Who was the founder of the school of scientific management. Evolution, stages of management development

The school of scientific management was finally formed and became widely known at the beginning of the 20th century. It is connected, first of all, with the names of F. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, G. Emerson, G. Ford.

Creators schools of scientific management proceeded from the fact that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, it is possible to improve most manual labor operations, to achieve their more efficient implementation.

Main principles of scientific management school:

1. Rational organization - involves the replacement of traditional methods of work with a number of rules formed on the basis of work analysis, and the subsequent correct placement of workers and their training best practices work.
2. Development of the formal structure of the organization.
3. Determination of measures for cooperation between the manager and the worker, i.e., the separation of executive and managerial functions.

The founders of the school of scientific management are:

• F. W. Taylor;
• Frank and Lily Gilbert;
• Henry Gantt.

F. W. Taylor— an engineer-practitioner and a manager who, based on the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main elements developed the methodological framework for labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.

Taylor developed and implemented a complex system of organizational measures:

• timing;
• instructional cards;
• methods of retraining workers;
• planning office;
• collection of social information.

He attached considerable importance to the correct system of disciplinary sanctions and labor incentives. in his system is the main source of efficiency. key element this approach was that people who produced more, were rewarded more.

A look at piecework and bonus wage systems:

• F.Taylor: workers should be paid in proportion to their contribution, i.e. piecework. Workers who produce more than the set daily allowance, should be paid more, i.e. differentiated piecework wages;
• G. Gantt: The worker is guaranteed a weekly wage, but if he overfulfills the norm, he earns a bonus plus a higher payment per unit of output.

Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of Frank and Lilia Gilbert, who were primarily concerned with the study of physical work in production processes and explored the ability to increase output by reducing effort spent on their production.

Gilberts studied work operations using movie cameras in combination with a microchronometer. Then, with the help of freeze frames, they analyzed the elements of operations, changed the structure of work operations in order to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements, and sought to increase work efficiency.

F. Gilbert's studies on the rationalization of workers' labor provided a threefold increase in labor productivity.

L. Gilbert laid the foundation for the field of management, which is now called "personnel management". She explored issues such as placement and training. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor.

An important contribution of this school was systematic use of incentives in order to interest workers in increasing the volume of production.

Taylor's closest student was G. Gantt, who was engaged in developments in the field of bonus payment methods, compiled charts for production planning (Gantt's tape charts), and also contributed to the development of leadership theory. Gantt's works characterize the consciousness of the leading role of the human factor.

Representatives of the school of scientific management mainly devoted their work to what is called the management of production. She was engaged in efficiency improvement at the level below the managerial level, the so-called non-management level.

Criticism of the scientific management school: a mechanistic approach to management: the teaching of management was reduced to the teaching of industrial engineering; reduction of labor motivation to the satisfaction of the utilitarian needs of workers.

The concept of scientific management was a turning point. It almost instantly became a subject of general interest. Many branches of business activity began to apply scientific management not only in the USA, but also in England, France and other countries.

G. Ford, mechanic and entrepreneur, organizer of mass production of automobiles in the United States, was the successor of Taylor's teachings and implemented his theoretical provisions in practice.

G. Ford's principles of production organization: replacement of manual work with machine work; maximum division of labor; specialization; arrangement of equipment along the technological process; mechanization of transport works; regulated rhythm of production.

The ideas laid down by the school of scientific management were developed and applied to the management of organizations as a whole, primarily by representatives.

Principles, advantages and disadvantages of the school of scientific management

The founder of the school of scientific management, Taylor, using observations, measurements and analysis, improved many of the manual labor operations of workers and, on this basis, achieved an increase in the productivity and efficiency of their work. The results of his research served as the basis for revising the norms for the production and remuneration of workers.

Taylor's followers Frank and Lillian Gilbreth dealt with the rationalization of the work of workers, the study of physical movements in the production process and the study of opportunities to increase output by increasing labor productivity. A significant contribution to the development of the Taylor system was made by Emerson, who studied the staff principle in management and the rationalization of production. Ford formulated the basic principles of the organization of production, for the first time separated the main work from its service.

From the studies and experiments carried out, the authors of this school deduced a number general principles, methods and forms of organizing production and stimulating the work of workers. The main principles of the school of scientific management:

• development of optimal methods for the implementation of work based on the study of the cost of time, movements, efforts, etc.;
• absolute adherence to the developed standards;
• selection, training and placement of workers in those jobs where they can give the greatest benefit;
• pay based on performance;
• allocation of managerial functions to a separate area of ​​professional activity;
• maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers.

The contribution of the scientific management school to management theory:

• using scientific analysis to study the work process and determine the best ways to complete a task;
• selecting workers best suited to the tasks and providing them with training;
• providing employees with the resources required for effective implementation their tasks;
• the importance of fair material incentives for workers to increase productivity;
• separation of planning and organizational activities from the work itself.

The disadvantages of this theory include the following:

• the doctrine was based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity;
• in the worker, Taylor and his followers saw only the performer of simple operations and a means to an end;
• did not recognize disagreements, contradictions, conflicts between people;
• in the doctrine, only the material needs of the workers were considered and taken into account;

Taylor tended to treat the workers as uneducated people, ignoring their ideas and suggestions.

The founder of this school, Taylor, devoted many years to increasing the productivity of workers. In essence, he was trying to find an answer to the question: how to make a worker work like a machine? The set of principles and provisions of this school was later called "Taylorism".

At the same time, this theory was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practitioners and scholars saw that the methods and approaches recommended by the school could be used effectively to achieve organizational goals.

Representatives of this school created the scientific foundations of production and labor management. In the 1920s independent sciences emerged from this scientific direction: the scientific organization of labor (NOT), the theory of organization of production, etc.

The formation of management as a scientific discipline took place in an evolutionary way. Clearly distinguishable schools of managerial thought developed in the first half of the 20th century. Chronologically, they can be presented in the following order:

• (1885-1920);
• (Administrative) School of Management (1920-1950);
• and behavioral sciences (1930-1950);
• school of quantitative methods (since 1950).

The founder of the school of scientific management, F. Taylor, tried to find an answer to the question: how to make the worker work like a machine? Representatives of this school created the scientific foundations of production and labor management. In the 1920s independent sciences emerged from this scientific direction: the scientific organization of labor (NOT), the theory of organization of production, etc.

The goal of the classical (administrative) school was to create universal principles and methods for the successful management of an organization. The founders of this school, A. Fayol and M. Weber, developed the principles and methods of managing an organization and wanted the whole organization to work like a machine.

The School of Human Relations placed the main emphasis on the collective, on increasing attention to the social needs of workers. The Behavioral Science School focused on interpersonal relationships, motivation, leadership, and the study of the individual abilities of individual workers.

A key characteristic of the school of quantitative methods is the replacement of verbal reasoning with models, symbols, and quantitative values. It is based on the achievements of such sciences as mathematics, cybernetics, statistics; on the use of mathematical methods and models in the preparation of management decisions.

School of Scientific Management

From the very beginning, she sought to find the most productive use of human and material resources.

The basis of the theories of this school is the idea of ​​rationalization of all components of the organization, the orientation of all structural units of the organization to its goals, general expediency.

The achievement of universal expediency and rationality in the organization is primarily a rigid hierarchy of management of all organs and positions of the organization, which contributes to the implementation of the most stringent comprehensive control.

Frederick W. Taylor(1856-1915) is considered the father of the classical theory of scientific management. The formation of the school of scientific management is associated with the publication in 1911 of his book "Principles of Scientific Management". He was the first to substantiate the need for a scientific approach to management in order to make the most productive use of human and material resources. Taylor was not interested in the effectiveness of the individual, but of the organization. In his approach to improving the management of the organization, priority is given to engineering solutions.

His theory provided for the unilateral influence of the control system on the worker and his subordination to the manager. Motive and driving force labor activity Taylor considered receiving material remuneration for work and interest in personal economic gain.

Taylor put forward four scientific principles of management:

• introduction of economic methods of work;
• professional selection and training of personnel;
• rational placement of personnel;
• collaboration between management and employees.

Taylor's ideas were developed by his followers - G. Gant, F. Gilbraith, G. Emerson.

The concept of scientific management was a turning point, thanks to which management was recognized as an independent field of scientific research.

The merits of the school of scientific management are that its representatives:

• substantiated the need for scientific management of labor in order to increase its productivity;
• put forward the principles of the scientific organization of labor;
• approached the need to solve the problem of effective labor motivation.

However, the human factor practically remained outside the sphere of attention of this school.

Classical School of Management

Pursued goals such as improving efficiency large groups people and the creation of universal principles of management, affecting two main aspects:

• development of a rational structure of the organization;
• building on its basis a rational system of personnel management - a bureaucratic model.

Henri Fayol(1841-1925), French sociologist, considered the founder of the administrative school of government. Fayol's merit was that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to enterprise management.

According to Fayol, it is first necessary to create a well-thought-out structure, where there is no duplication of functions and unnecessary levels of management, and then to look for suitable employees, i.e. the principle of conformity of employees to the structure.

Classic organization model, formed on the basis of the developments of Fayol and his followers, is based on four principles:

• a clear functional division of labor;
• transmission of commands and orders from top to bottom;
• unity of management (“no one works for more than one boss”);
• observance of the principle of the range of control (management by a limited number of subordinates), which assumes that with an arithmetic increase in the number of subordinates, the number of possible connections between them that the manager has to control increases exponentially (L. Urwick).

Thus, according to the classical theory of organization, the latter must be built for workers.

Max Weber(1864-1920), a German sociologist, at about the same time analyzed the activities of bureaucratic systems, built a model of an ideal bureaucracy based on strictly regulated principles of hierarchical structure, and formulated the concept of rational management. From his point of view, the ideal, most efficient system management is bureaucratic. Bureaucracy in an organization is characterized by:

• speed of decision making;
• efficiency in solving production issues;
• the rigidity of ties, which contributes to the stability of bureaucratic structures and a clear focus on achieving the goals of the organization.

Weber's most important idea adopted in management was the concept of social action.

According to this concept, the basis of the social order in society is only socially oriented and rational actions, and the task of the members of the organization should be considered

understanding of their own goals and subsequent optimization of their own activities. Each action of an employee in the organization must be rational in terms of both fulfilling his own role and achieving the overall goal of the organization. Rationality is the highest meaning and ideal of any enterprise or institution, and the ideal organization is characterized by extremely rational technology, communications and management.

However, the administrative school of management is characterized by ignoring the person and his needs. Its supporters tried to increase the efficiency of the organization bypassing the person, through the implementation of administrative procedures for managing the formal side of the organization. As a result, the administrative school, recognizing the importance of the human factor, failed to realize the significance of the effectiveness of labor motivation.

School of Human Relations

Concept "" — new school management theory - begins to develop in the 1930s. This school was born in response to the inability classical school realize the human factor as the main element of effective organization and management. Lack of attention to the human factor had a negative impact on the work of "rational organizations", which failed to increase efficiency, despite the availability of resources.

Elton Mayo(1880-1949), an employee of Harvard University, has a special place in the creation of the theory of "human relations". This American sociologist and psychologist conducted a series of experiments called the "Hawthorne experiments." Studying the influence of factors such as conditions, work organization, wages, interpersonal relationships, leadership style, he concluded that the human factor plays a special role in production.

The "Hawthorne Experiments" marked the beginning of research: relationships in organizations, taking into account psychological influences in groups, identifying motivation to work in interpersonal relationships, identifying the role of an individual and a small group in an organization.

Thus, the beginning of the use of sociology and sociological research in personnel management has been laid; in contrast to the approach to the employee from the standpoint of biologism, when such resources of the employee as physical strength, skills, intelligence (scientific and administrative schools of management) are mainly exploited, a member of the organization began to be considered from the point of view of a socio-psychological approach.

The motives of people's actions are mainly not economic factors, as the supporters of the scientific school of management believed, but various needs that can only be partially satisfied with the help of money.

According to W. White, which he expressed in the book "Money and Motivation", the classical concept is based on three false assumptions:

• man is a rational animal seeking to maximize his economic benefits;
• each individual responds to economic incentives as an isolated individual;
• people, like machines, can be treated in a standardized way.

Mayo and his followers were convinced that the conflict between the individual and the organization could be completely resolved if the social and psychological needs of workers were met, and entrepreneurs would only benefit from a sharp increase in labor productivity.

In general, the essence of the doctrine of "human relations" can be reduced to the following provisions:

• man is a "social animal" who can be free and happy only in a group;
• a person's work, if it is interesting and meaningful, can bring him no less pleasure than a game;
• the average person strives for responsibility, and this quality must be used in production;
• the role of economic forms of labor stimulation is limited, they are not the only and universal ones;
• the production organization is, among other things, the sphere of meeting the social needs of a person, solving the social problems of society;
• to improve the efficiency of the organization, it is necessary to abandon the principles of management based on the postulates of power relations, hierarchy, hard programming, specialization of labor.

M. Follet(1868-1933) was a prominent representative of this school. Her main merit is that she tried to combine the ideas of the three schools of management - scientific management, administrative and the school of human relations.

The essence of the concept of M. Follet is as follows:

• as the organization grows larger, the concept of “ultimate or central authority” is replaced by the theory of “functional or pluralistic authority”;
• it is impossible to solve the problems of organizational activity, management of subordinates from a position of strength;
• the psychological reaction of persons receiving orders should be taken into account;
• it is impossible to force workers to perform tasks satisfactorily if we confine ourselves to demands, orders and persuasion;
• it is necessary to depersonalize the issuance of orders, i.e. the work must be organized so that both the boss and the subordinate follow "what the situation requires."

Follet believed that conflict in labor collectives is not always destructive; in some cases it can be constructive. She identified three types of conflict resolution:

• "dominance" - the victory of one side over the other;
• "compromise" - an agreement reached through mutual concessions;
• “integration” is the most constructive reconciliation of contradictions, in which neither side sacrifices anything and both sides win.

The effectiveness of management, according to the supporters of the concept of "human relations", is determined by: an informal structure and, above all, a small group, the interaction of workers, common control, self-discipline, opportunities for creative growth, collective rewards, rejection of narrow specialization, rejection of one-man management, democratic style of leadership, conformity of the structure of the organization with employees, and not vice versa.

Supporters of the concept of "human relations" were unanimous in their opinion that a rigid hierarchy of subordination, the formalization of organizational processes are incompatible with human nature.

Thus, the human relations school focused on the human factor in achieving organizational effectiveness. But the problem has not been fully resolved.

School of Behavioral Sciences largely moved away from the school of human relations, focusing primarily on the methods of establishing human relations. The main goal of the school was to improve the efficiency of the organization by increasing its human resources.

R. Likert, D. MacGregor, A. Maslow, F. Herzberg are the most prominent representatives of the behavioral (behavioral) direction. They studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, leadership, organizational structure, communication in the organization, changes in the content of work and the quality of working life.

According to A. Maslow, a person has one system (hierarchy) of needs, and according to F. Herzberg, two are qualitatively different and independent:

• actualization factors, or motivators, are work and all the recognitions received due to it: achievement of success, recognition of merit, promotion, interest in work, responsibility, the possibility of growth. The use of these factors makes it possible to achieve a profound and sustainable change in time in the individual behavior of a person in the labor process. These are strong motivational stimuli, the result is a high-quality performance of work;
• atmospheric factors (or hygienic) - working conditions and the environment: wages, job security, company policy and activities, working conditions, status, technical supervision, relations with superiors, colleagues, subordinates, labor safety.

External factors can ease the internal tension in the organization, but their influence is short-term and cannot lead to profound changes in the behavior of employees.

Herzberg believed that the strongest incentives for labor efficiency were not “good wages”, but interest in work and involvement in the labor process. Without money, people feel dissatisfied, but if they have money, they will not necessarily feel happy and increase productivity.

Excessive division of work into fractional operations, according to Herzberg, deprives a person of the feeling of completeness and completeness of work, leads to a decrease in the level of responsibility, suppression of the actual abilities of the employee, a sense of the meaninglessness of work, and a drop in job satisfaction.

Not a person should be adapted to work, but work should correspond to the individual abilities of a person. This idea was subsequently embodied in adaptive, flexible organizations, network companies.

Main achievements schools of behavioral sciences are considered:

• using interpersonal relationship management techniques to increase job satisfaction and productivity;
• application of the science of human behavior to shape the organization so that the potential of each employee can be used to the fullest;
• It was concluded that in order to achieve effective management of a social organization, it is necessary to learn how to manage the behavior of people as members of this organization.

School of Quantitative Methods

This direction in control theory became possible due to the development of such sciences as mathematics, cybernetics, statistics.

Representatives of this school are: L.V. Kantorovich (Nobel Prize winner), V.V. Novozhilov, L. Bertalanffy, R. Ackoff, A. Goldberger and others.

The school of quantitative methods comes from the fact that mathematical methods and models make it possible to describe various business processes and the relationships between them. Therefore, it is advisable to solve the problems that arise in the business processes of the organization on the basis of operations research and mathematical models.

The thesis “science achieves perfection only when it succeeds in using mathematics” is the basis for assigning another name to this school: “the school of management science”. This school applied economic-mathematical methods, operations research theory, statistics, cybernetics and the like to solve management problems, which made a significant contribution to the development of management science.

Operations research— application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of the organization. With this approach, the problem is clarified at the beginning of the study. Then a situation model is developed. After its creation, the variables are given quantitative values ​​and the optimal solution is found.

At present, quantitative management methods are being developed in connection with the widespread use of computers. The computer allowed operations researchers to design mathematical models increasing complexity, which are closer to reality and, therefore, are the most accurate.

A key characteristic of the school is the replacement of verbal reasoning with models, symbols, and quantitative meanings.

Further development of mathematical modeling methods was reflected in the emergence of decision theory. Initially, this theoretical direction was based on the use of algorithms for developing optimal solutions. Later, quantitative (applied and abstract) models of economic phenomena began to be applied, such as the cost and output model, the model of scientific, technical and economic development, etc.

The contribution of the management science school to management theory.

• Deepening understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models, including economic and mathematical ones.
• Development of quantitative methods to help managers make decisions in complex situations.
• The use of information technology in management.
• Development of a general theory of control.

The influence of the management science school is growing as it is seen as complementary to the existing and widely applied conceptual framework of the process, systems and situational approaches.

For the first time, the idea of ​​management as a specialization, a special profession, was apparently expressed in 1866 by the American businessman G. Town. Town spoke at a meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with a report in which he spoke about the need to train managerial specialists.

Time period							Nowadays
Schools of Management
School of Scientific Management
Administrative (classical) school
School of Human Relations
School of Behavioral Sciences
School of Management Science (Quantitative School)
Management approaches
Process approach to management
System approach to management
Situational approach to management

School of Scientific Management (the school of scientific management) proceeded from the assumption that the optimal organization of production can be created on the basis of accurate knowledge of how people act. Supporters of this direction believed that with the help of logic, observations, analysis and calculations, production could be organized in such a way that it would be as efficient as possible. Also related to the scientific management school is the notion that management is a special function that is separate from the actual performance of work.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) is considered to be the founder of the school of scientific management, an American engineer who is known for developing the first holistic concept of management, which is called "Taylorism" in his honor. Taylor attended the meeting during which Town read his report. Towne's idea inspired Taylor to create his own concept of management. He formulated his ideas in the books Workshop Management (1903) and Principles and Methods of Scientific Management (1911).

Taylor was educated as a mechanical engineer and worked for a steel company that embodied the basic ideas of Taylorism. It should be noted that in Taylor's time, monopoly capitalism experienced its heyday. Enterprises grew very quickly, and this required the unification and standardization of production, more efficient use of material resources, time and labor.

Therefore, Taylor saw the main goal of management in increasing labor productivity. To achieve this goal, from Taylor's point of view, it was possible only through the development of numerous rules by which operations are carried out and which should replace the judgment of the worker. In fact, this means that Taylor assigned the main role in the management of production to instructions in accordance with which workers must act. Instructions were developed in the process of studying the operations that workers should perform. This was the shortcoming of Taylor's concept: it did not sufficiently take into account the personality of the worker.

According to Taylor, there are four main principles of the scientific organization of work:

1) the administration of the enterprise should strive to introduce scientific and technological achievements into the production process, replacing traditional and purely practical methods;

2) the administration should take on the role of selecting workers and training them in their specialty (before Taylor, this was not done and the worker independently chose a profession and trained himself);

3) the administration must harmonize the scientific principles of production with the principles in force in the field of production from the very beginning;

4) responsibility for the results of labor is distributed evenly between the workers and the administration.

Among Taylor's followers are Henry Gant, as well as the spouses Frank and Lillian Gilbert. Just like Taylor, they sought to improve the work process by developing clear instructions that were based on logical analysis. Gant, for example, developed methods for scheduling the activities of an enterprise, and also formulated the basics of operational management. By the way, it was the supporters of scientific management who were the first to use cameras and movie cameras in their research.

Not everyone knows that Henry Ford, who is best known as the founder of the American automobile industry, is also a major figure in the history of scientific management. The success he achieved in business largely depended on his theory, which was called "Fordism". In his opinion, the task of industry cannot be seen only in meeting the needs of the market (although no industry can exist without this): it is necessary to organize the production process in such a way that, firstly, it is possible to reduce product prices, and secondly, to increase wages. workers' labor.

Ford believed that the correct organization of production involves

1) replacement of manual labor by machine,

2) care for employees, which consists in creating favorable working conditions (cleanliness in workshops, comfort), as well as

3) product quality improvement

4) development of the service maintenance network.

In his practice, Ford sought to divide the production process into the smallest operations, as a result of which the movement of products from one worker to another depended only on the speed with which the operation was performed. This is what allowed him to reduce the cost of production.

The disadvantage of scientific management is that it puts at the forefront the technical means by which it is supposedly possible to solve any problems.

Administrative School of Management . Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is another prominent representative of management in the first quarter of the 20th century, who developed the foundations of the administrative approach to management. He, like his like-minded people (L. Urwick, J. Mooney), had experience as a leader top management in a large enterprise. It was this experience that allowed Fayol to formulate the foundations of the science of management based on the general characteristics of the organization and the laws that it obeys. The administrative school is also called the classical school.

From Fayol's point of view, the efficiency of production can be increased not only by improving the devices of work and the operations that the worker must perform, but also by properly organizing the work of the whole enterprise. Consequently, the role of the administration from the point of view of Fayol's concept increased markedly. By effective administrative management, Fayol understood such management of an enterprise that allows you to extract the maximum possible from the resources at your disposal.

The administrative function was considered by Fayol as one of the management functions (along with the production, commercial, financial, credit and accounting functions). In addition, Fayol showed that the administrative function is implemented at all levels of the organization.

Fayol identified 14 principles of management:

1) the division of labor, thanks to which it is possible to increase its productivity;

2) balance between authority and responsibility; 3) discipline;

4) unity of command, in which the employee is subordinate to only one leader;

5) the unity of the direction of movement of all departments of the organization;

6) dominance common interests over personal;

7) worthy remuneration as a condition for the loyalty of employees;

8) balance between centralization and decentralization;

9) hierarchy of the organization;

10) order in everything;

11) justice, which is a combination of kindness and justice;

12) staff stability and inadmissibility of staff turnover;

13) initiative in the construction and implementation of the plan;

14) corporate spirit - feeling like a member of a team.

Representatives of this school identified three main functions of business: finance, production and marketing. They believed that this separation could form the basis for the optimal division of the organization into divisions.

The concept of scientific bureaucracy. One more scientific school The classical direction of management was developed by the German scientist Max Weber (1864-1920), it involved the analysis of the company as a bureaucratic organization. Management, according to Weber, should be built on an impersonal, purely rational basis. He defined this form as bureaucracy. Such a concept implied a clear definition of job duties and responsibilities of employees, formal reporting, separation of ownership and management.

Bureaucratic rules and procedures are a standard way of interaction: the same requirements are imposed on each of the employees, they are all guided by the same rules. It was the bureaucracy that allowed many organizations to achieve high performance, and did not carry a negative meaning in Weber's approach.

In his main work, The Theory of Socio-Economic Organization, Weber formulated the principles for building an "ideal" organization. Bureaucratic models of building an organization became widespread in the 1930s and 1940s. XX century. In the future, the passion for this approach (“the organization works like a machine”) led to an increase in the cumbersomeness of managerial structures and began to impede the flexibility and efficiency of entrepreneurial activity.

In general, the period of dominance of the classical direction of management was fruitful - the science of management appeared, a new fundamental concept, efficiency increased.

School of Human Relations . The classical school of management did not sufficiently take into account the human factor as a fundamental element of the effectiveness of the organization. Therefore, in the 30-50s. 20th century the neoclassical school became widespread, and in its composition - the school of human relations, which transferred the center of gravity in management from the performance of production tasks to relations between people.

The emergence of this school is directly related to the name of the German psychologist Hugo Munspgerberger (1863-1916), who moved to the United States. He actually created the world's first school of industrial psychologists, was one of the founders of psychotechnics (selection, testing, compatibility, etc.). In his work "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency", which received wide popularity, he formulated the principle of selecting people for leadership positions.

A special merit in the creation of the theory and practice of human relations belongs to the psychologist Elton Mayo (1880-1949), who conducted the "Hattorn experiments" in the town of Hatthorn near Chicago at the enterprises of the Western Electric company. They continued from 1927 to 1933. and have no analogues in scale and duration.

Experiments have shown that it is possible to influence people's attitudes towards work through the creation of informal groups. The art of communicating with people was to be the main criterion for the selection of administrators, starting with the master. The works of Mayo and his associates laid the foundation for numerous studies of relationships in organizations, identifying motivations for work, and the role of small groups. This determined the development of management theory and practice for a quarter of a century ahead.

Supporters of the psychological approach believed that the main focus in management should be shifted to the person and human relationships. They proceeded from the indisputable fact that human activity is controlled not by economic forces, but by various needs, and money is by no means always able to satisfy these needs.

Of course, this approach is extreme, since the management process combines a variety of aspects. However, this extreme was legitimate: it was a response to the excessive interest in technology inherent in scientific management.

Representatives of the school of human relations explored management processes using methods developed in sociology and psychology. In particular, they were the first to use tests and special forms of job interviews.

As a result of the research, E. Mayo came to the conclusion that such factors as logical labor operations and high wages, highly valued by supporters of scientific management, do not always affect the increase in labor productivity. He found that labor productivity is no less dependent on relationships with other workers. For this reason, representatives of the school of human relations argued that management can only be effective if leaders are sufficiently aware of the personal characteristics of their subordinates, their strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case, the leader can fully and effectively use their capabilities.

The essence of the concept, which develops in the mainstream of human relations, is the development of work tasks in accordance with the principle of motivation, when employees are given the opportunity to reach their full potential and thereby satisfy their highest needs.

The most famous representatives include Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). A psychoanalyst and theoretical scientist, he came to the conclusion that there is a hierarchy of needs, the basis of which is formed by physiological needs, on which the needs for security, belonging, self-esteem, and, finally, self-actualization are based. Based on this theory, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y. Classical management is based on the first of them, and the second is more realistic and complete.

The assumptions of Theory Y boil down to the fact that there is no innate dislike for work, external control and sanctions are not the only and not the most effective method control (motivation), most workers are able to show ingenuity and that, finally, the potential of the intellect of the "average" individual is far from being fully used. Their research contributed to the emergence in the 60s of a special managerial function "personnel management". Maslow's theory has been used as the basis of many models of labor motivation, including behavioral approaches (behaviorism).

The merits of the supporters of the school of human relations are very great. Before them, psychology had practically no data on how the human psyche is connected with his work activity. It was within the framework of this school that studies were carried out that significantly enriched our understanding of mental activity.

behavioral school . The traditions of the school of human relations were continued within the framework of the school of behavioral sciences (R. Likert, D. McGregor, K. Argyris, F. Herzberg), whose ideas later formed the basis of such a section of management as personnel management. This concept was based on the ideas of behaviorism - a psychological trend that considered human behavior as a reaction to stimuli from the outside world. Proponents of this approach believed that production efficiency can only be achieved by influencing each individual person with the help of various incentives.

The views of the representatives of this school were based on the idea that an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of the work of an individual worker is his awareness of his own capabilities. A number of methods have been developed to help achieve this goal. For example, in order to increase the efficiency of work, it was proposed to change its content or involve an employee in the management of the enterprise. Scientists believed that with the help of such methods it is possible to achieve the disclosure of the capabilities of the employee.

However, the ideas of the school of behavioral sciences proved to be limited. This does not mean that the developed methods are completely unsuitable. The fact is that they act only in some cases: for example, involving an employee in the management of an enterprise does not always affect the quality of his work, since everything depends primarily on the psychological characteristics of a person.

and their interaction with various forms of human participation in production.

School of Management Science. This school was formed in the 1950s. 20th century and exists, improving, to the present. It has led to a deeper understanding of complex managerial problems through the development and application of models. Quantitative methods are widely used to help managers make decisions in difficult situations.

The most famous representatives of this school are R. Ackoff, S. Beer, A. Goldberger, R. Luce, L. Klein and others.

In the school of management science, two main directions are distinguished: production is considered as a "social system", firstly, and system and situational analysis is used using mathematical methods and computers ("RS"), secondly.

The school has developed a large number of principles, rules, approaches, etc. Scientists believe that the introduction of new management methods reflects the desire of companies to achieve high results in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the strengthening of social principles, the growth of post-industrial elements of the life of firms - information, waste-free, space, biological technologies, the expansion and complication of the legal framework, new forms of competition, types of after-sales service, etc.

To name just a few new effective approaches: decision tree, brainstorming, management by objectives, diversification (conglomerates), theory Z, budgeting (zero base), quality circles, portfolio management, intrapreneurship.

In addition to the process approach (developed in the 50s, but originated in the classical school of management), systemic (late 60s - 70s) and situational (80s - 90s) approaches began to be widely used.

The system approach considers processes and phenomena in the form of aggregate integral elements, structures that move them. Systems have a hierarchical structure, horizontal and vertical connections, certain functions, centripetal and centrifugal tendencies, feedbacks (in addition to direct ones), exogenous and endogenous factors of development are inherent in systems.

Systems are divided into closed, functioning in isolation (independently) from the external environment, and open - associated with the metasystem, external influence. Simple and complex systems are distinguished by a tree of goals.

System approach in the 60-70s. becomes a universal ideology of management, and system analysis - a generally recognized toolkit. The application of systems theory to management made it easier for managers to see the organization (firm) in the unity of its constituent parts and their multi-temporal dynamics. The systematic methodology helped to integrate the contribution of all schools that at different times dominated the theory and practice of management, not opposing, but supplementing and supplementing known managerial innovations.

The situational or case approach (case situation) is both a way of thinking and a set of specific actions. Developed at the Harvard Business School (USA), this approach is aimed at developing situational thinking and the direct use of the theoretical knowledge gained, leading to the analysis of real situations and the adoption of typological decisions. The situational approach, in contrast to the process and even system approach, is more often used in non-standard cases, in situations of uncertainty, unexpected non-standard response environment. An approach of this kind brings up special qualities in managers: flexibility, foresight, the ability to make programmed decisions in non-standard situations, to be original in achieving goals. This is anti-crisis type management, mass disturbances of the typical course of the process, cataclysms, etc.

Consideration of the situation as an important phenomenon was anticipated by Mary P. Follet in the 1920s. However, only much later did it enter the "life of management".

Accounting for situations is also very important when comparing styles of managerial culture in different countries.

During the described period, there were noticeable differences in national (country) approaches. This is most clearly seen when comparing the American, Japanese and European traditions.

At the end of the century, at the turn of the 90s, the following trends were observed in the development of management:

1. In connection with the strengthening of the influence of scientific and technological progress on the achievement of the goals of the organization, the role of product quality in competition and the increasing complexity of the place and role of supply (suppliers) in the economy, there has been, as it were, a return (at a new historical level) to the problems of production, awareness of the importance material and technical base of modern production.

2. Increasing attention to various forms of democratization of managerial functions, participation of ordinary workers in management, in profits 3. Increasing influence of international external conditions, internationalization of management. There is a problem of "docking" local (national) and international types of management, the limits of the universality of management methods, taking into account the irremovable national styles of management.

Founder and main idea developer scientific management is Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was neither a research scientist nor a business school professor. He was a practitioner: first a worker, and then a manager. Starting as a worker, he worked his way through several levels of hierarchy and rose to the level of chief engineer in a steel company.

Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity. Taylor set himself the task of increasing labor productivity and saw its solution in the rationalization of labor operations on the basis of the scientific organization of the worker's work. The starting point for the rationalization of labor for Taylor was the study of the task, which was supposed to provide information for constructing a rational set of operations to solve this problem. Taylor proceeded from the fact that workers are inherently lazy and do not want to work just like that. Therefore, he believed that rationalization, leading to an increase in profits, would be accepted by the worker only when his income also increased.

Taylor was an industrial engineer, so it was natural for him to look at controls as if they were machines. It should be noted that this approach was universal at that time. Management itself was taught in the form of industrial engineering.

He believed that managers should think and workers should work. This led to the emergence of a large number of functional managers and in-depth specialization based on the operational division of labor.

Basic principles scientific management Taylor are as follows:

• development of optimal methods for carrying out work on the basis of a scientific study of the costs of time, movements, efforts, etc.;

Absolute adherence to the developed standards;

• selection, training and placement of workers for those jobs and tasks where they can give the greatest benefit;
• wages based on performance (less results - less pay, large

results - more pay);

• the use of functional managers exercising control;
• maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to ensure the possibility of scientific management.

The "Taylor System" laid the foundations for the scientific organization of labor, which, in the author's opinion, involves "the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas that replace the personal judgment of the individual worker and which can be usefully applied only after systematic accounting, measurement and etc. their actions.” Here is what this system means in relation, for example, to such an important production problem as wages:

Wages are paid to the person, not the place;

· Pricing should be based on accurate knowledge, not guesswork;

· Prices based on accurate knowledge should be uniform;

By virtue of the prices thus established, the commodities are produced

cheaper and workers get better wages, than usual;

Wages based on accurate knowledge create better workers,

gives them the opportunity to earn more, destroys the causes

deliberate slowness in work, stimulates the interest of workers and

entrepreneurs to cooperate.

Taylor came up with the fruitful idea of ​​dismemberment production process into individual elements, identifying the best ways to perform each of them and training staff in this.

The history of the development of management as a science indicates that a large number of theories have been developed that reflect different views and points of view on management problems.

This school sought to prove that it is possible to manage "scientifically", relying on economic, technical and social experiment, as well as on the scientific analysis of the phenomena and facts of the management process and their generalization. This method was first applied to a single enterprise by the American engineer F. Taylor, who is considered the founder of scientific production management.

Taylor's goal was to create a system of scientific organization of labor (SOT), based on experimental data and analysis of the processes of physical labor and its organization.

Taylor's research method consists in dividing the process of physical labor and its organization into component parts and then analyzing these parts. In particular, Taylor divided the organization process into the following elements: setting the goal of the enterprise as a whole and for each employee individually; the choice of means of activity and their application on the basis of a predetermined plan; control over the results of activities.

The purpose of the scientific organization of labor at the enterprise is the implementation of production with the least expenditure of resources (labor, material and monetary) while achieving maximum results. The way to achieve this goal is the rationalization of all elements of production: the living labor of workers, the means of labor (equipment, machines, units, production areas) and objects of labor (raw materials, materials, fuel, energy).

Taylor focused on improving productivity. The main provision of Taylor's concept is the need to establish a scientifically based daily task for the worker and methods for its implementation. He believed that the managers did not know the potential of the worker and set production standards by eye.

Taylor, on the basis of experiments conducted to study the methods and movements of workers, measuring the time of performing individual elements and operations, established scientifically based standards. The value of the norm was determined for the best workers achieving the highest labor productivity. Workers who did not want to work hard were subject to dismissal. Thus, Taylor focused on the individual qualities of workers. He believed that workers should be supervised at every phase of production.

The main goal of the developed methods was to achieve an increase in the productivity of workers by any means. To motivate workers to meet and exceed established standards, Taylor improved the wage system. It has assumed a strictly individual, differentiated character, depending on the fulfillment of established norms. Taylor considered self-interest to be the driving force behind the growth of labor productivity and its remuneration.

Much attention in the Taylor system was paid to the normal maintenance of workplaces (tools, fixtures, etc.). The foremen were obliged to provide workers with everything necessary for effective work, training workers, issuing tasks for the day ahead, etc.

Creating his own system, Taylor was not limited only to the issues of rationalizing the work of workers. Taylor paid considerable attention to the best use of the production assets of the enterprise: right choice equipment to perform a specific job, maintenance of equipment, preparation for the operation of the tool and timely provision of jobs for them.

The requirement for rationalization also extended to the layout of the enterprise and workshops. This concerned the rational placement of equipment and jobs, the choice of the most optimal ways of moving materials within the enterprise, i.e. on the shortest routes and with the least expenditure of time and money.

Taylor's system provided not only ways to rationalize each element of production separately, but also determined the most appropriate interaction between them.

The functions of implementing the interaction of elements of production were assigned to the planning and distribution bureau of the enterprise, which was given a central place in the Taylor system. Much attention was also paid to the organization of accounting and reporting at the enterprise.

Taylor's concept was based on the division of labor into two components: performing labor and managerial labor. Taylor's important contribution was the recognition that management work is a specialty.

Thus, we can single out the main provisions of Taylor's concept:

recognition of management as an independent activity, the main function of which is the rationalization of production;

The division of the production process and labor operations into separate elements and the identification of the range of time spent on their implementation, which allows them to be normalized;

planning based on the norms of work tasks; performance of planning functions by special units that determine the sequence, time, deadlines for the performance of work;

increase in labor productivity through higher wages;

selection of workers in accordance with physiological and psychological requirements and their training.

Taylor formulated two main tasks of management:

Ensuring the greatest prosperity of the entrepreneur, which included not only receiving high dividends on invested capital, but also further development business;

improving the well-being of each employee, providing not only high wages in accordance with the efforts expended, but also the development in each employee of the potential that is inherent in him by nature itself.

The philosophical basis of Taylor's system was the concept of the so-called economic man, which became widespread at that time. This concept was based on the assertion that the only driving stimulus of people is their needs. Taylor believed that with the help of an appropriate pay system, maximum productivity could be achieved.

G. Emerson made a significant contribution to the development of the Taylor system. He studied the principles of human labor activity in relation to any production, regardless of the type of its activity.

The analysis made it possible to formulate 12 principles of labor productivity, which boil down to the following:

1. Having clearly defined goals or ideals as the main premise

efficient work.

2. Presence of common sense in every job.

3. The possibility of obtaining qualified advice, competent advice. V

every organization needs to create a rationalization department that would

divisions.

4. Strict discipline based on standard written instructions,

full and accurate accounting, use of the reward system.

5 . fair treatment to the staff (through "fair" wages). This

the principle implies staff development, improvement of working conditions

6. Availability of timely, complete, reliable, permanent, accurate accounting.

7. Regulation of production (scheduling) as an integral part of the activity

organizations.

8. Work planning.

9. Rationing of operations on the basis of rational methods of their implementation, which

allows you to set time limits and prices, taking into account the identification

unused reserves of labor productivity growth.

10. Normalization of working conditions as a prerequisite for growth

labor productivity.

11. Availability of developed instructions and standards in writing.

12. Existence of a rational wage system for improving its performance.

At the same time, Emerson noted that the growth of labor productivity of workers is largely determined by their "ideals". Therefore, you should not reduce remuneration only to an increase in wages.

Emerson believed that the purpose of the formulated performance principles is to eliminate waste. In what particular case to eliminate losses - this is of fundamental importance.

G. Ford continued Taylor's ideas in the field of production organization. He ensured the creation of mass assembly line production and the development of the automotive industry. In setting up the automobile industry, Ford wrote that his goal was "to produce with minimum cost material and human strength and sell at a minimum profit." However, he made huge profits by increasing sales.

The following principles were put in the basis of the production organized by him:

· one should not be afraid of possible failures, since “failures only give a reason to start again and smarter”;

You should not be afraid of competition, and at the same time you should not seek to harm the business and life of another person who is your competitor;

· Do not put profit above work for the benefit of consumers. “Basically, there is nothing wrong with profit. A well-established enterprise, bringing great benefits, should bring big income»;

“Producing does not mean buying cheap and selling expensive.” Raw materials and materials should be purchased “at fair prices”, adding insignificant additional costs in the production process, but at the same time achieving the production of high-quality products.

Ford took the Taylor system a step further by replacing manual labor with machines. He formulated the basic principles of the organization of production:

1) maximum division of labor, specialization;

2) wide application of high performance special

equipment, tools and fixtures;

3) placement of equipment along the technological process;

4) regulated rhythm of production;

5) mechanization of transport operations;

Based on these principles, it became possible to create a mass production that allows you to increase the productivity of workers, essentially without the intervention of a foreman who does not need to adjust the workers himself. On the production line, this is done automatically, the worker is forced to adapt himself to the speed of the conveyor and other mechanisms.

Henry Ford was a pioneer of modern mass production. The combination of continuity and speed provided the necessary production efficiency. The production methods developed by Ford were of great importance not only for the automotive industry, but also for many other industries.

2.2. The main provisions of the classical school in management.

The ancestor of the classical, or administrative, school A French mining engineer, an outstanding manager-practitioner, one of the founders of the theory of management A. Fayol is considered in management.

Unlike the school of scientific management, which dealt mainly with the rational organization of the work of an individual worker, representatives of the classical school developed approaches to improve the management of the organization as a whole. Fayol and other representatives belonged to the administration of organizations, which is why the classical school is often called administrative.

The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

Fayol's concept was based on the position that in any enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol's research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research.

To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources.

According to Fayol, administration is part of management, which includes six main groups of management operations:

1) technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);

2) commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);

3) financial (attraction of capitals and effective management of them);

4) security (protection of property individuals);

5) accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics);

6) administrative (foresight, organization, command, coordination and control).

Fayol called the management of the listed operations general management. He paid the main attention to administrative operations, the content of which lies in the ability to manage personnel.

Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise. He believed that management activity itself should become a special object of study. Fayol defined that management activity includes five mandatory general functions: foresight (planning), organization, command, coordination and control. He formulated the rules and techniques for their implementation.

Foresight (planning). It is expressed in the development of an enterprise action program for technical, financial, commercial and other operations for the future and for the current period.

Fayol paid special attention to foresight. In his opinion, foresight is the most essential part of management.

The main place in foresight is given to the development of a program of action, by which he understood "the ultimate goal, the guiding line of conduct, the stages of the upcoming path and the means that will be put into action." The picture of the future cannot always be clearly presented, but the upcoming events can be worked out in sufficient detail.

Organization. Under the organization of the work of the enterprise, Fayol understood the provision of everything necessary for its work. Fayol distinguished between material and social organization. Material organization includes providing the enterprise with the necessary materials, capital, equipment, social organization - providing the enterprise with people. The social organism must be able to carry out all the operations necessary to carry out the production process.

Disposition. The purpose of management is to extract the greatest benefit from employees subordinate to the head in the interests of the enterprise as a whole. The head, who performs the function of the manager, must adhere to the following rules:

know perfectly subordinate employees;

Dismiss incapable workers;

know well the conditions connecting the enterprise and employees;

Set a positive example

to carry out periodic inspections of the social organism

enterprises;

· hold meetings with key employees in order to coordinate

unity of directions and efforts;

strive to ensure that among the personnel of the enterprise dominated

activity and devotion;

Do not pay much attention to trifles to the detriment of solving the most important issues.

Coordination. Its main goal is to achieve consistency and consistency between various parts enterprises through the establishment of rational ties in production, these ties are of the most diverse nature: in content, they can be technical, economic, organizational; on a hierarchical basis - links between different levels of the managed object. In addition, this includes links between production proper, on the one hand, and distribution, exchange, and consumers, on the other.

Enterprise management through the function of coordination is designed to rationally organize all these connections on the basis of their study and improvement.

Control. The task of control is to check the execution in accordance with the adopted program. Control should be carried out on time and have specific consequences.

Fayol saw the enterprise as closed system management. He paid the main attention to the internal opportunities to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by improving the management process. Fayol formulated principles (rules) that, in his opinion, are applicable to any administrative activity. However, he noted that these principles are flexible and mobile and their application depends on changing circumstances.

Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor. Fayol believed in the efficiency of the division of labor, but only

within certain limits, beyond which, in his opinion, it can

lead to a decrease in production efficiency.

2. Authority. Official power must be backed up

H. Discipline. Mainly related to compliance

agreements and rules.

4. Unity of command. The employee must receive orders and instructions from

your immediate supervisor.

5. Unity of direction. Each group operating under the same goal must

have a plan and one leader. Fayol emphasized: "One leader and

a single plan for a set of operations that have a common goal.

6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of workers must

be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise and should not

prevail over them.

7. Reward i.e., the price of the services provided. The reward must be

fair and sufficient for motivation to work. It is equally

applies to both employees and managers.

8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain

correspondence between centralization and decentralization, which depends on its

sizes and specific conditions of activity. Fayol believed that for each

type of solutions, there must be an appropriate level.

9. Scalar chain (hierarchy). All personnel must be distributed in strict

according to the hierarchical structure. Scalar chain defines subordination

workers.

10. Order. Fayol divided order into "material" and "social".

Each employee must have their own workplace provided to all

necessary. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as follows: "Place - for

Everything and everything is in its place.”

11. Impartiality. Managers at all levels of management must fairly

treat your staff. An employee who feels fair to himself

attitude, feels loyalty to the firm and tries to work with full

12. Staff stability. Meaning the high cost of training

those who know the organization and its managers. Fayol believes that

organization is better to have a mediocre, but willing to stay in it

an executive than an outstanding but about to leave her manager.

13. Initiative. The emancipation of the initiative is seen as a means

staff motivation; the manager should encourage this process, even if he

will hurt his self-esteem.

14. Corporate spirit. The strength of the enterprise is in the "unity" of all employees

enterprises. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using in management

principle of "divide and rule". He believed that leaders should encourage

collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.

The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to the streamlining of the management process. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be definitively formulated. It should remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalizations.

It should be noted that the views of Fayol and Taylor have a fundamental difference. For Taylor, the worker is one of the elements of production along with the objects of labor and the instruments of production. Fayol, on the other hand, views the worker as a “socio-psychological individual.” Fayol made an attempt to explore the “social organism” of the enterprise from a theoretical position, while Taylor directed almost all his efforts to the rationalization of the “material organism”.

The followers of Fayol, who developed the main provisions of his doctrine, are L. Urwick, M. Weber, D. Mooney, G. Church and others.

Based on the developments of Fayol and his followers, a classical model of organization was formed, based on four main principles:

1) a clear functional division of labor;

2) transmission of commands and orders along the "scalar chain" from top to bottom;

3) unity of management;

4) observance of the "range of control".

All of the above principles of building an organization are valid for the present.

2.3. The main provisions of the school of psychology and human relations.

The transfer of the center of gravity in management from tasks to people is the main distinguishing characteristic of the school of human relations that originated in modern management in the 20-30s. The creator of this school is Elton Mayo (1880-1949). He made the main developments regarding this concept while being a professor at the School of Business at Harvard University. A fundamental step in the development of this concept was Mayo's participation in the so-called Hawthorne experiment.

This study was carried out over several years in the 20-30s. at Western Electric Company. It is generally accepted that this was the largest empirical study ever conducted in the field of management.

At the beginning of the experiment, a group of research engineers set the task of determining the impact on labor productivity of workers of illumination, the duration of breaks, and a number of other factors that form working conditions. A group of six workers was selected, who were placed for observation in a special room and on which various experiments were carried out. The results of the experiments turned out to be amazing and inexplicable from the point of view of scientific management. . It turned out that labor productivity remained above average and almost did not depend on changes in illumination and other studied factors.

The scientists who participated in the study, led by Mayo, came to the conclusion that high productivity was due to the special relationships between people, their joint work. This study also showed that a person's behavior at work and the results of his work fundamentally depend on the social conditions in which he is at work, what kind of relationship workers have with each other, and also what kind of relationship exists between workers and managers. These conclusions were fundamentally different from the provisions of scientific management. , because the focus of attention was transferred from the tasks, operations or functions performed by the worker, to the system of relationships, to the person, considered no longer as a machine, but as a social being. Unlike Taylor, Mayo did not believe that the worker was inherently lazy. On the contrary, he argued that if you create the right relationship, a person will work with interest and enthusiasm!

Mayo said that managers should trust the workers and focus on creating favorable relationships in the team.

The well-known management theorist Marie Parker Follet (1868-1933) believed that for successful management, a manager must abandon formal interactions with workers, be a leader recognized by workers, and not based on official authority. Her interpretation of management as “the art of achieving results through the actions of others” put flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers at the forefront. Follet believed that the manager should proceed from the situation and manage in accordance with what the situation dictates, and not with what is prescribed by the management function.

A huge contribution to the development of the behavioral direction in management was made by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who developed the theory of needs, which later became widely used in management, known as the “needs pyramid” (see Appendix No. 1). In accordance with the teachings of Maslow, a person has a complex structure

hierarchically located needs, and management in accordance with this should be carried out on the basis of identifying the needs of the worker and using appropriate methods of motivation.

A specific opposition of scientific management and behavioral concepts in the form of their theoretical generalization was reflected in the theory "X" and the theory "Y", developed by Douglas MacGregor (1906-1964). According to this theory, there are two types of management, reflecting two types of views on workers.

Type X organizations are characterized by the following prerequisites:

· a common person has an inherited dislike for work and tries to avoid work;

due to the unwillingness to work, most people only by coercion, with the help of orders, controls and threats of punishment can be induced to carry out the necessary actions and expend due efforts necessary for the organization to achieve its goals;

· The average person prefers to be controlled, tries not to take responsibility, has relatively low ambitions and desires to be in a safe situation.

Theory Y has the following premises:

The expression of physical and emotional effort at work is as natural for a person as it is during a game or on vacation. The unwillingness to work is not a hereditary inherent trait of a person. A person may perceive work as a source of satisfaction or as a punishment, depending on the working conditions;

External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of inducing a person to act in order to achieve the organization's goals. People can exercise self-control and self-motivation to activities for the interests of the organization, if they have a sense of responsibility, obligations towards the organization;

Responsibility and obligations in relation to the goals of the organization depend on the remuneration received for the results of work. The most important reward is that which is associated with the satisfaction of needs for self-expression and self-actualization;

· An ordinary person, brought up in a certain way, is not only ready to take responsibility, but even strives for it.

At the same time, in relation to the theory "U", McGregor emphasized that many people are willing to use their experience, knowledge and imagination in solving organizational problems. However, modern industrial society makes little use of the intellectual potential of an ordinary person.

McGregor concluded that the management of the type "U" much more effectively, and made a recommendation to managers that their task is to create conditions under which the worker, expending effort to achieve the goals of the organization, simultaneously achieves his personal goals in the best possible way.

If Taylor focused on how to better perform tasks, operations and functions, then Mayo and the behaviorists were looking for answers to questions related to the nature of relationships in a team, to the motives of human activity, and Fayol tried to find answers to questions related to the effective management of an organization in in general, studied the content of the organization's management activities.

One of the main differences between the school of psychology and human relations is the introduction of behaviorism into it, i.e. theories of human behavior. Behaviorism is based on the need to study human behavior, which directly depends on the stimuli that affect it and, in turn, has the opposite effect on them. The behavioral approach was aimed at overcoming the shortcomings of the concept of "human relations". Representatives of this trend are C. Barnard, A. Maslow, R. Lzykert, D. Macgregor, F. Herzberg and others.

Representatives of this school came to the understanding that people are not only a "factor of production", but much more. They are members of the "social system of any enterprise", as well as members of organizations such as family, school, etc. They are interacting members of a wider social system. The normal existence of each person requires the satisfaction of his needs. And if the physiological needs (for food, clothing, etc.) are relatively easy to satisfy, then the satisfaction of social needs (communication, recognition, self-expression, etc.) is much more difficult.

According to the supporters of "human relations", production will not be able to achieve significant efficiency if it does not improve the social organization of the enterprise. The engineering approach has long exhausted itself. Problems come to the fore human behavior, psychology of workers. The subject of the study are ethical norms and rules, beliefs, motives of behavior. The concept of "economic man" is being replaced by the concept of "social man".

In general, the school of psychology and human relations considered the enterprise as a closed social system and ignored production and technological factors. Therefore, its main provisions were criticized by contemporaries, who noted a weak relationship between "caring management" and the quality of work of workers.

The lack of a systematic approach to management problems, in particular, the inability to build a scientific theory about the place of a person in an organization, was also attributed to the shortcomings of the school of psychology and human relations.

However, despite the criticism, the main provisions of this school were subsequently reflected in new, more complex and modern concepts of management.

2.4. Fundamentals of the School of Management Science

(quantitative school.)

The formation of the school of management science associated with the development of mathematics, statistics, engineering and related fields of knowledge. The School of Management Science was formed in the early 1950s and is now successfully functioning.

The school of management science distinguishes between two main areas:

1) consideration of production as a "social system" using systemic, process and situational approaches;

2) study of management problems based on system analysis and use of cybernetic approach, including the use of mathematical methods and computers.

The school of management science in its research relies on three methodological approaches - systemic, process and situational, which were formed on the basis of an empirical approach.

Systems approach allows you to consider the organization as a system consisting of a certain number of interconnected elements.

Initially, systems theory was applied in the exact sciences and technology. In management, it began to be used in the late 50s, which was a significant success of the school of management science. The systems approach is based on the general theory of systems, the founder of which is L. von Bertalanffy.

The starting point of the systematic approach is the concept of purpose. The presence of a specific goal is the first and most important sign of the organization, in which this system differs from others - the task of management is a complex process to achieve the goals of the system.

The school of management science explores issues that were not considered by the former schools. It studies the most important subsystems, the nature of their relationships, the structure and goals of the system, and the coordination of all elements of the system.

System- this is some integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Failure of any part of the system leads to disruption of the entire system. In management, all organizations are treated as systems.

Systems are divided into two types: closed systems, relatively independent of the environment, and open systems, which are influenced by environmental factors. The theory of social systems considers the organization as an open system, as a multifactorial and multipurpose formation.

The main elements of the system are goals, objectives, structure, equipment and technology, people. Between all elements of the system there are multilateral relationships that cause a change in the behavior of people in the organization. All this together is defined as an organizational system aimed at achieving the goals.

Importance in management has the concept subsystem.we. The organization consists of several interdependent subsystems. Thus, a production organization has social and technical subsystems. Subsystems, in turn, can be composed of smaller subsystems. Since they are all interconnected, the malfunctioning of even the smallest subsystem can affect the system as a whole.

Process approach as the concept of managerial thought was first proposed by the classical (administrative) school of management, which formulated and described the content of management functions as independent of each other. The process approach from the standpoint of the school of management science considers management functions as interconnected, dependent on each other.

situational approach is directly related to the system and process approaches and expands their application in practice. It is often referred to as situational thinking about organizational problems and their solutions.

The essence of the situational approach is to define the concept of a situation, which means a specific set of circumstances,

affecting the organization at a particular time. Consideration of a specific situation allows the manager to choose the best ways and methods to achieve the goals of the organization that are appropriate for this situation.

The merit of the management science school lies in the fact that it was able to identify the internal and external variables (factors) that affect the organization.

To the main internal variables organizations include situational factors operating within the organization. These are goals, tasks, structure, equipment and technology, people. Internal variables are the result of managerial decisions made by the people who created the organization.

Situational Approach Defined External Variables : factors

outside the organization that have a major impact on its success. Subsequently, all environmental factors were divided into two groups: direct impact variables - suppliers, customers, competitors, laws and government agencies; indirect impact variables - the state of the economy, scientific and technological progress, socio-cultural factors (life attitudes, traditions, customs, etc.); political factors, international events.

The school of management science has established that all variables (factors) of both the internal and external environment are interconnected and interdependent. A change in one of them causes a change in all the others.

The second direction of the school of science is connected with the development of the exact sciences, primarily mathematics. It is due to the widespread introduction into the field of management of quantitative methods, collectively known as operations research.

The subject of operations research in managerial decision theory is the decision-making process itself. Mathematical modeling is widely used for decision making, including game theory models, queuing theory models, inventory management, linear and simulation programming, etc.

The theory of managerial decisions is independent complex discipline. The leading role in the theory of managerial decisions belongs to the systems approach, which requires that each manager approaches problem solving from the point of view of system analysis.

Systems analysis is a study whose purpose is to assist the decision maker in choosing a course of action by systematically examining his actual goals, quantitatively comparing (where possible) the costs of effectiveness and risk that are associated with each of the policy alternatives or strategies for achieving goals, and also by formulating additional alternatives if those considered are insufficient.