When building an ecological pyramid, they are located at the base. Ecological pyramids - Knowledge hypermarket

12.10.2019

One of the types of relationships between organisms in ecosystems are trophic relationships. They show how energy moves through food chains in ecosystems. A model that demonstrates the change in the amount of energy in the links of food chains is the ecological pyramid.

The structure of the pyramid

The pyramid is a graphic model. Her image is divided into horizontal levels. The number of levels corresponds to the number of links in the food chains.

All food chains begin with producers - autotrophic organisms that form organic substances. The totality of ecosystem autotrophs is what is at the base of the ecological pyramid.

Rice. 1. Ecological pyramid of population

Usually the food pyramid contains from 3 to 5 levels.

The last links in the food chain are always large predators or humans. Thus, the number of individuals and biomass at the last level of the pyramid are the lowest.

Model conditionality

It should be understood that the model shows the reality in a generalized way. Everything is more difficult in life. Any large organism, including humans, can be eaten and its energy will be used in the ecological pyramid in an atypical way.

Part of the biomass of an ecosystem is always accounted for by decomposers - organisms that decompose dead organic matter. Reducers are eaten by consumers, partially returning energy to the ecosystem.

Omnivorous animals like Brown bear, act both as a consumer of the first order (eats plants), and as a decomposer (eats carrion), and as a large predator.

Kinds

Depending on what quantitative characteristic of the levels is used, There are three types of ecological pyramids:

numbers;
biomass;
energy.

10% rule

According to ecologists' calculations, 10% of the biomass or energy of the previous level goes to each subsequent level of the ecological pyramid. The remaining 90% is spent on the vital processes of organisms and dissipated in the form of thermal radiation.

This pattern is called the rule of the ecological pyramid of energy and biomass.

Consider examples. From one ton green plants about 100 kg of body weight of herbivores is formed. When herbivores are consumed by small predators, their weight increases by 10 kg. If small predators are eaten by large ones, then the body weight of the latter increases by 1 kg.

Rice. 2. Ecological pyramid of biomass

Food chain: phytoplankton - zooplankton - small fish - large fish - man. There are already 5 levels here, and in order for a person's mass to increase by 1 kg, it is necessary that there are 10 tons of phytoplankton on the first level.

Rice. 3. Ecological pyramid of energy

Apex Benefits

Species at the top of the ecological pyramid are much more likely to evolve. In ancient times, it was the animals that occupied the highest level in trophic relationships that developed faster.

In the Mesozoic, mammals occupied the middle levels of the ecological pyramid and were actively exterminated by predatory reptiles. It was only thanks to the extinction of the dinosaurs that they were able to rise to the top level and take a dominant position in all ecosystems.

Ecological pyramids are graphical models that reflect the number of individuals (pyramid of numbers), the amount of their biomass (pyramid of biomass) or the energy contained in them (pyramid of energy) at each trophic level and indicate a decrease in all indicators with an increase in the trophic level.

There are three types of ecological pyramids: energy, biomass and abundance. We talked about the pyramid of energy in the previous section “Energy transfer in ecosystems”. The ratio of living matter at different levels generally obeys the same rule as the ratio of incoming energy: the higher the level, the lower the total biomass and the number of its constituent organisms.

biomass pyramid

Pyramids of biomass, as well as numbers, can be not only straight, but also inverted, characteristic of aquatic ecosystems.

An ecological (trophic) pyramid is a graphic representation of the quantitative relationships between the trophic levels of a biocenosis - producers, consumers (separately for each level) and decomposers, expressed in their numbers (pyramid of numbers), biomass (pyramid of biomass) or the rate of increase in biomass (pyramid of energies).

Biomass pyramid - the ratio between producers, consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem, expressed in their mass and depicted as a trophic model.

Pyramids of biomass, as well as numbers, can be not only straight, but also inverted (Fig. 12.38). Inverted pyramids of biomass are characteristic of aquatic ecosystems, in which primary producers, for example, phytoplankton algae, divide very quickly, and their consumers, zooplankton crustaceans, are much larger, but have a long reproduction cycle. In particular, this applies to the freshwater environment, where the primary productivity is provided by microscopic organisms, the metabolic rate of which is increased, i.e., the biomass is low, the productivity is high.

Biomass pyramids are of more fundamental interest, since they eliminate the "physical" factor and clearly show the quantitative ratios of biomass. If the organisms do not differ too much in size, then by denoting the total mass of individuals at the trophic levels, one can obtain a stepped pyramid. But if the organisms of the lower levels are, on average, smaller than the organisms of the higher levels, then there is an inverted pyramid of biomass. For example, in ecosystems with very small producers and large consumers, the total mass of the latter may at any given moment be higher than the total mass of producers. Several generalizations can be made for biomass pyramids.

The biomass pyramid shows the change in biomass at each next trophic level: for terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass pyramid narrows upward, for the ocean ecosystem it has an inverted character (narrows downward), which is associated with the rapid consumption of phytoplankton by consumers.

Pyramid of numbers

The population pyramid is an ecological pyramid that reflects the number of individuals at each food level. The pyramid of numbers does not always give a clear idea of the structure of food chains, since it does not take into account the size and weight of individuals, life expectancy, metabolic rate, but the main trend - a decrease in the number of individuals from link to link - in most cases can be traced.

So, in the steppe ecosystem, the following number of individuals was established: producers - 150,000, herbivorous consumers - 20,000, carnivorous consumers - 9000 ind./ar (Odum, 1075), which in terms of hectare will be 100 times larger. The meadow biocenosis is characterized by the following number of individuals on an area of 4 thousand m2: producers - 5,842,424, herbivorous consumers of the 1st order - 708,024, carnivorous consumers of the 2nd order - 35,490, carnivorous consumers of the 3rd order - 3.

inverted pyramids

If the reproduction rate of the prey population is high, then even with a low biomass, such a population can be a sufficient food source for predators with a higher biomass, but a low reproduction rate. For this reason, population pyramids can be inverted, i.e. the density of organisms at a given point in time at a low trophic level may be lower than the density of organisms at a high level. For example, many insects can live and feed on one tree (an inverted pyramid of numbers).

An inverted biomass pyramid is characteristic of marine ecosystems, where the primary producers (phytoplankton algae) divide very quickly (have a large reproductive potential and a rapid change of generations). In the ocean, up to 50 generations of phytoplankton can change in a year. Phytoplankton consumers are much larger, but multiply much more slowly. During the time that predatory fish (especially walruses and whales) accumulate their biomass, many generations of phytoplankton will change, the total biomass of which is much greater.

Pyramids of biomass do not take into account the duration of the existence of generations of individuals at different trophic levels and the rate of formation and consumption of biomass. That's why universal way expressions of the trophic structure of ecosystems are the pyramids of the rates of formation of living matter, i.e. productivity. They are usually called energy pyramids, referring to the energy expression of production.

It can be depicted graphically, in the form of the so-called ecological pyramids. The base of the pyramid is the level of producers, and the subsequent levels of nutrition form the floors and top of the pyramid. There are three main types of ecological pyramids:

A pyramid of numbers reflecting the number of organisms at each level;
Biomass pyramidcharacterizing the mass of living matter - total dry weight, calorie content, etc.;
Pyramid of production (energy), which has a universal character, showing the change in primary production (or energy) at successive trophic levels.

Ordinary pyramids of numbers for pasture chains have a very wide base and a sharp narrowing towards the final consumers. At the same time, the number of "steps" differ by at least 1-3 orders of magnitude. But this is true only for grass communities - meadow or steppe biocenoses.

The picture changes dramatically if we consider the forest community (thousands of phytophages can feed on one tree) or if such different phytophages as aphids and elephants are at the same trophic level. This distortion can be overcome with biomass pyramids.

In terrestrial ecosystems, plant biomass is always significantly greater than animal biomass, and phytophage biomass is always greater than zoophagous biomass.

Biomass pyramids for aquatic, especially marine ecosystems look different: animal biomass is usually much larger than plant biomass. This "irregularity" is due to the fact that biomass pyramids do not take into account the duration of the existence of generations of individuals at different trophic levels, the rate of formation and consumption of biomass. The main producer of marine ecosystems is phytoplankton, which has a great reproductive potential and rapid generational change. During the time that predatory fish (especially walruses and whales) accumulate their biomass, many generations of phytoplankton will change, the total biomass of which is much larger. That is why the universal way of expressing the trophic structure of ecosystems is the pyramids of the rates of formation of living matter, in other words, the pyramids of energies.

A more perfect reflection of the influence of trophic relations on an ecosystem is the rule pyramids of products (energy): at each previous trophic level, the amount of biomass created per unit of time (or energy) is greater than at the next. The product pyramid reflects the laws of energy expenditure on trophic chains.

Ultimately, all three rules of the pyramids reflect the energy relations in the ecosystem, and the pyramid of production (energy) has a universal character.

In nature, in stable systems, biomass changes insignificantly; nature seeks to fully exploit gross output. Knowledge of the energy of the ecosystem and its quantitative indicators make it possible to accurately take into account the possibility of removing one or another amount of plant and animal biomass from the natural ecosystem without undermining its productivity.

A person receives a lot of products from natural systems, nevertheless, agriculture is the main source of food for him. Having created agroecosystems, a person seeks to get as much pure vegetation production as possible, but he needs to spend half of the plant mass on feeding herbivores, birds, etc., a significant part of the production goes to industry and is lost in waste, i.e. and here about 90% of pure production is lost and only about 10% is directly used for human consumption.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

National Research

Irkutsk State Technical University

Correspondence-evening faculty

Department of General Educational Disciplines

Test in Ecology

completed by: Yakovlev V.Ya

Record book number: 13150837

group: EPbz-13-2

Irkutsk 2015

1. Give the concept of an environmental factor. Classification environmental factors

2. Ecological pyramids and their characteristics

3. What is called biological pollution environment?

4. What are the types of liability of officials for environmental violations?

Bibliography

1. Give the concept of an environmental factor. Classification of environmental factors

The habitat is that part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The components and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living being lives in a complex changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes.

Separate properties or parts of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They may be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living beings, promote or hinder their survival and reproduction. Environmental factors have different nature and specific action.

Abiotic factors - temperature, light, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, salt composition of water, wind, currents, terrain - these are all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms. Among them are distinguished:

Physical factors - such factors, the source of which is a physical state or phenomenon (for example, temperature, pressure, humidity, air movement, etc.).

Chemical factors - such factors that are due to the chemical composition of the environment (water salinity, oxygen content in the air, etc.).

Edaphic factors (soil) - a set of chemical, physical, mechanical properties of soils and rocks that affect both the organisms for which they are the habitat and the root system of plants (humidity, soil structure, nutrient content, etc.) .

Biotic factors are all forms of influence of living beings on each other. Each organism constantly experiences the direct or indirect influence of others, enters into contact with representatives of its own species and other species - plants, animals, microorganisms - depends on them and itself has an impact on them. The surrounding organic world is an integral part of the environment of every living being.

Anthropogenic factors are all forms of activity of human society that lead to a change in nature, as the habitat of other species, or directly affect their lives. In the course of human history, the development of hunting first, and then agriculture, industry, and transport has greatly changed the nature of our planet. The significance of anthropogenic impacts on the entire living world of the Earth continues to grow rapidly.

The following groups of anthropogenic factors are distinguished:

Change in the structure of the earth's surface;

Changes in the composition of the biosphere, circulation and balance of its constituent substances;

Changes in the energy and heat balance of individual sections and regions;

Changes made to the biota.

The conditions of existence are a set of elements of the environment necessary for the organism, with which it is in inseparable unity and without which it cannot exist. Elements of the environment, necessary for the body or adversely affecting it, are called environmental factors. In nature, these factors do not act in isolation from each other, but in the form of a complex complex. The complex of environmental factors, without which the organism cannot exist, is the conditions for the existence of this organism.

All adaptations of organisms to existence in various conditions developed historically. As a result, groupings of plants and animals specific to each geographical area were formed.

Environmental factors:

Elementary - light, heat, moisture, food, and so on;

Complex;

Anthropogenic;

The influence of environmental factors on living organisms is characterized by certain quantitative and qualitative patterns. The German agrochemist J. Liebig, observing the effect of chemical fertilizers on plants, found that limiting the dose of any of them leads to growth retardation. These observations allowed the scientist to formulate a rule that is called the law of the minimum (1840).

2. Ecological pyramids and their characteristics

An ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of the relationship between producers and consumers of all levels (herbivores, predators; species that feed on other predators) in an ecosystem.

The American zoologist Charles Elton proposed in 1927 to schematically depict these relationships.

In a schematic representation, each level is shown as a rectangle, the length or area of \u200b\u200bwhich corresponds to the numerical values \u200b\u200bof the food chain link (Elton's pyramid), their mass or energy. Rectangles arranged in a certain sequence create pyramids of various shapes.

The base of the pyramid is the first trophic level - the level of producers, the subsequent floors of the pyramid are formed by the next levels of the food chain - consumers of various orders. The height of all blocks in the pyramid is the same, and the length is proportional to the number, biomass or energy at the corresponding level.

Ecological pyramids are distinguished depending on the indicators on the basis of which the pyramid is built. At the same time, for all the pyramids, the main rule is established, according to which in any ecosystem more plants than animals, herbivores than carnivores, insects than birds.

Based on the rule of the ecological pyramid, it is possible to determine or calculate the quantitative ratios of different plant and animal species in natural and artificially created ecological systems. For example, 1 kg of the mass of a sea animal (seal, dolphin) needs 10 kg of eaten fish, and these 10 kg already need 100 kg of their food - aquatic invertebrates, which, in turn, need to eat 1000 kg of algae and bacteria to form such a mass. In this case, the ecological pyramid will be stable.

However, as you know, there are exceptions to every rule, which will be considered in each type of ecological pyramids.

Types of ecological pyramids

Pyramids of numbers - at each level, the number of individual organisms is postponed

The pyramid of numbers reflects a clear pattern discovered by Elton: the number of individuals that make up a sequential series of links from producers to consumers is steadily decreasing (Fig. 3).

For example, to feed one wolf, you need at least a few hares that he could hunt; to feed these hares, you need a fairly large number of various plants. In this case, the pyramid will look like a triangle with a wide base tapering upwards.

However, this form of a pyramid of numbers is not typical for all ecosystems. Sometimes they can be reversed, or inverted. This applies to forest food chains, when trees serve as producers, and insects as primary consumers. In this case, the level of primary consumers is numerically richer than the level of producers (a large number of insects feed on one tree), so the pyramids of numbers are the least informative and least indicative, i.e. the number of organisms of the same trophic level largely depends on their size.

Biomass pyramids - characterizes the total dry or wet mass of organisms at a given trophic level, for example, in units of mass per unit area - g / m2, kg / ha, t / km2 or per volume - g / m3 (Fig. 4)

Usually, in terrestrial biocenoses, the total mass of producers is greater than each subsequent link. In turn, the total mass of first-order consumers is greater than second-order consumers, and so on.

In this case (if the organisms do not differ too much in size), the pyramid will also look like a triangle with a wide base tapering upwards. However, there are significant exceptions to this rule. For example, in the seas, the biomass of herbivorous zooplankton is significantly (sometimes 2-3 times) greater than the biomass of phytoplankton, which is represented mainly by unicellular algae. This is explained by the fact that algae are very quickly eaten away by zooplankton, but the very high rate of division of their cells protects them from complete eating.

In general, terrestrial biogeocenoses, where producers are large and live relatively long, are characterized by relatively stable pyramids with a wide base. In aquatic ecosystems, where producers are small in size and have short life cycles, the biomass pyramid can be reversed or inverted (pointed downwards). So, in lakes and seas, the mass of plants exceeds the mass of consumers only during the flowering period (spring), and in the rest of the year the situation may be reversed.

Pyramids of numbers and biomass reflect the statics of the system, i.e., they characterize the number or biomass of organisms in a certain period of time. They don't give complete information about the trophic structure of the ecosystem, although they allow solving a number of practical problems, especially those related to maintaining the stability of ecosystems.

The pyramid of numbers makes it possible, for example, to calculate the allowable value of catching fish or shooting animals during the hunting period without consequences for their normal reproduction.

Pyramids of energy - shows the amount of energy flow or productivity at successive levels (Fig. 5).

In contrast to the pyramids of numbers and biomass, which reflect the statics of the system (the number of organisms at a given moment), the pyramid of energy, reflecting the picture of the speed of passage of a mass of food (amount of energy) through each trophic level of the food chain, gives the most complete picture of the functional organization of communities.

The shape of this pyramid is not affected by changes in the size and intensity of the metabolism of individuals, and if all sources of energy are taken into account, then the pyramid will always have a typical appearance with a wide base and a tapering top. When building a pyramid of energy, a rectangle is often added to its base, showing the influx of solar energy.

In 1942, the American ecologist R. Lindeman formulated the law of the pyramid of energies (the law of 10 percent), according to which, on average, about 10% of the energy received by the previous level of the ecological pyramid passes from one trophic level through food chains to another trophic level. The rest of the energy is lost in the form of thermal radiation, movement, etc. Organisms, as a result of metabolic processes, lose about 90% of all the energy that is expended to maintain their vital activity in each link of the food chain.

If a hare ate 10 kg of plant matter, then its own weight could increase by 1 kg. A fox or a wolf, eating 1 kg of hare, increases its mass by only 100 g. woody plants this proportion is much lower due to the fact that wood is poorly absorbed by organisms. For grasses and algae, this value is much higher, since they do not have hard-to-digest tissues. However, the general regularity of the process of energy transfer remains: much less energy passes through the upper trophic levels than through the lower ones.

Consider the transformation of energy in an ecosystem using the example of a simple pasture trophic chain, in which there are only three trophic levels.

level - herbaceous plants,

level - herbivorous mammals, for example, hares

level - predatory mammals, for example, foxes

Nutrients are created in the process of photosynthesis by plants, which from inorganic substances (water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts, etc.) using the energy of sunlight form organic substances and oxygen, as well as ATP. Part of the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation is then converted into the energy of chemical bonds of synthesized organic substances.

All organic matter created during photosynthesis is called gross primary production (GPP). Part of the energy of gross primary production is spent on respiration, resulting in the formation of net primary production (NPP), which is the very substance that enters the second trophic level and is used by hares.

Let the runway be 200 conventional units energy, and the costs of plants for respiration (R) - 50%, i.e. 100 conventional units of energy. Then the net primary production will be equal to: NPP = WPP - R (100 = 200 - 100), i.e. at the second trophic level, hares will receive 100 conventional units of energy.

However, for various reasons, hares are able to consume only a certain proportion of NPP (otherwise, resources for the development of living matter would disappear), but a significant part of it, in the form of dead organic residues (underground parts of plants, hard wood of stems, branches, etc. .) is not able to be eaten by hares. It enters detritus food chains and (or) is decomposed by decomposers (F). The other part goes to building new cells (population size, growth of hares - P) and ensuring energy metabolism or respiration (R).

In this case, according to the balance approach, the balance equation of energy consumption (C) will look like this: C = P + R + F, i.e. The energy received at the second trophic level will be spent, according to Lindemann's law, for population growth - P - 10%, the remaining 90% will be spent on breathing and removing undigested food.

Thus, in ecosystems with an increase in the trophic level, there is a rapid decrease in the energy accumulated in the bodies of living organisms. From this it is clear why each subsequent level will always be less than the previous one and why food chains usually cannot have more than 3-5 (rarely 6) links, and ecological pyramids cannot consist of a large number floors: the final link of the food chain, as well as the top floor of the ecological pyramid, will receive so little energy that it will not be enough if the number of organisms increases.

Such a sequence and subordination of groups of organisms connected in the form of trophic levels is the flow of matter and energy in the biogeocenosis, the basis of its functional organization.

3. What is called biological pollution of the environment?

Ecology is theoretical basis environmental management, it plays a leading role in developing a strategy for the relationship between nature and human society. Industrial ecology considers the violation of natural balance as a result of economic activity. At the same time, environmental pollution is the most significant in its consequences. The term "environment" is commonly understood as everything that directly or indirectly affects human life and activities.

The role of yeast in natural ecosystems Oh. For example, long considered harmless commensals, many epiphytic yeasts that abundantly seed the green parts of plants may not be so “innocent” if we consider that they represent only a haploid stage in the life cycle of organisms closely related to phytopathogenic smut or rust fungi. Conversely, yeast pathogenic for humans, causing dangerous and intractable diseases - candidiasis and cryptococcosis - in nature have a saprotrophic stage and are easily isolated from dead organic substrates. It can be seen from these examples that to understand the ecological functions of yeast, it is necessary to study the complete life cycles of each species. Autochthonous soil yeasts with specific functions important for the formation of soil structure have also been found. Inexhaustible in variety and connection of yeast with animals, especially with invertebrates.

Air pollution can be associated with natural processes: volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires.

In addition, the atmosphere is polluted as a result of human production activities.

Sources of air pollution are smoke emissions from industrial enterprises. Emissions are organized and unorganized. Emissions coming from the pipes of industrial enterprises are specially directed and organized. Before entering the pipe, they pass through treatment facilities, in which some of the harmful substances are absorbed. From windows, doors, vents industrial buildings fugitive emissions enter the atmosphere. The main pollutants in emissions are particulate matter (dust, soot) and gaseous substances (carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides).

The selection and identification of microorganisms with useful properties for a certain production is a very important work from an ecological point of view, since their use can intensify the process or more fully utilize the components of the substrate.

The essence of bioremediation methods, biological treatment, bioprocessing and biomodification is the use of various biological agents in the environment, primarily microorganisms. In this case, it can be used as microorganisms obtained traditional methods selections, as well as those created with the help of genetic engineering, as well as transgenic plants that can affect the biological balance of natural ecosystems.

The environment may contain industrial strains of various microorganisms - producers of the biosynthesis of certain substances, as well as products of their metabolism, which act as a biological pollution factor. Its action may be to change the structure of biocenoses. Indirect effects of biological pollution are manifested, for example, when antibiotics and other medicines are used in medicine, when strains of microorganisms appear that are resistant to their action and dangerous for the human internal environment; in the form of complications when using vaccines and sera containing impurities of substances of biological origin; as an allergenic and genetic effect of microorganisms and their metabolic products.

Biotechnological large-scale productions are a source of emission of bioaerosols containing cells of non-pathogenic microorganisms, as well as products of their metabolism. The main sources of bioaerosols containing living cells of microorganisms are the stages of fermentation and separation, and of inactivated cells - the stage of drying. With a massive release, microbial biomass, getting into the soil or into a water body, changes the distribution of energy and substance flows in trophic food chains and affects the structure and function of biocenoses, reduces the activity of self-purification and, therefore, affects the global function of the biota. At the same time, it is possible to provoke the active development of certain organisms, including microorganisms of sanitary-indicative groups.

The dynamics of introduced populations and indicators of their biotechnological potential depend on the type of microorganism, the state of the soil microbial system at the time of introduction, the stage of microbial succession, and the dose of the introduced population. At the same time, the consequences of the introduction of microorganisms new to soil biocenoses can be ambiguous. Due to self-purification, not every microbial population introduced into the soil is eliminated. The nature of the population dynamics of introduced microorganisms depends on the degree of their adaptation to new conditions. Unadapted populations die, adapted ones survive.

The biological factor of pollution can be defined as a set of biological components, the impact of which on humans and the environment is associated with their ability to reproduce in natural or artificial conditions, produce biologically active substances, and, if they or their metabolic products enter the environment, have adverse effects on the environment. , people, animals, plants.

Biological pollution factors (most often microbial) can be classified as follows: live microorganisms with a natural genome that do not have toxicity, saprophytes, live microorganisms with a natural genome that have infectious activity, pathogenic and opportunistic pathogens that produce toxins, live microorganisms obtained by genetic methods. engineering (genetically modified microorganisms containing foreign genes or new combinations of genes - GMMOs), infectious and other viruses, toxins of biological origin, inactivated cells of microorganisms (vaccines, dust of thermally inactivated biomass of microorganisms for feed and food purposes), metabolic products of microorganisms, organelles and organic cell compounds are the products of its fractionation.

The purpose of our work was the isolation and identification of yeast microorganisms in the laboratory of biotechnology of the Gorsky State Agrarian University, belonging to the first group of the above organisms. Since these are microorganisms with a natural genome and do not have toxicity, their impact on the environment is very organic and not significant.

Sources of microorganisms, including opportunistic and pathogenic ones, are sewage (household fecal, industrial, urban storm drains). In rural areas, faecal pollution comes from residential runoff, pastures, livestock and bird pens, and wildlife. In the process of wastewater treatment, the number of pathogenic microorganisms in them decreases. The scale of their impact on the environment is insignificant, however, since this source of microbial cell emission exists, it must be taken into account as a factor in environmental pollution.

The water used in the course of our work for the preparation of media, flushes, autoclave heating and thermostats can be treated at city treatment facilities together with municipal wastewater in an aerobic or anaerobic manner.

Biological pollutants in terms of environmental properties differ significantly from chemical ones. In terms of chemical composition, technogenic biological pollution is identical to natural components; they are included in the natural cycle of substances and trophic food chains without accumulation in the environment.

All microbiological and virological laboratories must be equipped with a wastewater receiver, where the collected effluents must be neutralized by a chemical, physical or biological method before being discharged into the city sewer, or in a combined way.

4. What are the types of liability of officials for environmental violations?

Environmental and legal liability is a kind of general legal liability, but at the same time differs from other types of legal liability.

Environmental and legal responsibility is considered in three interrelated aspects:

as state coercion to fulfill the requirements prescribed by law;

as a legal relationship between the state (represented by its bodies) and offenders (who are subject to sanctions);

as a legal institution, i.e. a set of legal norms, various branches of law (land, mining, water, forest, environmental, etc.). Environmental offenses are punished in accordance with the requirements of the law Russian Federation. The ultimate goal of environmental legislation and each of its individual articles is to protect against pollution, to ensure the lawful use of the environment and its elements protected by law. The scope of environmental legislation is the environment and its individual elements. The object of the offense is an element of the environment. The requirements of the law require the establishment of a clear causal relationship between the violation and the deterioration of the environment.

The subject of environmental offenses is a person who has reached the age of 16, to whom the relevant official duties are assigned by regulatory legal acts (compliance with the rules of environmental protection, control over compliance with the rules), or any person who has reached the age of 16 who has violated the requirements of environmental legislation.

An environmental offense is characterized by the presence of three elements:

wrongful conduct;

causing environmental harm (or real threat) or violation of other legal rights and interests of the subject of environmental law;

causality between illegal behavior and environmental damage or a real threat of causing such damage or violation of other legal rights and interests of environmental law subjects.

Liability for environmental offenses is one of the main means of ensuring compliance with the requirements of legislation on environmental protection and the use of natural resources. The effectiveness of this tool largely depends, first of all, on state bodies authorized to apply legal liability measures to violators of environmental legislation. In accordance with Russian legislation in the field of environmental protection, officials and citizens for environmental offenses bear disciplinary, administrative, criminal, civil and material liability, and enterprises - administrative and civil liability.

Disciplinary liability arises for failure to comply with plans and measures for the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources, for violation of environmental standards and other requirements of environmental legislation arising from the labor function or official position. Disciplinary responsibility is borne by officials and other guilty employees of enterprises and organizations in accordance with the regulations, charters, internal regulations and other regulations (Article 82 of the Law "On Environmental Protection"). In accordance with the Code of Labor Laws (as amended and supplemented on September 25, 1992), the following disciplinary sanctions may be applied to violators: reprimand, reprimand, severe reprimand, dismissal from work, other punishments (Article 135).

Liability is also regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Articles 118-126). Such liability is borne by officials and other employees of the enterprise, through whose fault the enterprise incurred the costs of compensation for damage caused by an environmental offense.

The application of administrative responsibility is regulated by both environmental legislation and the RSFSR Code of Administrative Offenses of 1984 (with amendments and additions). The Law “On the Protection of the Environment” has expanded the list of elements of environmental offenses, in the commission of which guilty officials, individuals and legal entities bear administrative responsibility. Such liability arises for exceeding the maximum permissible emissions and discharges of harmful substances into the environment, failure to fulfill the obligations to conduct a state environmental review and the requirements contained in the conclusion of an environmental review, providing knowingly incorrect and unreasonable conclusions, untimely provision of information and provision of distorted information, refusal to provide timely, complete, reliable information about the state of the natural environment and the radiation situation, etc.

The specific amount of the fine is determined by the body imposing the fine, depending on the nature and type of the offense, the degree of guilt of the offender and the harm caused. Administrative fines are imposed by authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection, sanitary and epidemiological supervision of the Russian Federation. In this case, the decision to impose a fine may be appealed to a court or arbitration court. The imposition of a fine does not release the perpetrators from the obligation to compensate for the harm caused (Article 84 of the Law “On Environmental Protection”).

In the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, environmental crimes are singled out in a separate chapter (Chapter 26). It provides for criminal liability for violation of environmental safety rules in the course of work, violation of the rules for storage, disposal of environmentally hazardous substances and waste, violation of safety rules when handling microbiological or other biological agents or toxins, pollution of water, atmosphere and sea, violation of legislation on continental shelf, damage to land, illegal harvesting of aquatic animals and plants, violation of the rules for the protection of fish stocks, illegal hunting, illegal felling of trees and shrubs, destruction or damage to forests.

The application of measures of disciplinary, administrative or criminal liability for environmental offenses does not release the perpetrators from the obligation to compensate for the harm caused by an environmental offense. The Law "On Environmental Protection" takes the position that enterprises, organizations and citizens that cause harm to the environment, health or property of citizens, the national economy by environmental pollution, damage, destruction, damage, irrational use of natural resources, destruction of natural environmental systems and other environmental offenses are obliged to compensate it in full in accordance with applicable law (Article 86).

Civil liability in the sphere of interaction between society and nature consists mainly in imposing on the offender the obligation to compensate the injured party for property or moral damage as a result of violation of legal environmental requirements.

Responsibility for environmental offenses performs a number of main functions:

encouraging compliance with environmental law;

compensatory, aimed at compensating for losses in the natural environment, compensation for harm to human health;

preventive, which consists in punishing the person guilty of committing an environmental offense.

Environmental legislation provides for three levels of punishment: for violation; violation that caused significant damage; a violation resulting in the death of a person (serious consequences). The death of a person as a result of an environmental crime is assessed by law as negligence (committed through negligence or frivolity). The types of punishments for environmental violations can be a fine, deprivation of the right to hold certain positions, deprivation of the right to engage in certain activities, correctional labor, restriction of liberty, imprisonment.

One of the most serious environmental crimes is ecocide - the mass destruction of the flora (plant communities of the land of Russia or its individual regions) or wildlife (the totality of living organisms of all kinds of wild animals inhabiting the territory of Russia or a certain region of it), poisoning the atmosphere and water resources(surface and ground waters that are used or can be used), as well as the commission of other actions that can cause an environmental disaster. The social danger of ecocide consists in the threat or causing great harm to the natural environment, the preservation of the gene pool of the people, flora and fauna.

Ecological catastrophy manifests itself in a serious violation of the ecological balance in nature, the destruction of the stable species composition of living organisms, a complete or significant reduction in their numbers, in violation of the cycles of seasonal changes in the biotic circulation of substances and biological processes. Ecocide may be motivated by misunderstood military or state interests, the commission of actions with direct or indirect intent.

Success in establishing environmental law and order is achieved by a gradual increase in public and state influence on persistent offenders, by an optimal combination of educational, economic and legal measures.

environmental pollution offense

Bibliography

1. Akimova T.V. Ecology. Man-Economy-Biota-Environment: Textbook for university students / T.A. Akimova, V.V. Khaskin; 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITI, 2009.- 556 p.

Akimova T.V. Ecology. Nature-Man-Technology.: A textbook for students of tech. direction and spec. universities / T.A. Akimova, A.P. Kuzmin, V.V. Haskin ..- Under the total. ed. A.P. Kuzmina. M.: UNITI-DANA, 2011.- 343 p.

Brodsky A.K. General ecology: Textbook for university students. M.: Ed. Center "Academy", 2011. - 256 p.

Voronkov N.A. Ecology: general, social, applied. Textbook for university students. M.: Agar, 2011. - 424 p.

Korobkin V.I. Ecology: Textbook for university students / V.I. Korobkin, L.V. Peredelsky. -6th ed., add. And revised. - Roston n / D: Phoenix, 2012. - 575s.

Nikolaikin N.I., Nikolaykina N.E., Melekhova O.P. Ecology. 2nd ed. Textbook for high schools. M.: Bustard, 2008. - 624 p.

Stadnitsky G.V., Rodionov A.I. Ecology: Uch. allowance for st. chemical-technological and tech. cn. universities. / Ed. V.A. Solovieva, Yu.A. Krotova. - 4th ed., corrected. - St. Petersburg: Chemistry, 2012. -238s.

Odum Yu. Ecology vol. 1.2. World, 2011.

Chernova N.M. General ecology: A textbook for students of pedagogical universities / N.M. Chernova, A.M. Bylov. - M.: Bustard, 2008.-416 p.

Ecology: A textbook for students of higher education. and avg. textbook institutions, educational according to tech. specialist. and directions / L.I. Tsvetkova, M.I. Alekseev, F.V. Karamzinov and others; under total ed. L.I. Tsvetkova. Moscow: ASBV; St. Petersburg: Himizdat, 2012. - 550 p.

Ecology. Ed. prof. V.V. Denisov. Rostov-on-D.: ICC "Mart", 2011. - 768 p.

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1. Pyramids of numbers- at each level, the number of individual organisms is plotted.

The pyramid of numbers reflects a distinct pattern discovered by Elton: the number of individuals that make up a sequential series of links from producers to consumers is steadily decreasing (Fig. 3).

However, this form of the pyramid of numbers is not typical for all ecosystems. Sometimes they can be reversed, or inverted. This applies to forest food chains, when trees serve as producers, and insects as primary consumers. In this case, the level of primary consumers is numerically richer than the level of producers (a large number of insects feed on one tree), so the pyramids of numbers are the least informative and least indicative, i.e. the number of organisms of the same trophic level largely depends on their size.

2. biomass pyramids- characterizes the total dry or wet mass of organisms at a given trophic level, for example, in units of mass per unit area - g / m 2, kg / ha, t / km 2 or per volume - g / m 3 (Fig. 4)

Pyramids of numbers and biomass reflect the statics of the system, i.e., they characterize the number or biomass of organisms in a certain period of time. They do not provide complete information about the trophic structure of the ecosystem, although they allow solving a number of practical problems, especially those related to maintaining the stability of ecosystems.

3. energy pyramids- shows the magnitude of the energy flow or productivity at successive levels (Fig. 5).

If a hare ate 10 kg of plant matter, then its own weight could increase by 1 kg. A fox or a wolf, eating 1 kg of hare, increases its mass by only 100 g. In woody plants, this proportion is much lower due to the fact that wood is poorly absorbed by organisms. For grasses and algae, this value is much higher, since they do not have hard-to-digest tissues. However, the general regularity of the process of energy transfer remains: much less energy passes through the upper trophic levels than through the lower ones.

Consider the transformation of energy in an ecosystem using the example of a simple pasture trophic chain, in which there are only three trophic levels.

1. Level - herbaceous plants,

2. Level - herbivorous mammals, for example, hares

3. Level - predatory mammals, for example, foxes

Nutrients are created in the process of photosynthesis by plants, which from inorganic substances (water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts, etc.), using the energy of sunlight, form organic substances and oxygen, as well as ATP. Part of the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation is then converted into the energy of chemical bonds of synthesized organic substances.

Let the runway be 200 conventional units of energy, and the costs of plants for respiration (R) be 50%, i.e. 100 conventional units of energy. Then the net primary production will be equal to: NPP = WPP - R (100 = 200 - 100), i.e. at the second trophic level, hares will receive 100 conventional units of energy.

In this case, according to the balance approach, the balance equation of energy consumption (C) will look like this: C = P + R + F, i.e. the energy received at the second trophic level will be spent, according to Lindemann's law, for population growth - P - 10%, the remaining 90% will be spent on breathing and removing undigested food.

Thus, in ecosystems with an increase in the trophic level, there is a rapid decrease in the energy accumulated in the bodies of living organisms. From this it is clear why each subsequent level will always be less than the previous one and why food chains usually cannot have more than 3-5 (rarely 6) links, and ecological pyramids cannot consist of a large number of floors: to the final link of the food chain in the same way as to the top floor of the ecological pyramid will receive so little energy that it will not be enough in case of an increase in the number of organisms.

Such a sequence and subordination of groups of organisms connected in the form of trophic levels is the flow of matter and energy in the biogeocenosis, the basis of its functional organization.

The most important type of relationship between organisms in a biocenosis, which actually form its structure, is the food connections of a predator and prey: some are eaters, others are eaten. At the same time, all organisms, living and dead, are food for other organisms: a hare eats grass, a fox and a wolf hunt hares, birds of prey (hawks, eagles, etc.) are able to drag and eat both a fox cub and a wolf cub. Dead plants, hares, foxes, wolves, birds become food for detritivores (decomposers or otherwise destructors).

A food chain is a sequence of organisms in which each eats or decomposes the other. It represents the path of a unidirectional flow of a small part of the highly efficient solar energy absorbed during photosynthesis, which came to Earth, moving through living organisms. Ultimately, this circuit returns to the environment. natural environment in the form of low-efficiency thermal energy. Nutrients also move along it from producers to consumers and then to decomposers, and then back to producers.

Each link in the food chain is called a trophic level. The first trophic level is occupied by autotrophs, otherwise referred to as primary producers. Organisms of the second trophic level are called primary consumers, the third - secondary consumers, etc. Usually there are four or five trophic levels and rarely more than six (Fig. 1).

There are two main types of food chains - grazing (or "eating") and detrital (or "decaying").

Rice. 1. Food chains of biocenosis according to N.F. Reimers: generalized (a) and real (b)

The arrows in Figure 1 show the direction of energy movement, and the numbers show the relative amount of energy coming to the trophic level.

In grazing food chains, the first trophic level is occupied by green plants, the second by grazing animals (the term "grassland" covers all organisms that feed on plants), and the third by predators.

So, pasture food chains are:

PLANT MATERIAL (e.g. nectar) => FLY => SPIDER =>

=> SHREDDER => OWL

ROSE BUSH JUICE => APHIDS => LADYBUG => SPIDER =>

=> INSECTIVORUS BIRD => BIRD OF PREY.

The detrital food chain begins with detritus according to the scheme:

DETRIT-> DETRITOPHY -> PREDATOR

Typical detrital food chains are:

FOREST LITTER => EARTHWORM => BLACKDRUS =>

=> SPARROW HAWK

DEAD ANIMAL \u003d\u003e CARRIER FLY LARVIES \u003d\u003e GRASS FROG \u003d\u003e ORDINARY SNAIL.

The concept of food chains allows us to further trace the cycle chemical elements in nature, although simple food chains such as those depicted earlier, where each organism is represented as feeding on only one type of organism, are rare in nature.

Real food relationships are much more complex, because an animal can feed on organisms different types included in the same food chain or in different chains, which is especially characteristic of predators (consumers) of higher trophic levels. The relationship between pasture and detritus food chains is illustrated by the energy flow model proposed by Yu. Odum (Fig. 2).

Omnivorous animals (in particular, humans) feed on both consumers and producers. Thus, in nature, food chains intertwine, form food (trophic) networks.

Rice. 2. Scheme of pasture and detrital food chains (according to Yu. Odum)

Lindemann's rule (10%)

The through flow of energy, passing through the trophic levels of the biocenosis, is gradually extinguished. In 1942, R. Lindemann formulated the law of the pyramid of energies, or the law (rule) of 10%, according to which from one trophic level of the ecological pyramid it moves to another, higher level (along the "ladder": producer - consumer - decomposer) on average about 10% of the energy received at the previous level of the ecological pyramid. The reverse flow associated with the consumption of substances and the energy produced by the upper level of the ecological pyramid of energy by its lower levels, for example, from animals to plants, is much weaker - no more than 0.5% (even 0.25%) of its total flow, and therefore we can say about the cycle of energy in the biocenosis is not necessary.

If the energy during the transition to more high level ecological pyramid is lost tenfold, then the accumulation of a number of substances, including toxic and radioactive ones, increases in approximately the same proportion. This fact is fixed in the biological amplification rule. It is true for all cenoses. In aquatic biocenoses, the accumulation of many toxic substances, including organochlorine pesticides, correlates with the mass of fats (lipids), i.e. clearly has an energy background.

Mangroves

Food chains can be divided into two types. The pasture chain starts from a green plant and goes on to grazing herbivores and then to predators. Examples of grazing chains are shown in the illustrations in paragraph 4.2. The detritus chain goes from dead organic matter (detritus) to decomposers and animals that eat dead remains (detritivores), and then to predators that feed on these animals and microbes. This figure shows an example of a detritus food chain from the tropics; this is a chain starting from the falling leaves of mangroves - trees and shrubs growing on sea coasts periodically flooded by tides and in estuaries. Their leaves fall into brackish waters overgrown with mangrove trees and are carried by the current across a vast area of bays. Mushrooms, bacteria and protozoa develop in the water on fallen leaves, which, together with the leaves, are eaten by numerous organisms: fish, molluscs, crabs, crustaceans, insect larvae and roundworms - nematodes. These animals are fed by small fish (for example, minnows), and they, in turn, are eaten by large fish and predatory fish-eating birds.

FOOD CHAIN(trophic chain, food chain), the relationship of organisms through the relationship of food - consumer (some serve as food for others). In this case, the transformation of matter and energy from producers(primary producers) through consumers(consumers) to decomposers(converters of dead organics into inorganic substances digestible by producers).

There are 2 types of food chains - pasture and detrital. The pasture chain begins with green plants, goes to grazing herbivorous animals (consumers of the 1st order) and then to predators that prey on these animals (depending on the place in the chain - consumers of the 2nd and subsequent orders). The detrital chain starts with detritus (a product of organic decay), goes to microorganisms that feed on it, and then to detritus feeders (animals and microorganisms involved in the process of decomposition of dying organic matter).

An example of a pasture chain is its multi-channel model in the African savannah. Primary producers are herbage and trees, consumers of the 1st order are herbivorous insects and herbivores (ungulates, elephants, rhinos, etc.), 2nd order - predatory insects, 3rd order - carnivorous reptiles (snakes, etc.), 4th - predatory mammals and birds of prey. In turn, detritivores (scarab beetles, hyenas, jackals, vultures, etc.) at each stage of the pasture chain destroy the carcasses of dead animals and the remains of predators' food. The number of individuals included in the food chain consistently decreases in each of its links (the rule of the ecological pyramid), i.e., the number of victims each time significantly exceeds the number of their consumers. Food chains are not isolated from each other, but are intertwined with each other, forming food webs.

The maintenance of the vital activity of organisms and the circulation of matter in ecosystems, that is, the existence of ecosystems, depends on the constant influx of energy necessary for all organisms for their vital activity and self-reproduction (Fig. 12.19).

Rice. 12.19. Energy flow in an ecosystem (according to F. Ramad, 1981)

Unlike substances that continuously circulate through different blocks of the ecosystem, which can always be reused, enter the cycle, energy can only be used once, i.e., there is a linear flow of energy through the ecosystem.

One-sided influx of energy as a universal phenomenon of nature occurs as a result of the laws of thermodynamics. First Law states that energy can change from one form (such as light) to another (such as the potential energy of food), but cannot be created or destroyed. Second law argues that there can be no process associated with the transformation of energy, without the loss of some of its part. A certain amount of energy in such transformations is dissipated into inaccessible thermal energy and hence is lost. Hence, there can be no transformations, for example, of food substances into the substance that makes up the body of an organism, going with 100 percent efficiency.

Thus, living organisms are energy converters. And every time energy is converted, some of it is lost as heat. Ultimately, all the energy entering the biotic cycle of the ecosystem is dissipated in the form of heat. Living organisms do not actually use heat as a source of energy to do work - they use light and chemical energy.

Food chains and webs, trophic levels

Within an ecosystem, energy-containing substances are created by autotrophic organisms and serve as food for heterotrophs. Food bonds are mechanisms for transferring energy from one organism to another.

A typical example: an animal eats plants. This animal, in turn, can be eaten by another animal. In this way, energy can be transferred through a number of organisms - each subsequent one feeds on the previous one, supplying it with raw materials and energy (Fig. 12.20).

Rice. 12.20. Biotic cycling: the food chain

(according to A. G. Bannikov et al., 1985)

This sequence of energy transfer is called food (trophic) chain, or power circuit. The place of each link in the food chain is trophic level. The first trophic level, as noted earlier, is occupied by autotrophs, or the so-called primary producers. Organisms in the second trophic level are called primary consumers, third - secondary consumers etc.

Generally, there are three types of food chains. The food chain of predators begins with plants and moves from small organisms to organisms of ever larger sizes. On land, food chains consist of three to four links.

One of the simplest food chains looks like (see Fig. 12.5):

plant ® hare ® wolf

producer ® herbivore ® carnivore

The following food chains are also widespread:

plant material (e.g. nectar) ® fly ® spider ®

shrew ® owl.

juice rose bush® aphid ® ladybug ®

® spider ® insectivorous bird ® bird of prey.

- (brought in by the current - lake, sea; brought in by man - agricultural land, carried by wind or precipitation - plant remains on eroded mountain slopes).

The differences between an ecosystem and a biogeocenosis can be reduced to the following points:

1) biogeocenosis - a territorial concept, refers to specific areas of land and has certain boundaries that coincide with the boundaries of phytocenosis. A characteristic feature of biogeocenosis, which N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, A.N. Tyurukanov (1966) - not a single significant biocenotic, soil-geochemical, geomorphological and microclimatic boundary passes through the territory of biogeocenosis.

The concept of an ecosystem is broader than the concept of biogeocenosis; it is applicable to biological systems of varying complexity and size; ecosystems often do not have a certain volume and strict boundaries;

2) in biogeocenosis, organic matter is always produced by plants, therefore the main component of biogeocenosis is phytocenosis;

In ecosystems, organic matter is not always created by living organisms, it often comes from outside.

(brought in by the current - lake, sea; brought in by man - agricultural land, carried by wind or precipitation - plant remains on eroded mountain slopes).

3) biogeocenosis is potentially immortal;

The existence of an ecosystem can end with the cessation of the arrival of matter or energy into it.

4) an ecosystem can be both terrestrial and aquatic;

Biogeocenosis is always a terrestrial or shallow-water ecosystem.

5) - in the biogeocenosis there should always be a single edificator (edificatory grouping or synusia), which determines the whole life and structure of the system.

There may be several in an ecosystem.

On the early stages development of the slope ecosystem is the future forest cenosis. It consists of groupings of organisms with different edificators and rather heterogeneous environmental conditions. Only in the future, the same grouping can be influenced not only by its edifier, but also by the edifier of the cenosis. And the second will be the main one.

Thus, not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis, but each biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, which fully corresponds to Tensley's definition.

Ecological structure of biogeocenosis

Each biogeocenosis is composed of certain ecological groups of organisms, the ratio of which reflects ecological structure communities that develop over a long period of time in certain climatic, soil and landscape conditions are strictly regular. For example, in biogeocenoses of different natural zones, the ratio of phytophages (animals that feed on plants) and saprophages naturally changes. In steppe, semi-desert, and desert regions, phytophages predominate over saprophages, while in forest communities, on the contrary, saprophagy is more developed. In the depths of the ocean, predation is the main type of food, while on the illuminated surface of the reservoir, filter feeders that consume phytoplankton or species with mixed food predominate.