The influence of animals on plants and their groupings. Main ecological factors and their influence on plants

The life environment of a plant is composed of many different elements that affect the body. Individual elements of the external environment are called environmental factors.

Environmental factors acting on the body can be divided into two main groups:

1. Factors of living, nature, or biotic, associated with the influence of other living organisms (plants, animals, humans).

2. Factors not wildlife, or abiotic. These include light, temperature, humidity, the composition of the water, air, soil environment, etc.

Certain conditions are necessary for the life of organisms that make up natural communities. Living conditions depend on the influence of various environmental factors. You already know that the sun serves as a source of energy for almost all life on Earth.

The energy of sunlight enters natural communities as a result of the photosynthesis of green plants. Organic matter formed in the process of photosynthesis serves as a source of energy for the plants themselves and for their consumers.

Thus, plants play the most important role in the natural community; therefore, we will consider the features of natural communities by their example.

All environmental factors affect the plant and are necessary for their life. But especially abrupt changes in external appearance and in the internal structure of plants are caused by such factors of inanimate nature as light, temperature, humidity.

The effect of light on plants. Light is one of the most important factors in the life of a green plant, since it is

is a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis. It also affects other functions of the plant organism - on its growth, flowering, fruiting, and in such plants as timothy, strawberry, gingerbread and others, and on seed germination.

The attitude of plants to light is different, according to this feature, three groups are distinguished: light-loving, shade-loving and shade-tolerant.

Light-loving plants live only in the sunlit open places... The light-loving includes steppe and meadow grasses, cultivated plants open ground, from tree species - pine, birch, larch, white acacia, from indoor plants - coleus .

Shade-loving plants do not tolerate strong light and grow well only in shaded places. These are herbaceous plants of spruce forests and oak forests, for example, raven's eye, double-leaved mine, anemone, many forest ferns. Aspidistra and some types of ferns can be classified as shade-loving indoor plants.

Shade-tolerant plants grow well in light, but can tolerate shading as well. This group of plants includes many tree species with dense crowns, in which some of the leaves are heavily shaded (linden, oak, beech, ash, etc.), many herbaceous plants of forests, forest edges and meadows, from indoor plants - monstera, sansevier, uzambara violet and many others .

The effect of temperature on plants. Each plant species has adapted to a specific temperature regime. But for all plants, both overheating and excessive cooling are dangerous.

Excessively high temperatures can cause drying in plants, burns, destruction of chlorophyll, disruption of vital processes and lead to death.

Light-loving plants are often exposed to high temperatures, often combined with a lack of moisture. These plants have developed a variety of adaptations to avoid the harmful effects of overheating: the vertical position of the leaves, the folding of leaf blades (cereals), a decrease in the leaf surface, the development of thorns (cacti), the ability to store a large number water, developed root system, dense pubescence, which gives the leaves a light color and enhances the reflection of the incident light, etc.

Cold can also adversely affect plants. When water freezes in the intercellular spaces and inside the cell, ice crystals are formed, causing cell damage and death. Plants in cold habitats that have to endure cold winters develop protective changes.

Perennial grasses and shrubs of the polar and high mountain regions have very small leaves and small sizes (dwarf birch, dwarf willow). Their height corresponds to the depth of the snow cover, since all parts protruding above the snow perish.

In some shrubs and trees, growth begins to prevail in the horizontal direction, for example, in dwarf cedar, juniper, mountain ash, etc. Their branches spread along the ground and do not rise above the usual depth of snow cover.

In the cold season, all life processes in plants slow down. Preparation for the state of winter dormancy begins well in advance. Plants shed their foliage. They have lignification of the shoots and thickening of the cork layer. In many herbaceous plants, aerial organs die off. Some aquatic plants sink to the bottom of water bodies or form hibernating buds.

The effect of moisture on plants. Water is the most important component plant cell, therefore, its amount in one place or another largely determines the nature of the vegetation. In desert plants, dry steppes, water makes up 30-65% of the total mass, in forest-steppe plants - up to 70-80%, in moisture-loving plants it reaches 90%.

Plants can be divided into three groups in relation to moisture content.

1. Plants are aquatic and excessively hydrated habitats.

2. Plants in dry habitats, with great drought resistance.

3. Plants living in medium (sufficient) moisture conditions.

Plants belonging to these ecological groups have characteristic features of their external and internal structure. They have similar vital processes.

The influence of minerals on plants. You know that different plants grow and develop differently on different soils. This is due to the peculiarities of the mineral nutrition of various plants.

Plants receive various minerals from the soil, but most of all they need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as small amounts of boron, manganese, iron, etc.

The influence of living organisms on plants. Animals feed on plants, pollinate them, carry fruits and seeds. Large plants young, small ones can shade. Some plants use others as a support. Microorganisms that decompose plant residues enrich the soil with humus and minerals.

In turn, plants affect environment... They change the composition of the air: they humidify it, absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Plants change the composition of the soil. They absorb some substances from it and release others into it. Root systems of plants fix the slopes of ravines, hills, river valleys, protecting the soil from destruction. Forest rainfall protects the fields from dry winds. Plants that evaporate a lot of moisture, such as eucalyptus trees, can be used to drain wetlands.

Influence of human activities. Man drains swamps and irrigates dry lands, creating favorable conditions for growing crops. He develops new highly productive and disease-resistant plant varieties. Man fights weeds and promotes the spread of valuable plants.

But human activity can harm nature. So, improper irrigation causes waterlogging and salinization of soils and often leads to the death of plants. Deforestation destroys the fertile soil layer and even deserts can form. There are many such examples, and they all testify to the fact that man has a huge impact on the flora and nature in general.

21. Ecology of coniferous forest plants. \

The coniferous forest is one of the most interesting objects of wildlife on our planet. A lot of effort has been spent on its study, and not in vain - after all, the forest for a person has always been a source of untold wealth.
Coniferous forests grow, mainly in areas with a cold climate. If we imagine their location on the globe, we will see a wide belt covering the northern part of Russia, Scandinavia, Canada and America. At the same time, there are few relict forests left, they are gradually being replaced by artificially planted ones.
The main trees of the coniferous forest are cedar, pine, fir, larch. The requirements for moisture and soil fertility for these species are different, therefore, forests are divided into two types - dark coniferous (spruce, fir, cedar) and light coniferous (pine, larch). A mixture of these two types is often found in Russia.
Like any other forest, conifers have several floors (tiers). Coniferous forest tiers are usually well defined. Upper (arboreal), undergrowth (or shrub), herbaceous-shrub layer and moss-lichen cover. However, due to insufficient illumination in dark coniferous forests, undergrowth and herbaceous-shrub layer may be absent.
The species composition of plants depends on the degree of illumination, soil composition and many other factors. But there are plants of the coniferous forest, which are recognized as its characteristic and integral part. Shrubs include juniper, currant, buckthorn, willow. Shrubs - blueberries, lingonberries, cranberries, heather. Herbs - Ivan tea, angelica, cow parsnip, oxalis, wintergreen and many others. Ferns and mosses (lichen, sphagnum) are most typical for coniferous forests.
As already noted, the diversity of species depends largely on the quality of the soil. The soil of a coniferous forest can be not only clayey, but also loamy and sandy. Coniferous forests rise both on rock outcrops and in swampy areas.

An array dominated by spruces and cedars may seem gloomy and unsociable. Their branches close tightly with each other, creating an insurmountable barrier to the sun's rays. Who wants to live in a place like this? There are those who wish, and there are many of them. Here you can hear the clatter of woodpeckers, the hooting of a tawny owl and a sparrow owl, the sharp cries of a kyksha and the trills of a nutcracker. Capercaillies, wild grouses, crossbills, tits, chicks, korolki - all of them are birds of the coniferous forest. Without some of them (nutcrackers, crossbills), its very existence would be difficult.
It is good to go to a pine or spruce forest to pick mushrooms. The dry earth, covered with a thick layer of pine needles, seems to spring underfoot, to urge on. In the spruce forest there are boletus, chanterelles, russula, mushrooms, raincoats, champignons. The pine forest will delight you with butter mushrooms, honey agarics, pigs, greenfinches. Milk mushrooms and ryadovki are autumn mushrooms of a coniferous forest.
What else will the forest give its guests, where giant cedars and slender pines reign? Pine nuts, essential oils, berries, medicinal herbs- here is a small fraction of all his treasures. And let's not forget about hunting and fishing.
The trees themselves are actively used in construction and production. various materials... Forests also play a huge role in creating an atmosphere suitable for breathing.

February 14th, 2018

Plants are rightfully considered the lungs of our planet. Houseplants play several beneficial roles in human life. They decorate our home and also purify the air by filling it with oxygen. In addition, some plants can be edible or medicinal. The beloved aloe vera comes to mind. However, there are a number of plants that live in our rooms, the harm and toxicity of which we did not even suspect.

But they represent real danger for children and pets, as well as for elderly people with poor health. So, if you have the following 10 plants in your home, we advise you to get rid of them immediately.

Poisoning can occur after:

- eating leaves or touching leaves;

- swallowing berries, flowers or plant roots;

- skin contact with plant sap;

- eating soil, land from under plants;

- drinking water from pallets.

Majority flower shops do not contain warning labels on potted plants that indicate possible toxicity and toxicity.

Therefore, before purchasing this or that beautiful flower, find out everything about this plant, in particular, what potential threat it carries in itself for your family members and pets.

1. Philodendron

Philodendrons are the favorite indoor plants of many people.

Perhaps this is one of the most popular houseplants. The advantages of the flower are obvious: it has an attractive appearance, grows quickly and is not particularly whimsical.

But while this plant is the perfect addition to any room, it contains calcium oxalate crystals that are toxic to humans and animals.

Philodendrons can be curly or non-curly. It is very important to keep the climbing plants hanging out of reach of children or pets, and to trim the leaves and antennae in time.

Non-growing plants should be stored on tall windowsills or shelves to prevent children or animals from reaching them.

Side effects in humans:

In humans, especially in young children, the following reactions to the plant can be observed: dermatitis, irritation of the skin, swelling of the mucous membranes and upset of the digestive system when eating the leaves of the plant.

There are several known cases when, after eating leaves by children, the incident ended in death.

Philodendron has a much more serious effect on pets. We can talk about spasms, cramps, pain and swelling.

By the way, the plant poses the greatest threat to cats.

2. Epipremnum golden

Epipremnum golden or, among the common people, devil's ivy is considered one of the most popular indoor plants. It does an excellent job of cleaning indoor air.

In addition, attractive appearance plants will leave few people indifferent. Beautiful variegated leaves are a real decoration for the room.

Devil's ivy is, in fact, read as one of the most beneficial indoor plants for removing harmful impurities from the air.

The flower also has the advantage that it multiplies easily and quickly from its own cuttings. So pretty soon you get a whole mini devil ivy plantation in your house.

However, is it so safe for household members?

In small amounts, this plant is believed to cause almost no harm. But on rare occasions, it can also be serious. side effects in animals and humans.

Side effects in humans:

Burning sensation in the mouth, skin irritation, swelling of the lips, tongue and throat, vomiting, cramps and diarrhea.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Drooling, choking, swelling of the mouth and tongue, shortness of breath and indigestion. In some cases, the plant can also lead to kidney failure and / or death.

3. Syngonium leg-leaved

Many people confuse this plant with a philodendron. Indeed, they are similar and very easy to care for.

It is usually mixed in gardens with other plants that require similar maintenance. This is undoubtedly beautiful plant has heart-shaped leaves, and is often presented as a gift to dear people.

Young plants are very dense. Older plants produce arrow-shaped stems and leaves.

The flower regularly sheds its leaves and sprouts new shoots, therefore, it is recommended to regularly check the plant and clean it of fallen leaves.

Side effects in humans and animals:

Irritated skin, upset stomach, vomiting.

4. Lilies (and all plants that we call lilies)

Most species of lilies, including the so-called Asiatic lily, are highly toxic. They are especially dangerous for cats.

Everyone knows this beautiful flower. Few flowers can boast such beauty, grace and elegance as the lily.

Rooms are often decorated with these delicate plants, and many flower fans are happy to keep them in bedrooms and nurseries. This is absolutely impossible to do!

Of course, not all lilies are toxic, and some can only harm animals. However, if you are unsure what kind of lily is growing in your pot, your best bet is to play it safe.

Be careful with lilies!

Do not keep them indoors. But if you love this flower so much, and are not ready to give it up completely, then the best solution will plant lilies in the garden, front garden. In other words, this flower will be completely safe outdoors.

More toxic varieties of lilies include the following plants:

-Calla lily (which can be fatal to children);

-Easter lily;

-Lily Rubrum;

-Tiger Lily;

- Day lily or day lily;

-Asian lily.

Depending on the species, lilies can cause poisoning, which manifests itself in various symptoms. As mentioned above, it is cats that are more susceptible to the poison of this flower.

Side effects in humans:

Upset stomach, vomiting, headache, blurred vision and skin irritation.

The effect of the plant on cats:

All parts of the lily are considered toxic. Poisoning symptoms include vomiting, drowsiness and lack of appetite. Renal and liver failure, if not treated in time, can lead to the death of the animal.

5. Spathiphyllum

Although spathiphyllum are not real lilies, they are often referred to as this particular species. They are as toxic as lilies and pose some danger to humans and pets.

Remember, the peace lily, or Spaphyllum, does not belong to the lily plant family.

There are many varieties of the peaceful lily, such as the popular Mauna Loa among flower growers. This type of plant is one of the most common plants for home decor and room decoration.

It is an evergreen perennial plant with South America with glossy leaves and a unique white flower that blooms majestically among the leaves, it looks very, very impressive.

In addition, these plants love shade, which makes them ideal for apartments and rooms with little sunlight.

They are also excellent air purifiers. However, like the previous plants on this list, they can cause painful symptoms and sometimes kill people or animals when ingested.

Side effects in humans:

Lips, mouth and tongue burn and swell, swallowing reflexes are difficult, vomiting, nausea and diarrhea, speech is deprived.

The toxicity information for peaceful lilies is controversial. However, several sources provide information on harm to dogs and cats.

In case of plant poisoning, the following symptoms are observed: burning of the skin, excessive salivation, diarrhea, dehydration, lack of appetite and vomiting. If treatment is not started on time, poisoning can lead to kidney failure, which ultimately leads to the death of the animal.

6. Dieffenbachia

Dieffenbachia is also called the dumb cane.

This plant is similar to the philodendron and contains the same oxalate crystals. Mute reeds have thick stems and fleshy leaves that are usually bright green in color with occasional yellow or green veins.

Due to the fact that the plant has very impressive heavy leaves, it is usually placed on the floor or on a low pedestal.

Poisoning symptoms in humans and animals:

The ingestion of dieffenbachia in the body usually leads to a mild to moderate form of poisoning, both in humans and in pets.

Symptoms of poisoning include the following: severe pain in the mouth, drooling, burning, swelling and numbness of the throat, severe swelling of the tongue.

7. Oleander

Oleander is one of the deadliest and most poisonous ornamental plants.

This is extraordinary beautiful flower looks so gentle and innocent. But this is exactly the case when the appearance is deceiving: the plant is so toxic that even honey obtained from its nectar can cause symptoms of poisoning and even lead to death.

There are several known cases of fatal poisoning in adults when the pollen of this flower enters the body.

As for children, then, of course, they are all the more at risk of being poisoned by the poison of the deadly flower. Therefore, be sure to make sure that the oleander is not in your home. Stay away from this flower.

If, nevertheless, there is a desire for it to grow in you, try to make it an open area in the fresh air.

Side effects in humans:

Feeling unwell, arrhythmia, dizziness, trembling in the body.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Arrhythmia, vomiting and cooling of the extremities.

8. Caladium

Nice, decorative flower Calladium is toxic to both humans and animals.

Caladium is another South American guest who came to our homes. This plant is characterized by dense foliage. That is why it is so popular as for external landscape design, and for interior decoration of housing.

This plant is commonly known as Elephant Ears or Angel Wings.

Caladium is rich in its color palette. Red, pink and white are the most common colors for this plant. This variety makes them attractive for interior decoration.

They grow well in low light, and sometimes produce very unusual flowers that look like calla or lily flowers.

The plant is considered toxic to humans and animals. At the same time, both the leaves and stems of the plant and its flowers are dangerous.

Side effects in humans:

After the parts of the plant enter the human body, the following symptoms can be observed: burning in the mouth, swelling of the mouth, tongue, lips and throat, difficulty breathing, slow speech, slowing of swallowing reflexes.

All this in some cases can lead to blockage of the airways, which, in turn, can be fatal.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Nausea, vomiting, cramps, head shaking, drooling, and shortness of breath.

9. Sansevieria three-lane (Mother-in-law's language)

Three-lane sansevieria is ornamental plant better known among the common people as the mother-in-law language.

It is characterized by pointed oblong leaves.

Due to its very impressive size, it indoor plant usually placed on the floor or low elevations.

Smooth, vertically elongated leaves, indeed, resemble the shape of the tongue. The plant can be thicker or thinner.

The foliage is characterized by a variegated color, in particular, green with shades of white, yellow and silver.

It is believed that the mother-in-law's tongue also protects the house from evil spirits and negative energy, and that the plant will definitely bring good luck to its owner. It is for this reason that many are trying to acquire a plant or give it to their loved ones.

But pets are unlikely to react with the same joy to this flower. After all, the plant is recognized by experts as highly toxic and poisonous when ingested.

Side effects in humans:

The toxicity level for humans is quite low. Poisoning causes short-term symptoms such as pain in the mouth, salivation, and nausea. In rare cases, the plant can cause a dermatological reaction, but the plant is generally only toxic if the leaves are ingested.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Poisoning with this plant can provoke excessive salivation, pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

10. Ivy

Ivy (often called English ivy) is one of the most vigorous and original plants in the world.

Agree, a very charming sight when this flower, spreading over the stones or brick walls, creates a cool, lush, leafy carpet canopy.

Indoors, ivy hanging from baskets creates a romantic cascading exhibit.

Due to its splendor, ivy is widely used in festive decor. However, few people know about the other properties of this plant: it perfectly removes fecal particles that enter the air, which makes this plant irreplaceable assistant if there are pets in the house.

However, be careful as well. Prevent ivy particles from entering the body. Its leaves or stems, if ingested, can cause poisoning.

Side effects of the plant in humans:

Ivy can cause severe irritation skin. Swallowing the leaves can cause burning in the mouth and throat, numbness, cramps, fever, and rashes. The consequences can be very serious when a large number of plant leaves are eaten.

The effect of the plant on animals:

In cats and dogs, the plant can cause diarrhea, hyperactivity, difficulty breathing, weakness, trembling, or vomiting.

Just because these plants are considered potentially hazardous doesn't mean you can't enjoy them in your home. Just take extra precautions to keep your children and pets safe from them.

Here are some ways to reduce the effects of plant toxins in humans and animals:

Keep plants out of reach of children or animals, in an area that neither one nor the other can enter.

Maintain the life of the plant regularly, monitor it and clean it of debris and dust in time.

Be sure to find out if the flower is toxic when you buy it.

Be sure to wear gloves while working with flowers and be sure to wash your hands after any handling of the plants.

In case of contact with a plant, in no case should you rub your eyes with your hands or comb the skin.

Prune plants to prevent children and pets from accessing dangling vines and branches. Well-groomed and pruned plants will reward you with full foliage that purifies the air.

Remember that plants can be dangerous to pets. Hang them high on your porch.

Always leave fresh water for pets so that they are not tempted to drink water from plant trays. Plant water can be very toxic.

To prevent cats from gaining access to plants, use special hanging cages to protect flower pots... The cages provide additional protection to plants and are also used as an additional decoration, visually decorating the room.

Additional safety tips:

Carry out any manipulations with soil and plants when there are no children or animals nearby.

Check plants regularly for insects and pests.

Check your pots and soil regularly for mold and mildew growth.

Replace broken or cracked pots. This is especially important when it comes to plastic pots.

Make sure the hanging baskets are strong enough to support the weight of the plant.

Do not place climbing plants with tendrils within easy reach of children and animals. A child or pet can pull the plant off the shelf by simply pulling on the tendrils or vine.

Make sure the shelves or ceiling hooks that hold the plants are strong enough to support the plant's weight.

And the last thing: of course, pay attention to if your family has allergies. After all, some plants that are harmless to most people can be a ticking time bomb for those with asthma or allergies.

The fauna is one of the most important components natural environment... The existence of our planet is impossible without it.

Type of training session : study and primary consolidation of new knowledge

Didactic goal : create conditions for awareness and comprehension of the block of new educational information

Basic concepts -

Rough plant foods. Trampling.

Main questions

1. What herbivorous animals do you know? How fit them

the digestive system to feed various plant organs?

2. How are pasture plants and ungulates grazing on it interrelated?

Draw a diagram of their interaction.

3.How do animals influence their environment in places

watering hole and rest?

4. What damage do insects do to plants?

Animals live among plants and have a great impact. a life. First of all, they use plants for food and in this way the necessary substances and energy for themselves. Food sources for: are both herbs and woody plants, and lichens. Food composition; Getative parts of plants - roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Vegetative parts of plants are coarse plant foods.

By eating the vegetative organs of plants, animals will naturally change the state of the plants themselves and the environment in which they grow. In response to damage by animals, plants have developed their own adaptations allowing them to regenerate (restore) vegetative organs disturbed by animals. Therefore, damage to plants does not lead to their death and they preserve their ability for further growth and the integrity of the organism.

Moving in search of food on the surface of the soil, animals cause plants primarily mechanical damage- they break off the stems, pull out the grasses. Plants are especially severely damaged by ungulates during grazing, when animals trample them with their feet. However, long-term observations have shown that grazing animals does not destroy pastures. When trampled, the grass seeds are pressed deeply into the soil, as a result of which their germination is improved. In addition, trampling improves the conditions for decaying dead plant parts and the supply of nutrients to the soil.

It turned out that moderate trampling together with grazing favors the development of stable grass cover in the steppes. If the grazing of livestock stops, a change in the vegetation cover occurs in the steppe, which is accompanied by a strong growth of weeds.

Trampling and the rainforest are not avoided. The vegetation of tropical forests in places of constant movement or congestion of elephants and ungulates is exposed to especially strong trampling. For example, African elephants, moving by constant paths to places of watering, significantly widen the clearings in the rainforest, and where they come with their ungulates, trample the grass cover, break bushes, roll in the mud. Such actions of animals noticeably change the appearance of the territories in which they live.

There are known cases of a sharp impact of animals on vegetation, in which the appearance of the terrain has irreversibly changed. So, the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean in the past was covered with forest. People who were exploring the island brought goats with them. Having run wild and multiplying, the goats destroyed all undergrowth, old trees and grasses. The island's territory has become treeless, open to the winds, fertile soil Was washed away by tropical downpours.

Rice. 1: 1 - types of damage to plants by insects (a - "mining", b - coagulation, c - galls); 2 - clutch and larvae of cabbage moths on leaves; 3 - larvae of May beetle (in the soil near the roots).

Insects lay eggs on the leaves of many plants. The caterpillars that subsequently appeared from them feed on these leaves. Plant roots are also often damaged by the larvae of animal pests (Fig. 1).

There is also the opposite variant of the food interaction of animals with plants: animals serve as food objects for plants. More than a dozen species are known in Russia carnivorous plants- these are various sundews living on sphagnum bogs, and pemphigus inhabitants of water. The need for insect nutrition arises in them when there is a lack of mineral substances in the environment, in particular those containing nitrogen.

Sources of information: Animal ecology. A manual for students of the 7th grade of a comprehensive school V.G. Babenko; D.V. Bogomolov; et al. 2002.-128p. .

The influence of herbivorous animals on plants Completed by: Fomina K. Yu. Teacher of biology and ecology MBOU "School No. 61 of Chelyabinsk"

Animals live among plants and provide big influence on their lives. First of all, they use plants for food and thus receive the necessary substances and energy for themselves. Grasses, woody plants, and lichens are also sources of food for animals. Food is composed as vegetative parts of plants - roots, stems, leaves, hooks and flowers, fruits, seeds.

Vegetative parts of plants are coarse plant foods. Eating this food promoted development, for example, in ungulates, lagomorphs and rodents. specialized appliances in their dental system. They cut off parts of the plants with incisors, and then grind the food with their molars. The digestive system of ungulates has a complex stomach and a voluminous wall intestine, adapted for long-term digestion of rough plant food and its subsequent assimilation

By eating the vegetative organs of plants, animals naturally change the state of the plants themselves and the environment in which they grow. In response to damage by animals, plants have developed their own adaptations that allow them to regenerate (restore) vegetative organs disturbed by animals. Therefore, damage to plants does not lead to their death and they retain their ability for further growth and the integrity of the organism.

There is also the opposite variant of the food interaction of animals with plants: animals serve as food objects for plants. In Russia, more than a dozen species of predatory plants are known - these are various sundews living on sphagnum bogs, and pemphigus inhabitants of water. The need for insect nutrition arises in them when there is a lack of mineral substances in the environment, in particular containing nitrogen

Animals, moving along the pasture, touch the soil surface and aboveground plant organs with their hooves. Depending on the size and shape of the hooves, as well as on the weight of the animal, the soil and plants experience more or less pressure on themselves.

Trampling has both direct and indirect (by affecting the soil) influence on meadow grasses. The direct impact affects the trauma of the hooves of the aboveground organs of plants (mosses, grasses). In herbaceous plants, regeneration leaves and buds located on or near the soil surface are damaged. The negative reaction of many types of forbs to pasture use, apparently, is mainly due to damage to their aboveground organs by the hooves of animals.

According to the reaction to the direct and indirect effect of trampling, meadow plants are usually divided into five groups: 1. those that do not endure trampling - high ryegrass, molinia, canary grass, angelica, garden thistle, Siberian hogweed, etc.; 2.sensitive to trampling - meadow foxtail, awnless bonfire, ground reed grass, acute sedge, meadow rank, mountain clover, marsh thistle, meadowsweet, cartilaginous yarrow, highlander - crayfish necks; 3. moderately resistant to trampling - meadow timothy, pike, bent bent, fragrant spikelet, medium waggon, pale sedge, red clover, common caraway, hellebore; 4. resistant to trampling - hedgehog combined, meadow fescue, white bent, wild bent, common comb, meadow bluegrass, hare sedge, caustic buttercup, yarrow; 5.Plants especially resistant to trampling (growing in highly trampled places) - perennial ryegrass, annual bluegrass, white clover, knotweed, large plantain.

For example, for many herbivores of various orders, green parts are food. Grasses, trees and shrubs could not remain defenseless for a long time, and developed various mechanisms to resist such treatment. Some plants eventually acquired a specific taste that is unpleasant for animals (for example, those herbs that humans use today as spices). Others have become simply poisonous. Still others preferred to acquire protection - that make it difficult for the beasts to access their green parts.

For some plants, representatives of the fauna have become faithful helpers in the reproduction and dispersal of their seeds. Plants had to acquire bright flowers with sweet nectar to attract pollinating insects (and in some cases birds). Birds eat the berries of plants (they also had to be made attractive to taste in the course of evolution), after which the seeds contained in them are carried over distances, leaving with excrement. Therefore, the berries of plants are usually bright - red, black, blue. Green color would be simply invisible against the background of foliage. Some plants have got special devices- thorns, or made their seeds sticky, so that, clinging to animal hair, also around the world.

Animals are able to create a supportive environment. Ants, rain and small animals regularly enrich the soil organic matter, loosen it up and make it more comfortable for grasses, bushes and trees to grow in this place. And through the holes left by insects and rodents in the soil, water freely gets to the roots of plants, feeding them. Therefore, plant and animal organisms are in close cooperation with each other.