adoption of amendments to the constitution and the adoption of the law on the election of deputies. These decisions were a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The Congress of People's Deputies became the supreme legislative body of power. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.
In the spring of 1989, elections were held for members of the Congress of People's Deputies. The legal opposition was included in the congress. At its head were placed: the world-famous scientist and human rights activist Academician A. Sakharov, the former secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee B. Yeltsin and the economist G. Popov. The spread of "glasnost" and pluralism of opinions led to the creation of numerous associations, some of which were national.
Foreign policy
During the years of Perestroika, the foreign policy of the Soviet Union changed radically. The government abandoned confrontation in relations with the West, stopped interfering in local conflicts and revised its relationship with the countries of the socialist camp. The new vector of foreign policy development was based not on a "class approach", but on universal human values. According to Gorbachev, relations between states should have been based on maintaining a balance of national interests, freedom to choose the paths of development in each individual state, and the collective responsibility of countries for resolving global issues.
Gorbachev was the initiator of the creation of a common European home. He regularly met with the rulers of America: Reagan (until 1988) and Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, politicians discussed disarmament issues. Soviet-American relations were "unfrozen". In 1987, agreements were signed on the destruction of missiles and missile defense. In 1990, politicians signed an agreement to reduce the number of strategic weapons.
During the years of Perestroika, Gorbachev was able to establish trusting relations with the heads of the leading states of Europe: Germany (G. Kohl), Great Britain (M. Thatcher) and France (F. Mitterrand). In 1990, the participants in the European Security Conference signed an agreement to reduce the number of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its soldiers from Afghanistan and Mongolia. During 1990-1991, both the political and military structures of the Warsaw Pact were dissolved. The military bloc, in fact, ceased to exist. The policy of "new thinking" brought fundamental changes to international relations. This was the end of the Cold War.
National movements and political struggle
In the Soviet Union, as in a multinational state, national contradictions have always existed. They gained special momentum in conditions of crises (political or economic) and radical changes. Being engaged in the construction of socialism, the authorities paid little attention to the historical features of the peoples. Having announced the formation of the Soviet community, the government actually began to destroy the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the state. The authorities exerted particularly strong pressure on Buddhism, Islam and shamanism. Among the peoples of Western Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic States, who joined the USSR on the eve of the Second World War, anti-socialist and anti-Soviet sentiments were very common.
The peoples deported during the war years were strongly offended by the Soviet government: Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ingush, Karachays, Kalmyks, Balkars, Meskhetian Turks and others. During Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991, there were historical conflicts between Georgia and Abkhazia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, and others.
The policy of "glasnost" gave the green light to the creation of nationalist and national social movements. The most significant of them were: the "People's Fronts" of the Baltic countries, the Armenian committee "Karabakh", the Ukrainian "Rukh" and the Russian community "Memory". The broad masses were attracted to the opposition movement.
The strengthening of national movements, as well as opposition to the allied Center and the power of the Communist Party, became the determining factor in the crisis of the “tops”. Back in 1988, tragic events unfolded in Nagorno-Karabakh. For the first time since civil war demonstrations were held under nationalist slogans. They were followed by pogroms in Azerbaijani Sumgayit and Uzbek Fergana. The apogee of national discontent was the armed clashes in Karabakh.
In November 1988, the Supreme Council of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of the republican law over the all-union law. The following year, the Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan proclaimed the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian Social Movement began to advocate for the independence of Armenia and its separation from the Soviet Union. At the end of 1989, the Communist Party of Lithuania declared its independence.
1990 elections
During the 1990 election campaign, the confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces was clearly expressed. The opposition received the Democratic Russia electoral bloc, which became nothing more than an organizational center for it, and later turned into a social movement. In February 1990, many rallies took place, the participants of which sought the elimination of the Communist Party's monopoly on power.
Deputy elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR were the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of positions in the highest legislative bodies were received by deputies with a democratic orientation. These elections have become an excellent illustration of the crisis in the power of the party elite. The society demanded the abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaims the supremacy of the CPSU. Thus, a multi-party system began to take shape in the USSR. The main reformers - B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, received high posts. Yeltsin became chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and Popov became the mayor of Moscow.
The beginning of the collapse of the USSR
MS Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 are associated by many with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were sent to Baku. The military operation, accompanied by a large number of victims, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan's independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Soviet troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was made by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. In the spring of the following year, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.
Autumn 1990. MS Gorbachev, who was elected President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize the authorities. Since then executive bodies were directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the Union republics. Then the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty began, regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.
In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the USSR took place, in which the citizens of the countries had to speak out regarding the preservation of the Soviet Union as a federation of sovereign republics. Six union republics (Armenia, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia) out of 15 refused to take part in the referendum. 76% of those polled voted for the preservation of the USSR. In parallel, an All-Russian referendum was organized, as a result of which the post of president of the republic was introduced.
Russian presidential elections
On June 12, 1991, popular elections were held for the first president in the history of Russia. According to the voting results, this honorary post went to B. N. Yeltsin, who was supported by 57% of voters. So Moscow became the capital of two presidents: Russian and all-Union. Reconciling the positions of the two leaders was problematic, especially given the fact that their relationship was far from the most "smooth".
August coup
By the end of the summer of 1991, the political situation in the country had deteriorated greatly. On August 20, after heated discussions, the leadership of the nine republics agreed to sign an updated Union Treaty, which, in fact, meant the transition to a real federal state. A number of state structures of the USSR were eliminated or replaced with new ones.
The party and state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stop the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of management. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in the Crimea, they formed the GKChP (State Committee for the State of Emergency). The newly formed committee declared a state of emergency in some parts of the country; announced the dissolution of power structures that are contrary to the 1977 Constitution; hindered the activities of opposition structures; banned gatherings, demonstrations and rallies; took the media under tight control; and finally sent troops to Moscow. AI Lukyanov - Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, supported the GKChP, although he himself was not a member of it.
B. Yeltsin, together with the leadership of Russia, led the resistance to the KGChP. In an appeal to the people, they urged them not to obey the illegal decisions of the committee, interpreting its actions as nothing more than an unconstitutional coup. Yeltsin was supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, as well as residents of a number of other regions. Tens of thousands of peaceful Russians, expressing support for Yeltsin, were ready to defend the Kremlin with weapons in their hands. Frightened by the unleashing of a civil war, the GKChP, after three days of confrontation, began to withdraw troops from the capital. On August 21, members of the committee were arrested.
The Russian leadership used the August coup to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party should suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized, and the funds were seized. The liberals who came to power in the central part of the country took away from the leadership of the CPSU the levers of control of law enforcement agencies and the media. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The main number of republics refused to conclude the Union Treaty after the August events. No one thought about "glasnost" and "acceleration" of Perestroika. The question of the future fate of the USSR was on the agenda.
final decay
In the last months of 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Soviet was radically reformed, most of the union ministries were liquidated, and an inter-republican economic committee was created instead of the cabinet of ministers. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the union republics, became the supreme body for managing domestic and foreign policy. The first decision of the State Council was the recognition of the independence of the Baltic countries.
On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of the respondents spoke in favor of the independence of the state. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.
December 7-8, 1991 B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. As a result of the negotiations, the politicians announced the termination of the existence of the Soviet Union and the formation of the CIS (Union of Independent States). At first, only Russia, Ukraine and Belarus joined the CIS, but later all the states that were previously part of the Soviet Union, except for the Baltic states, joined it.
Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991
Despite the fact that perestroika ended disastrously, a number of major changes into the life of the USSR, and then of its individual republics, it nevertheless brought.
Positive results of the restructuring:
- The victims of Stalinism were fully rehabilitated.
- There was such a thing as freedom of speech and views, and censorship became not so tough.
- The one-party system was abolished.
- There was a possibility of unhindered entry / exit to / from the country.
- Military service for undergraduate students has been cancelled.
- Women are no longer jailed for adultery.
- Rock was allowed.
- The cold war has formally ended.
Of course, Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 also had negative consequences.
Here are just the main ones:
- The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves decreased by 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
- The country's international debt has at least tripled.
- The rate of economic growth of the country has fallen almost to zero - the state simply froze.
Well, the main negative outcome of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991. - the collapse of the USSR.
A course towards accelerating the socio-economic development of the country.
In March 1985 Chernenko, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, died. General Secretary was elected 54-year-old Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev. In the struggle for this post, Gorbachev was supported by the patriarch of Soviet diplomacy Gromyko. Soon Gromyko took over as chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
V April 1985 took place plenum Central Committee of the CPSU. Gorbachev delivered a keynote speech there. The state of society was assessed as pre-crisis. proclaimed a course towards accelerating socio-economic development country. This course was specified at the 26th Congress of the CPSU in early 1986. The main directions of the course:
1. acceleration of scientific and technological progress;
2. activation of the human factor;
3. rejection of the residual principle in the social sphere;
4. course rod - new investment and structural policy- not the construction of new, but the modernization of existing enterprises; accelerated development of mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the national economy. (The idea of Academician Aganbegyan.)
It was supposed: increase the rate of economic growth and double the industrial potential by the year 2000; increase labor productivity by 2.5 times; provide each family with a separate apartment or house; carry out general computerization.
As measures designed to help accelerate socio-economic development, the following were carried out: anti-alcohol campaign; introduced state acceptance. Has changed personnel policy: by the beginning of 1987, more than half of the party leaders of the "Brezhnev call" at the union and regional levels were replaced.
The results of the acceleration course turned out to be deplorable: in 1985 budget deficit amounted to 17-18 billion rubles, in 1986 - three times more.
Reasons for failure acceleration rate:
1. Receipts from oil exports decreased by a third due to the fall in world prices;
2. Due to the massive anti-alcohol campaign, the country received less than 37 billion rubles in 3 years.
3. mistake in choosing an economic strategy- there was no return on investment in engineering; these funds could be more usefully spent on the development of the light and food industries, where the return is faster and people feel a positive result for themselves; the so-called state acceptance process distracted qualified specialists.
Apparently unfulfilled promises, squandered against the backdrop of a deteriorating economic situation, only irritated people.
Economic management reform and the reasons for its failure.
At the January (1987) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the failures of the course of acceleration were explained by the action of the “braking mechanism” and the underestimation of the depth of the crisis. Instead of the old course, a new one was proclaimed: perestroika. The essence of the restructuring: destruction of the command-administrative system, restructuring the mechanism of economic management. It was supposed to democratize all spheres of state and public life. They started talking about a new model of socialism - socialism "with a human face". The most important tool for restructuring was to be publicity.
A new economic strategy was proclaimed - market socialism(or self-supporting socialism). The possibility of market socialism was defended by such economists as Abalkin, Bunich, Shmelev, Bogomolov, Popov. Their opponents - Piyasheva, Pinsker - said that the market and socialism are incompatible, but their voice was not heeded.
In June 1987 was adopted State Enterprise Law which came into force on 1 January of the following year. Enterprises received a certain independence: the state order plan was brought to them. The state guaranteed the purchase of products manufactured under the state order. Everything that the enterprise produced in excess of the state order, it could sell at free prices on the market. Enterprises themselves determined the number of employees, set salaries, chose business partners, elected managers, and so on.
The course towards market socialism also turned out to be bankrupt. Causes:
1. There was no market infrastructure: commodity exchanges, intermediary organizations. A significant part of the enterprises sought to receive the state order to the maximum, while it was supposed to be gradually reduced and to achieve the transfer of enterprises to market economic conditions.
2. Only a quarter of all enterprises brought a small profit. A third of the enterprises were unprofitable. Their transfer to market economic conditions meant bankruptcy. Bankruptcy, unemployment, price increases - all this was not accepted by society and the authorities.
3. In those enterprises that were able to adapt to market conditions, the so-called collective egoism of labor collectives triumphed. They "ate profits" (increased salaries) instead of spending it on the development of production. The production of cheap goods was reduced and the production of expensive goods increased (“washout of the cheap assortment”). The leaders often chose convenient people who were not always capable of management.
In addition to the above reasons, there were underlying causes, which predetermined the failure of the economic strategy of both acceleration and market socialism:
1. The priority of ideology and politics over the economy. Hence the incompleteness of reforms. Power maneuvered between the so-called conservatives and democrats.
2. Political instability - the strike movement, the confrontation between the center and the union republics, their desire for independence led to the rupture of traditional economic ties.
3. Spending, at least initially, on maintaining friendly socialist regimes.
Reform of the political system: completion of the de-Stalinization of society.
Failures in the economy prompted Gorbachev to political system reforms. Its imperfection was discussed at the January (1987) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU. !9 All-Union Party Conference, held in the summer of 1988, decided to reform the political system.
Two main directions reforms: transition to alternative elections; empowerment advice. supreme body power became Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. 2/3 of the deputies were elected on an alternative basis in districts, 1/3 - by party and public organizations, trade unions, etc. The term of office is 5 years. Between congresses, the supreme legislative body was The Supreme Council.
At the first Congress of People's Deputies in 1989, the Chairman of the Supreme Council was elected on an alternative basis Gorbachev. (The competitor was Deputy Obolensky.)
On the 3rd congress(1990) was established presidency of the USSR. Gorbachev understood that the authority of the party, and, accordingly, of him as general secretary, was declining. To strengthen his position, Gorbachev initiated the establishment of the presidency. He was also elected president of the USSR at the congress, however, on a non-alternative basis. 3rd congress canceled Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR which secured for the CPSU the role of the leading and guiding force of society. Thus, it was opened road to plurality in USSR. Already existing parties acquired legal status, new ones began to appear. The most active were: democratic, constitutional-democratic, republican, socialist, social-democratic parties, democratic union, etc.
Thanks to the restructuring the de-Stalinization process resumed society, stopped during the years of stagnation. Was formed commission of the Politburo Central Committee of the CPSU for the study of repressions of the 1930-1950s. (headed by Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Yakovlev). Those who were not rehabilitated under Khrushchev were rehabilitated. The symbols of the time have become publication of works: Solzhenitsyn A. “The Gulag Archipelago”, Dudintsev V. “White Clothes”, Rybakov A. “Children of the Arbat”, Pasternak B. “Doctor Zhivago”, Platonov A. “The Pit”, Pristavkin A. “A Golden Cloud Spent the Night”, etc. . On the magazine pages, especially the magazine "Spark", published materials about the crimes of the Stalinist regime.
A serious test for the policy of glasnost was an article by a chemistry teacher from one of the Leningrad universities N.Andreeva“I can’t compromise my principles,” which appeared in early March 1988 in the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya. The author accused the leadership of the CPSU of forgetting communist principles and planting an alien ideology. Only a month later, at the beginning of April, an editorial appeared in Pravda, written by Yakovlev. Nina Andreeva's Stalinism was opposed to Leninism, understood as democracy, social justice, self-financing.
Foreign policy of the USSR.
There have also been changes in foreign policy. The arms race was beyond the power of the USSR. The Soviet leadership began to think about Western loans, which naturally presupposed a rejection of confrontation. It was proclaimed new political thinking. It meant, in particular, priority of universal human values over class ones. The main foreign policy actions of the USSR:
After a series of summit meetings, the USSR and the USA signed missile elimination agreement medium and short range (1987).
Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan(1989).
Rejection support for socialist regimes in a number of countries and their collapse (Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, 1987-1990).
Consent to German reunification(1990).
As a result of the improvement in the international situation, end of the Cold War.(Gorbachev won the Nobel Peace Prize.)
Growing economic and political crisis.
Gorbachev's foreign policy successes could not compensate for his domestic political difficulties. Economic situation in the country quickly worsened. In 1989, the growth industrial production was null. In the first half of 1990, it decreased by 10%. In 1988-1989 the budget deficit exceeded 100 billion rubles. Inflation was 10% per year, which was unprecedented for the Soviet economy.
The economic crisis was compounded and aggravated political crisis. Its components were:
1. The surge of national radicalism- Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, the activities of the popular fronts, especially active in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia. Radical members of the popular fronts demanded secession from the USSR.
2. Gain pressure on Gorbachev from democratic and conservative forces. Democrats, headed by public and political figures Sakharov, Yeltsin, Afanasiev, Stankevich, Popov, Sobchak, advocated deepening reforms. They believed that the three main foundations of the totalitarian system should be dismantled: the USSR as an imperial state; state socialism with a non-market economy; party monopoly (the latter was actually carried out after the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution). Conservatives were represented by Vice President Yanaev, Head of Government Pavlov, Minister of Defense Yazov, Minister of the Interior Pugo, KGB Chairman Kryuchkov, party functionaries Ligachev and Polozkov, people's deputies Alksnis, Petrushenko. They accused Gorbachev of abandoning socialist values and striving to destroy the USSR.
Gorbachev maneuvered between Democrats and Conservatives. His position became much more complicated after a number of union republics, including the Russian Federation declared state sovereignty. Gorbachev saw a way out in stopping the collapse of the USSR by signing a new union treaty. Its signing was scheduled for August 20, 1991. But the conservatives did not wait. They needed Gorbachev as long as he could rein in the Democrats. When it became clear that he was unable to do so, his era ended.
In early August 1991, Gorbachev went to the Crimea on vacation. This was taken advantage of by his opponents. August 19, 1991 they attempted to carry out a coup d'état. The State Committee for the State of Emergency was established ( GKChP). It included, in particular, the mentioned Kryuchkov, Pavlov, Pugo, Yanaev, and some other persons.
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