Alderfer's theory of motivation. Maslow's theory of needs

Alderfer's theory of motivation

Clayton Alderfer developed a theory of motivation based on the principles of Maslow's pyramid. Alderfer's theory is also called "the theory of three factors" or "the theory of needs".

In this article, we will briefly try to understand what the essence of this theory is and how it can be applied in practice in real life when motivating subordinates.

Three levels of needs according to Alderfer (basics of the theory of needs):

Alderfer believed that a person has only three levels of need (three factors):

• the needs of existence;
• needs for social connections (including the need for respect);
• growth needs (self-expression needs)

His theory is based on these three whales, so sometimes Alderfer's theory is also called the theory of needs.

As you can see, this gradation is very similar to Maslow's pyramid.

But what is the importance of this theory?

Why is it needed if there is already Maslow's pyramid?

Alderfer established very interesting patterns:

• the less the needs of existence are satisfied, the stronger they manifest themselves;
• the weaker social needs are satisfied, the stronger the effect of the need for existence;
• the less the needs of personal growth are satisfied, the stronger the social needs become

Linking Alderfer's Theory to Employee Motivation

Depending on these patterns, it is possible to form a system of employee motivation.

For example, knowing that an employee is well satisfied with social needs, you need to motivate him to meet the needs of growth.

If an employee has weak growth needs, then his social needs are more pronounced - this can also be used when building a motivation system.

Use Alderfer's theory - it is really useful in practice.

Introduction

The relevance of the work. All people work for something. Some strive for money, others for fame, others for power, and others simply love their work. These and many other circumstances that encourage a person to be active are called motives, and their application is called motivation.

The reasons that make a person give maximum effort to work are difficult to determine, they are very diverse and complex. Various internal and external forces evoke far from the same reaction in different people. Some people do easy work and are dissatisfied, while others do hard work and are satisfied. What needs to be done to ensure that people work better and more productively? How can you make work more attractive? What makes a person want to work? These and similar questions are always relevant in any field of business. The leadership of the organization can develop excellent plans and strategies, establish the most modern equipment, use the best technology. However, all this can be nullified if the members of the organization do not work properly, if they do not perform their duties well, do not behave appropriately in the team, and strive with their work to help the organization achieve its goals. Mechanical coercion to work cannot give positive results, but it does not follow from this that a person cannot be effectively controlled. If you understand well what drives a person, what prompts him to act and what he strives for when doing a certain job, you can build a person’s management in such a way that he himself will strive to fulfill his duties the best way and most efficient.

The reasons that determine the participation of a person in the work are his desire, opportunities and qualifications, but especially motivation (motivation). Needs and motives are involved in the process of motivation. Needs are internal motivations for action. A person feels a need when he feels a physiological or psychological lack of something.

The process of motivation itself ends with the development of a motive that determines the readiness of the individual to implement the labor process with one or another efficiency.

Scientists have already understood that the way to effective management of a person lies through an understanding of his motivation. In the forties of the twentieth century. psychological theories of motivation have arisen and are developing to this day. Needs and their influence on motivation are analyzed in content theories of motivation. They are attempts to classify human needs into certain categories. These theories describe the structure of needs, their content and how they are related to a person's motivation to act. The most famous among them are:

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory;

Alderfer's ERG theory;

McClelland's theory of needs;

Herzberg's two-factor theory.

Target term paper to study and reveal the topic "ERG Theory (Theory of Existence, Communication and Growth) by K. Alderfer". Based on the goal, the tasks are: The process of motivation. Theory of motivation. Alderfer's ERG theory;

Chapter 1

1.1 Essence, content and structure of motivation

In the very general view a person's motivation for activity is understood as a set of driving forces that encourage a person to carry out certain actions. These forces are outside and inside a person and make him consciously or unconsciously perform certain actions. At the same time, the connection between individual forces and human actions is mediated by a very complex system of interactions, as a result of which different people can react in completely different ways to the same effects from the same forces. Moreover, the behavior of a person, the actions carried out by him, in turn, can also influence his response to influences, as a result of which both the degree of influence of the influence and the direction of behavior caused by this influence can change. With this in mind, we can try to give a more detailed definition of motivation.

Motivation is a set of internal and external driving forces that induce a person to activity, set the boundaries and forms of activity and give this activity an orientation focused on achieving certain goals. The influence of motivation on human behavior depends on many factors, in many respects it can individually change under the influence of feedback from human activity.

Needs are something that arises and is inside a person, which is quite common for different people, but at the same time has a certain individual manifestation in each person. Finally, this is what a person seeks to free himself from, because as long as the need exists, it makes itself felt and "requires" its elimination. People can try to eliminate needs, satisfy them, suppress them, or not respond to them in different ways. Needs can arise both consciously and unconsciously. At the same time, not all needs are recognized and consciously eliminated. If the need is not eliminated, then this does not imply that it is permanently eliminated. Most needs are periodically renewed, although they can change the form of their specific manifestation, as well as the degree of perseverance and influence on the person.

A motive is something that causes a person to act in a certain way. The motive is located "inside" a person, has a "personal" character, depends on many external and internal factors in relation to a person, as well as on the action of other motives that arise in parallel with it. The motive not only induces a person to action, but also determines what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. In particular, if the motive causes actions to eliminate the need, then various people these actions may be quite different, even if they have the same need. Motives are comprehensible. A person can influence his motives, muffling their action or even eliminating them from his motivational totality. Human behavior is usually determined not by one motive, but by their combination, in which motives can be in a certain relationship to each other according to the degree of their impact on human behavior. Therefore, the motivational structure of a person can be considered as the basis for the implementation of certain actions by him. The motivational structure of a person has a certain stability. However, it can change, in particular, consciously in the process of upbringing a person, his education.

Motivation is the process of influencing a person in order to induce him to certain actions by awakening certain motives. Motivation is the core and basis of human management. The effectiveness of management to a very large extent depends on how successfully the motivation process is carried out.

Incentives act as levers of influence or carriers of irritation that cause the action of certain motives. Individual objects, actions of other people, promises, carriers of obligations and opportunities, provided opportunities, and much more that can be offered to a person in compensation for his actions or that he would like to receive as a result of certain actions can act as incentives. A person reacts to many stimuli not necessarily consciously. To individual stimuli, his reaction may even be beyond conscious control.

The response to specific stimuli is not the same in different people. Therefore, stimuli by themselves have no absolute meaning or meaning if people do not respond to them. For example, in the conditions of the collapse of the monetary system, when it is practically impossible to buy anything for money, wage and banknotes in general lose their role as incentives and can be used in a very limited way in managing people. The process of using various incentives to motivate people is called the incentive process. Stimulation takes many forms. In management practice, one of its most common forms is financial incentives. The role of this stimulation process is exceptionally great. However, it is very important to take into account the situation in which material incentives are carried out and try to avoid exaggerating its capabilities, since a person has a very complex and ambiguous system of needs, interests, priorities and goals.

Stimulation is fundamentally different from motivation. The essence of this difference is that stimulation is one of the means by which motivation can be carried out. At the same time, the higher the level of development of relations in the organization, the less often incentives are used as a means of managing people. This is due to the fact that upbringing and training as one of the methods of motivating people lead to the fact that the members of the organization themselves show an interested participation in the affairs of the organization, taking the necessary actions without waiting or not receiving the appropriate stimulating effect at all. If you look at what motivation affects in a person’s activity, it turns out that these are the following characteristics of activity: effort; diligence; persistence; conscientiousness; orientation.

A person can do the same work with different efforts. He can work at full strength, or he can work at half strength. He may also strive to take on easier work, or he may take on difficult and difficult work, choose a simpler solution, search for and take on a difficult decision. All this reflects what effort a person is willing to spend. And it depends on how much he is motivated to spend a lot of effort in doing his job.

A person can try in different ways, fulfilling his role in the organization. One may be indifferent to the quality of his work, the other may strive to do everything in the best possible way, work with full dedication, do not shirk from work, strive to improve his skills, improve his abilities to work and interact with the organizational environment.

The third characteristic of activity, which is influenced by motivation, is the persistence to continue and develop the work begun. This is a very important characteristic of the activity, since there are often people who quickly lose interest in the business they have begun. And even if they had very good performance in the beginning, the loss of interest and lack of perseverance can lead them to reduce their efforts and try less, performing their role at a significantly lower level than their capabilities. Lack of perseverance also has a negative effect on bringing things to the end. An employee can come up with great ideas and do nothing to implement them, which in practice will turn into lost opportunities for the organization.

Integrity in the performance of work, meaning the responsible performance of work, taking into account all necessary requirements and regulations, for many jobs is the most important condition for their successful completion. A person can have good qualifications and knowledge, be capable and creative, and work hard. But at the same time, he can treat his duties carelessly, irresponsibly. And this can negate all the positive results of his activities. The management of the organization should be well aware of this and try to build a motivation system in such a way that it develops this characteristic of their behavior among employees.

Orientation as a characteristic of a person's activity indicates what he aspires to by carrying out certain actions. A person can do his job because it brings him some satisfaction (moral or material), or he can do it because he seeks to help his organization achieve its goals. For management, it is very important to know the direction of human actions, but it is also important to be able, if necessary, with the help of motivation, to orient these actions in the direction of certain goals.

The foregoing allows us to clarify the concept of motivation as a set of forces that encourage a person to carry out activities with the expenditure of certain efforts, at a certain level of diligence and conscientiousness, with a certain degree of perseverance, in the direction of achieving certain goals.

1.2 Motivational process

Motivation, considered as a process, can theoretically be represented in the form of six successive stages. Naturally, such a consideration of the process is rather arbitrary, since in real life there is no such clear delineation of stages and there are no separate processes of motivation. However, to understand how the motivation process unfolds, what its logic and components are, the following model may be acceptable and useful.

The first stage is the emergence of needs. The need manifests itself in the form that a person begins to feel that he is missing something. It manifests itself at a specific time and begins to require a person to find an opportunity and take some steps to eliminate it. Needs can be very different. Conventionally, they can be divided into three groups:

Physiological;

Psychological;

Social.

The second stage is the search for ways to eliminate the need. Once a need has arisen and creates problems for a person, he begins to look for ways to eliminate it: to satisfy, suppress, ignore. There is a need to do something, to do something.

The third stage is the definition of goals (directions) of action. A person fixes what and by what means he should do, what to achieve, what to get in order to eliminate the need. At this stage, four points are linked:

what should I get to eliminate the need;

what should I do to get what I want;

to what extent I can achieve what I want;

as far as what I can get can eliminate the need.

The fourth stage is the implementation of the action. At this stage, a person expends effort in order to carry out actions that ultimately should provide him with the opportunity to receive something in order to eliminate the need. Since the work process has an inverse effect on motivation, goals can be adjusted here.

The fifth stage is receiving a reward for performing an action. Having done a certain work, a person either directly receives what he can use to eliminate the need, or what he can exchange for the object he wants. At this stage, it turns out to what extent the implementation of the actions gave the desired result. Depending on this, either a weakening, or preservation, or an increase in motivation for action occurs.

The sixth stage is the elimination of the need. Depending on the degree of stress relief caused by the need, and also on whether the elimination of the need causes a weakening or strengthening of motivation for activity, a person either stops the activity until a new need arises, or continues to look for opportunities and take actions to eliminate the need (Fig. 2).

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 Arising of a need Finding ways to eliminate a need Determine directions for action Taking an action Taking an action for a reward Eliminating a need

Figure 2. Scheme of the motivational process

Knowledge of the logic of the motivation process does not provide significant advantages in managing this process. Several factors can be pointed out that complicate and obscure the process of practical deployment of motivation. An important factor is the evidence of motives. It is possible to guess, to guess about what motives operate, but it is impossible to "isolate" them explicitly. Long-term and scrupulous observations are required in order to try to say with a sufficient degree of certainty which motives are leading, driving in the motivational process of a person.

Next an important factor is the variability of the motivational process. The nature of the motivational process depends on what needs initiate it. However, the needs themselves are in a complex dynamic interaction with each other, often contradicting each other or, conversely, reinforcing the effects of individual needs. At the same time, the components of this interaction can change over time, changing the direction and nature of the action of motives. Therefore, even with the deepest knowledge of the motivational structure of a person, the motives of his action, unforeseen changes in a person’s behavior and an unforeseen reaction on his part to motivating influences can occur.

Another factor that makes the motivational process of each individual person unique and not one hundred percent predictable is the difference in the motivational structures of individual people, the different degree of influence of the same motives on different people, the different degree of dependence of the action of some motives on others. In some people, the desire to achieve a result can be very strong, while in others it can be relatively weak. In this case, this motive will have a different effect on people's behavior. Another situation is also possible: two people have an equally strong motive for achieving a result. But for one, this motive dominates over all others, and he will achieve results by any means. For another, this motive is commensurate in strength of action with the motive for complicity in joint actions. In this case, this person will behave differently.

As you can see, the process of motivation is very complex and ambiguous. There is enough a large number of various theories motivation, trying to explain this phenomenon.

Chapter 2

1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Content theories of motivation analyze the factors that influence motivation. To a large extent, the focus of these theories is concentrated on the analysis of needs and their impact on motivation. These theories describe the structure of needs, their content, and how these needs are related to a person's motivation to act. In these theories, an attempt is made to answer the question of what inside a person prompts him to act. The most famous theories of motivation of this group are:

) the theory of the hierarchy of needs, developed by Maslow;

) the ERG theory developed by Alderfer;

McClelland's theory of acquired needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.

In the first chapter of the work, the theory of Abraham Maslow was considered in detail as one of the most famous representatives of the behavioral direction in a number of teachings about management. In this chapter, we will look at distinctive features from other theories.

The widely known and widely accepted concept of the hierarchy of needs developed by Maslow includes the following main ideas and premises.

People are constantly feeling some kind of need.

People experience a certain set of strongly expressed needs that can be combined into separate groups.

Need groups are in a hierarchical arrangement in relation to each other.

Needs, if they are not satisfied, induce a person to action. Satisfied needs do not motivate people.

If one need is satisfied, another unsatisfied need takes its place.

Usually a person feels at the same time several different needs that are in complex interaction with each other.

Needs that are closer to the base of the "pyramid" require primary satisfaction.

Needs of a higher level begin to act actively on a person after the needs of a lower level are generally satisfied.

Higher level needs can be satisfied in more ways than lower level needs.

Maslow's theory of hierarchical construction of needs does not answer the question what is the nature of certain needs. The main task of this theory, it seems, is to show how certain needs can affect a person’s motivation for activity, and how, knowing about the certain dynamics of the action of needs on a person’s motivation, influence a person, giving him the opportunity to satisfy his needs in a certain way. .

Maslow's concept had a great influence on the development of the theory and practice of modern management. However, life has shown that the concept has a number of very vulnerable points.

First, needs manifest themselves differently depending on many situational factors (job content, position in the organization, age, gender, etc.).

Secondly, there is not necessarily a strict following of one group of needs after another, as it is presented in Maslow's "pyramid".

Table 1. An example of the relationship between needs, their manifestations and means of satisfaction

Need groups Form of manifestation of needs Means of satisfying needs Self-expression Striving for results Providing creative work Recognition and self-affirmation Desire to occupy a certain position in a team Assigning ranks or titles Belonging and belongingness Striving for friendships Encouraging the formation of informal groups Safety Striving to prevent dangerous changes Establishing an insurance system Physiological needs

2.2 ERG theory by Clayton Alderfer

Further development needs theory was proposed by Clayton Alderfer in 1972 in Existence, Involvement, and Growth: Human Needs in Organizations.

K. Alderfer identified three levels of needs: (existence) - the needs of existence, that is, the needs associated with the survival and reproduction of man; (relatedness) - the needs of belonging, which can be satisfied through communication with other people and due to a sense of respect from them; (growth) - the needs of personal growth, for example, the need to acquire new knowledge and self-esteem.

The ratio of needs according to A. Maslow and K. Alderfer is shown in the figure.

Figure 3. The relationship of needs according to A. Maslow and K. Alderfer

K. Alderfer, unlike A. Maslow, believed that, despite the hierarchy, the needs of different levels can equally and simultaneously influence human behavior. Moreover, the dissatisfaction of any need can be compensated by a more complete satisfaction of another need. This provision is very important for managers seeking to motivate their employees: if the work performed does not satisfy the needs of growth, then social needs become more important, and if they cannot be realized, then the needs of existence increase. The converse is also true: a person may accept a relatively small material reward if the work performed allows him to have extensive social contacts or contributes to the satisfaction of the need for growth.

Just like Maslow, Clayton Alderfer proceeds in his theory from the fact that human needs can be combined into separate groups. However, unlike Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, he believes that there are three such groups of needs:

the needs of existence;

communication needs;

growth needs.

The groups of needs of this theory quite clearly correlate with the groups of needs of Maslow's theory.

The needs of existence, as it were, include two groups of needs in Maslow's pyramid: security needs, with the exception of group security, and physiological needs. The group of communication needs clearly corresponds to the group of needs of belonging and belonging. The need for communication, according to Alderfer, reflects social nature a person, a person's desire to be a member of the family, to have colleagues, friends, enemies, bosses and subordinates. Therefore, this group can also include part of the needs for recognition and self-affirmation from Maslow's pyramid, which are associated with a person's desire to occupy a certain position in the world around him, as well as that part of the security needs of Maslow's pyramid that are associated with group security. Growth needs are similar to the self-expression needs of Maslow's pyramid and also include those needs of the recognition and self-affirmation group that are associated with the desire to develop confidence, self-improvement, etc. (Fig. 3).

Self-expressionGrowthAcknowledgement and belongingBelonging and belongingConnectionSafetyPhysiological needsExistence Figure 3. The relationship between the hierarchy of needs of Maslow's theory and Alderfer's theory

These three groups of needs, just like in Maslow's theory, are arranged hierarchically. However, there is one fundamental difference between the theories of Maslow and Alderfer, which is that, according to Maslow, there is a movement from need to need only from the bottom up. Satisfied the need of the lower level, moved on to the next one, and so on. Alderfer believes that the movement goes both ways. Up if a lower-level need is not satisfied, and down if a higher-level need is not satisfied. At the same time, Alderfer believes that in case of dissatisfaction with the need of the upper level, the degree of action of the need of a lower level increases, which switches the person's attention to this level. For example, if a person could not satisfy the needs of growth in any way, the needs of communication “turn on” in him again, and this causes a process of regression from the upper level of needs to the lower one. According to Alderfer's theory, the hierarchy of needs reflects the ascent from more specific needs to less specific ones. He believes that every time a need is not met, there is a switch to a more specific need. And this process determines the presence of reverse movement from top to bottom.

Alderfer calls the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down - the process of frustration, i.e. defeat in an effort to satisfy the need.

The presence of two directions of movement in meeting the needs opens up additional opportunities in motivating people in the organization. For example, if an organization does not have sufficient capacity to meet a person's need for growth, then, frustrated, he may switch to the need for communication with increased interest. And in this case, the organization will be able to provide him with opportunities to meet this need, thereby increasing its potential to motivate this person.

Alderfer's theory, being relatively young, has a fairly small amount of empirical evidence for its correctness. However, knowledge of this theory is nevertheless useful for management practice, as it opens up prospects for managers to search for effective forms of motivation that correspond to a lower level of needs, if it is not possible to create conditions for satisfying higher level needs.

2.3 Frederik Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation

The two-factor theory of motivation was proposed by Frederick Herzberg in 1959 in his work Motivation at Work. This theory is essentially empirical, that is, the result of processing a large amount of experimental data.

According to F. Herzberg's theory, all factors affecting a person's job satisfaction can be divided into two groups:

motivating factors that determine job satisfaction;

hygiene factors, or contextual factors that determine a person's dissatisfaction with their work.

Motivating factors include:

the possibility of achieving and recognizing success;

interest in this type of activity;

a responsibility;

career advancement;

opportunity for professional growth.

The value of these factors is estimated by people only positively and in the worst case can be equal to 0.

Hygiene factors include:

method of management and policy of administration;

working conditions;

interpersonal relationships in the workplace, i.e. relationships with superiors, colleagues and subordinates;

earnings;

the degree of direct control over the work;

impact of work on personal life.

The value of these factors is estimated by people only negatively and in the best case can be equal to 0.

It can be noted that the motivating factors of F. Herzberg essentially coincide with the needs of high levels of A. Maslow, and hygiene factors - with the needs of low levels. The essential difference between these theories is that, according to the theory of A. Maslow, providing an employee with the opportunity to satisfy his primary needs stimulates him to increase productivity. And according to the theory of F. Herzberg, an employee generally begins to pay attention to hygienic factors only if he considers their implementation unfair.

4 McClelland's acquired needs theory

A widespread concept of needs that determine a person's motivation for activity is McClelland's concept, which is associated with the study and description of the influence of complicity and the need to rule. According to McClelland's ideas, these needs, if they are strong enough in a person, have a noticeable effect on a person's behavior, forcing him to make efforts and take actions that should lead to the satisfaction of these needs. At the same time, McClelland considers these needs as acquired under the influence of life circumstances, experience and training.

The need for achievement is manifested in the desire of a person to achieve his goals more effectively than he did before. People with high level Achievement needs prefer to set their own goals. In doing so, they usually choose moderately difficult goals and objectives based on what they can achieve and what they can do. People with a strong need for achievement tend to make moderately risky decisions and expect immediate feedback from their actions and actions. decisions taken. They like to make decisions and be responsible for solving a problem, they are obsessed with the tasks they solve, and easily take on personal responsibility.

Based on the above characteristics, we can say that members of the organization who have a high need for achievement are ready to take on work that contains elements of a challenge, which allows them to set goals on their own. However, at the same time, it is very difficult for them to engage in work that does not have a clear and tangible result that comes quickly enough. They can be enthusiastic and all the time engaged in solving a problem, but at the same time they constantly need to get a result. It is important to note that the quality of the result, as well as the quality of their work, is not necessarily the highest. People with this need work hard and willingly, but do not really like to share work with others. The jointly obtained result suits them much less than if they themselves received this result alone.

McClelland, on the basis of his research, came to the conclusion that this need can be attributed not only to the characteristics of individuals, but also to the characteristics of individual societies. Those societies where the need for achievement is high usually have well-developed economies. Conversely, in societies characterized by a low need for achievement, the economy develops at a slow pace or does not develop at all.

It is believed that the presence of a high need for achievement among employees affects their activity and performance. Therefore, it is useful to assess the level of need for achievement among members of the organization during their promotion, as well as applicants for entry into the organization. An assessment of the achievement need level can also be used to bring the nature and content of work in line with the achievement needs of employees.

In order to regulate the level of this need, it is important to train members of the organization and organize work accordingly. In particular, it is desirable to include in the work the presence of regular feedback, to analyze examples of successful achievement of goals. Also, due to the fact that people with a high need for achievement have increased self-esteem and, accordingly, are not inclined to set difficult goals, one should try to correct their self-esteem.

The desire to achieve makes people successful in solving the problems they face. Successful Entrepreneur must have a high level of achievement need. However, often it is people with a high need for achievement who do not reach the highest levels in the management hierarchy, since at the top management levels it is necessary to make more risky decisions and set higher goals than people with a high level of need for achievement are ready to go. Therefore, it can be said quite unambiguously that for people engaged in entrepreneurial activities of an individual type, it is desirable to have a high need for achievement. If a person works in a large organization, the high need for achievement can create many problems for him and his colleagues around him.

The need for participation manifests itself in the form of a desire for friendly relations with others. People with a high need for empathy strive to establish and maintain good relationships, seek approval and support from others, and are concerned about how others think of them. For them, it is very important that someone needs them, that their friends and colleagues are not indifferent to them and their actions.

Individuals with a high need for participation prefer to occupy positions and work in organizations that allow them to actively interact with people, both with their colleagues and with customers. For the successful organization of the work of such members of the team, it is necessary to create conditions that allow them to regularly receive information about the reaction of others to their actions, as well as providing them with the opportunity to actively interact with a fairly wide range of people. The management of the organization should regularly assess the level of this need among employees subordinate to them in order to correctly and timely make adjustments to the organization of their work, taking into account possible changes in the level of need for participation among individual employees. Naturally, the analysis of the level of the need for participation should also be assessed when a person is admitted to the organization.

The need to dominate is the third major need whose influence on human behavior has been studied and described by McClelland. This need also; like the previous two, is acquired, develops on the basis of training, life experience and consists in the fact that a person seeks to control the resources and processes occurring in his environment. The main focus of this need is the desire to control the actions of people, to influence their behavior, to take responsibility for the actions and behavior of other people. The need to dominate has two poles: the desire to have as much power as possible, to control everything and everyone, and, in contrast, the desire to completely abandon any claims to power, the desire to completely avoid such situations and actions that are associated with the need to perform power functions.

Persons with a high motivation to rule can be divided into two, in principle, mutually exclusive groups. The first group consists of those who seek power for the sake of ruling. First of all, they are attracted by the very opportunity to command others. The interests of the organization for them often fade into the background and even lose their meaning, as they focus on their leadership position in the organization, on their ability to rule, on their strength in the organization.

The second group includes those individuals who seek to obtain power in order to achieve the solution of group problems. These people satisfy their need to rule by setting goals, setting goals for the team and participating in the process of achieving goals. At the same time, it is very important to note that they are looking for opportunities to motivate people to achieve these goals and work together with the team both to set goals and to achieve them. That is, the need to rule for these people is not a desire for powerful self-affirmation for the sake of satisfying their vanity, but a desire to perform responsible leadership work related to solving organizational problems, which, by the way, is also a desire for powerful self-affirmation.

McClelland believes that of the three needs considered in his concept (achievement, complicity and domination), the developed need for domination of the second type is of the greatest importance for the success of a manager. Therefore, it is extremely important that the work of the leader, on the one hand, enables managers to satisfy this need, and on the other hand, contributes to the development of this need.

The needs of achievement, participation and domination in McClelland's concept are not mutually exclusive and are not arranged hierarchically, as it was presented in the concepts of Maslow and Alderfer. Moreover, the manifestation of the influence of these needs on human behavior is highly dependent on their mutual influence. So, for example, if a person is in a leadership position and has a high need for domination, then for the successful implementation of managerial activities in accordance with the desire to satisfy this need, it is desirable that the need for complicity would be relatively weakly expressed in him. It can also lead, from the point of view of the manager's performance of his work, to the influence on its result, a combination of a strong need for achievement and a strong need for domination, since the first need will always orient dominance towards achieving the personal interests of the manager. Apparently, it is impossible to draw unambiguously rigid conclusions about the direction in which the three considered needs affect each other. However, it is quite obvious that it is necessary to take into account their mutual influence in the analysis of motivation, in the analysis of behavior and methods of managing a person.

Conclusion

Human needs are very diverse. In particular, the subjects (carriers) are distinguished by individual, group, collective and public. According to the object (subject to which they are directed), people's requests are divided into material, spiritual, ethical (morality) and aesthetic (art). According to the areas of activity, the needs of labor, communication, recreation (rest, recovery) and economic are distinguished. The progress of society is clearly manifested in the operation of the law of the rise of needs. This law expresses the objective necessity of the growth and improvement of human needs with the development of production and culture. Some scientists argue that the needs of people are constantly growing without limit. However, in fact, the increase in needs does not consist in a simple proportional growth of all their types. They are most quickly saturated and have a certain limit to the increase in the need of a lower order. On the contrary, the demands of a higher order - social and intellectual - are essentially unlimited.

K. Alderfer that, despite the hierarchy, the needs of different levels can equally and simultaneously influence human behavior. Moreover, the dissatisfaction of any need can be compensated by a more complete satisfaction of another need. This provision is very important for managers seeking to motivate their employees: if the work performed does not satisfy the needs of growth, then social needs become more important, and if they cannot be realized, then the needs of existence increase. The converse is also true: a person may accept a relatively small material reward if the work performed allows him to have extensive social contacts or contributes to the satisfaction of the need for growth.

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maslow alderfer motivation

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K. Alderfer's theory of motivation (ERG-theory)

K. Alderfer somewhat reworked Maslow's hierarchy of needs, proposing to distinguish three main groups of needs:

A) existential (existence);
b) social (relatedness);
c) development (growth).

The initial letters of the names of these groups of needs (in the English version) gave the name to this theory - ERG theory. Existential needs are related to the satisfaction of basic needs. This group coincides with what Maslow referred to as physiological needs and the need for security. The second group of needs is associated with the desire to establish and maintain meaningful interpersonal relationships. These needs lie in the sphere of interaction with other people and are similar to the needs for affiliation and the external component of the need for respect (that is, respect from other people) according to Maslow's classification. And, finally, the needs of development are the desire for improvement and personal growth. There are parallels with the internal component of the need for respect (self-respect) and with the need for self-actualization.

Unlike Maslow, Alderfer denied the hierarchical structure and the need for their strictly consistent satisfaction. So, a person can, for example, strive for development, even if his existential or social needs are not satisfied. Moreover, an individual can simultaneously have several dominant needs.

Maslow argued that an unmet need is the leading motivator, climbing the pyramid of needs is possible only after the satisfaction of the previous level. The ERG theory introduces a very important frustration-regression dimension: if the satisfaction of a higher need is blocked, the desire for more complete and frequent satisfaction of the lower need increases, i.e. the blocked need makes the lower need more urgent, which the individual is able to satisfy.

In general, the ERG theory takes into account the diversity of individual characteristics of workers to a greater extent. Differences in education, upbringing, cultural roots - all this can affect the priority of a particular group of needs. So, there is evidence that, for example, among the Japanese, social needs are of paramount importance and dominate over the rest. A number of studies have confirmed Alderfer's concept, however, apparently, it can be viewed as a development of Maslow's ideas rather than as an independent theory.

Theory X-Y D. McGregor

The manager can directly or indirectly regulate, change the behavior of employees in the workplace, manage various aspects of this behavior. Among the moments under his control are the following:

1) the tasks that the subordinate receives;
2) formal aspects of the assignment;
3) time parameters for completing the task;
4) organizational resources placed at the disposal of a subordinate for the performance of tasks;
5) the organizational environment in which the subordinate performs tasks;
6) current control of the task;
7) expectations or confidence of the subordinate that he will be able to complete the work on time in accordance with the requirements of the manager;
8) expectations or confidence of the subordinate that the successful completion of tasks will be properly rewarded;
9) expectations or confidence of the subordinate that failure to complete tasks will be properly punished;
10) the range of rewards/punishments of the subordinate;
11) the degree of autonomy in completing the task and independence in solving problems related to work.

Given these variables, McGregor argues that there are at least two approaches that managers use to manage subordinates. These approaches are the consequences of two different views on human nature: fundamentally negative (theory X) and fundamentally positive (theory Y). Analyzing the relationship of managers to subordinates, McGregor came to the conclusion that their view of human nature is based on a certain system of assumptions or assumptions that ultimately determine his behavior and actions in relation to subordinates.

The worldview of managers guided by Theory X is based on the following four postulates:

1. Workers genetically hate work and, if possible, avoid it.
2. Since employees hate work, in order for them to work to achieve the goals of the organization, they must be coerced, controlled and threatened with punishment.
3. Employees avoid responsibility and need constant supervision and guidance.
4. Employees value job security above all else and are virtually devoid of ambition.

The diametrically opposite approach to human nature (theory Y) is based on completely different grounds:

1. Workers perceive work as a process that is as natural to a person as rest or play.
2. People are capable of self-organization and self-control if they are interested in their activities.
3. All employees strive for responsibility and freedom decision making associated with the performance of work.
4. All workers are endowed with a high level of ingenuity and imagination rarely used in modern industrial life; this leads to frustration and turns the person into an opponent of the organization. Creativity, that is, the ability to make extraordinary decisions, is extremely widespread among all members of the organization, and is not the prerogative of managers.

Theory X is an authoritarian view leading to direct regulation and tight control of all the above organizational behavior variables. This theory assumes that people for the most part need coercion, strict and constant control and incentives for conscientious work involves punishment or fear of possible punishment. In the context of A. Maslow's concept, those managers who follow theory X are convinced that people are driven by needs lower levels. According to McGregor, this overt or covert approach is most common among managers.

McGregor himself was convinced of the greater validity of Theory Y and was a promoter of the ideas of broad participation of all members of the organization in the preparation and decision-making processes, giving employees greater responsibility and the opportunity to take risks, and also pointed out the importance of optimal group relations as a factor of individual motivation. The clarity and simplicity of McGregor's theory has caused widespread recognition and, at the same time, widespread criticism for its simplistic view of the problem.

Clayton Alderfer formulated a model of categories of needs, which complemented the theories of Maslow and Herzberg. Alderfer identified three groups of basic needs:

1. Existence needs (they relate to survival, physiological well-being)

2. Needs for connections (significance in interpersonal and social relationships)

3. Needs for growth (internal human desire for development)

Need groups are closely related. Thus, according to Alderfer's theory, needs do not form a hierarchy, but a continuum. According to her, the needs of ERG do not have a clear boundary. For example, a person's background and cultural environment may cause connection needs to precede unsatisfied existential needs, and the more growth needs are met, the stronger they become.

Rice. 4.3. The dynamics of needs according to Alderfer

Process theories of motivation .

Management also uses process theories of motivation, that focus on the process of motivation. These include W. Vroom's expectation theory, J. Adams' theory of justice and complex theory of motivation L. Porter - E. Lawler.

3. Expected value of the reward

Supporters theories of justice they proceed from the fact that people perceive remuneration subjectively and compare it with the remuneration of other people for similar work, and if an employee finds his remuneration unfair, then he significantly reduces the productivity and quality of work. According to this theory, the effectiveness of motivation is assessed by an employee not by a certain group of factors, but systematically, taking into account the assessment of rewards given to other employees working in a similar system environment.

The employee evaluates his own reward size in comparison with the rewards of other employees. At the same time, he takes into account the conditions in which he and other employees work. For example, one works on new equipment, and the other on old equipment, one had one quality of workpieces, and the other had another. Or, for example, the manager does not provide the employee with the work that corresponds to his qualifications. Or there was no access to the information necessary to perform the work, etc.

In case of injustice, the individual tries to restore it in the following ways:

1. Changes in the contribution to the case

2. Result changes

3. Change of position

4. Changing the standard of comparison

5. Changing the contributions and results of the comparison standard

6. Changing the situation

L. Porter and E. Lawler developed a theory of motivation that includes expectation theories and equity theories. According to their theory, the level of effort exerted is determined by the value of the rewards and the degree of confidence that a certain level of effort will actually entail an appropriate level of reward.

Parallel theories of motivation.

TO parallel Theories of motivation include the simplest and most widespread (classical) theory of labor motivation - concept of D. McGregor . This concept includes two opposite (parallel) theories: the theory "X" and theory "Y".

Theory X largely reflects F. W. Taylor's basic views on the worker:

· the average person tends to avoid work;

workers are not very ambitious, afraid of responsibility and want to be led;

To achieve the goals of the enterprise, it is necessary to force employees to work under the threat of sanctions, while not forgetting about remuneration;

Strict leadership and control are the main methods of management;

The desire for safety dominates in the behavior of employees.

Negative motivation based on the fear of punishment should prevail in the activities of the leader.

Theory Y, which is the complement theory "X", build up on opposite principles:

unwillingness to work is not an innate quality of an employee, but a consequence of poor working conditions that suppress the innate love for work;

With a favorable, successful past experience, employees tend to take responsibility;

· the best remedies the achievement of the goals of the organization - remuneration and personal development;

in the presence of appropriate conditions, employees form self-discipline and self-control;

The labor potential of workers is higher than is commonly believed.

The conclusion of Theory Y is:it is necessary to provide workers with more freedom to exercise independence and creativity.

"XY-theory" must be used, taking into account the specific state of the level of consciousness and motivation of employees. Managers should strive to develop the group if it is not sufficiently motivated, from state "X" to state "Y".

These important provisions (postulates), confirmed by empirical experience, it is useful to take into account in practical work on staff motivation.

Assuming that the management of the functioning and development of an organization is based on different priorities in motivating staff, we will formulate approximate recommendations for managers on managing these processes.

To effectively manage the functioning of the organization, it is recommended:

Set the result of the activity high enough, but realistic for the employee (V. Vroom).

Establish a firm relationship between results and rewards (V. Vroom) and explain the dependence of one on the other (Adamson).

Problem: exact determination of the value of remuneration (L. Porter - E. Lawler).

Compare remuneration with the needs of the employee. (V. Vroom, L. Porter - E. Lawler)

Provide positive feedback(A. Maslow).

Create and control working conditions: lighting, heating, ventilation, etc.) (F. Herzberg, A. Maslow).

Design schemes social support(Social package): different kinds insurance, loans, benefits and subsidies (A. Maslow, F. Herzberg).

To manage development processes, it is necessary to take into account the situation of uncertainty that employees find themselves in when developing and implementing changes in the organization. For motivation in the course of development, it is recommended:

Delegation of authority: the right to control the quality of one's own work, the choice by an employee of the means of carrying out work, the choice of work mode, etc. (A. Maslow).

Involvement in decision-making: regarding the work performed by the employee, on the formation of working groups for joint activities, on the improvement and development of the organization's activities (participation in setting goals) (A. Maslow).

Providing opportunities for training and development of subordinates (A. Maslow).

Due to the fact that motivation controls human behavior, it proves that it is of great importance in the psychophysiological process, which determines its direction, stability, organization, activity, so for several decades a large number of researchers around the world have been studying motivation. human activity.

In order to better understand a psychological phenomenon such as motivation, which gives a person the opportunity to satisfy his needs, even separate theories, called theories of motivation, have been created and continue to be developed.

One of the youngest of them is the ERG theory of motivation by Yale University psychologist Clayton Alderfer.

Creating his theory, Clayton Alderfer suggested that all people's needs can be systematized into separate groups, so this theory is somewhat similar to Abraham Maslow's pyramid of needs, therefore, they are very often compared, but Alderfer's theory differs from Maslow's pyramid in that, according to it , there are only three groups of needs: existential or existence needs, social or communication needs, as well as development (growth), which in English language have the designations: existence, relatedness and growth - ERG:

• Existence (existential) this group includes the needs of existence, which is expressed in physiological needs and needs for security. Comparing the needs of existence with the needs of Maslow's pyramid, one can indicate that they consist of security needs, which, however, do not include group security, and physiological needs.
• Relatedness (social), these communication needs, reflect the social nature of man. This may include the need for self-affirmation, the need for a person’s desire to occupy some place in the world around him, recognition, the presence of subordinates or bosses, colleagues, friends, enemies, to be part of the family. In communication needs, one can trace the relationship with groups of needs of belonging and belonging. Since, according to Alderfer, communication needs reflect the social nature of people, therefore, the group of needs under consideration can safely include some needs for recognition and self-affirmation from Maslow's pyramid, which are closely related to the desire of people to take their place in the world around them, as well as a group security needs, but it is a group one.
• Growth (development, growth). Growth needs are the needs of a person associated with his desire to personally grow and develop. Comparing with A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, one can draw an analogy with the needs for self-expression, but this also includes those needs for recognition and self-affirmation, which are based on a person's desire for self-improvement, the development of self-confidence, etc. Let's imagine the theory of K. Aldelfer in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 1).

Just like in A. Maslow's pyramid, all three groups of needs of Alderfer's theory have a hierarchical order, but there is one very important difference between these theories, which is as follows: according to A. Maslow's pyramid, movement from one need to another can only occur from below -up, so if needs lower level satisfied, you can move on to satisfying the needs of the highest level, etc. According to the theory of K. Alderfer, the movement can be carried out both down and up, i.e. round trip. When the needs of the lower level are not satisfied, then upward movement occurs, and downward movement is possible when the needs of the higher level are not satisfied. At the same time, the statement says that the dissatisfaction of the needs of the highest level leads to an increase in the dissatisfaction of the needs of the lower level, therefore, the person automatically switches attention to the needs of this level. For example, if the need for personal growth has not been satisfied, the person's needs for connection are activated, which is a regressive process from the top level of needs to the bottom.

Climbing from more specific needs to less specific needs comes from ERG theory. Alderfer believes that every time a person's attention switches to the satisfaction of a more specific need, when any other need is not satisfied, thus it is this downward movement that causes the movement from top to bottom.

The upward movement along the steps of needs in the theory of K. Alderfer is called the process of satisfying needs, and the downward movement is called the process of frustration (Frustration (Latin frustratio - "deception", "failure", "vain expectation", "disorder of intentions") - a negative mental state arising in a situation of real or perceived impossibility to satisfy certain needs), which is determined by the failure of a person in his desire to satisfy the need.

Due to the fact that there are two directions of movement along the steps of needs, new additional opportunities open up for motivating ideas in the organization. If, for example, a company does not have sufficient opportunities to satisfy a person’s need for growth, he, guided by this, can switch to satisfying the need for communication with great interest and zeal, so the company can already enable this person to satisfy such a need, as a result of which increases its potential in motivating another person.

Clayton Alderfer believed that current needs could remain unsatisfied for any period of time, for example, even after five years, and then the guidelines could be changed. Young people may often aspire to become directors, but in adulthood priorities change and a young person may not want to become president, as it takes too much of a lifetime. Alderfer tried to establish a connection between the satisfaction of needs and their activation, and as a result he identified the following seven principles:

1. The needs of existence (E) manifest more strongly, the less they are satisfied
2. Existential needs (E) are stronger the weaker social needs are satisfied (R)
3. Social needs (R) begin to actively manifest themselves if the needs of existence are more fully satisfied (E)
4. Strengthening the actions of social needs (R) occurs if they are less satisfied
5. Social needs (R) become stronger if the needs of personal growth and self-realization are less satisfied (G)
6. Growth needs (G) are stronger the more social needs are met (R)
7. Growth needs (G) become more active when they are less satisfied, but they become stronger the more they are satisfied.

Conclusion

Thus, Alderfer showed that the order of actualization of needs may be different than Maslow indicated, and depend not only on its place in the hierarchy, but on the degree of satisfaction of both this need and some other needs.

Features of the ERG theory

This theory appeared relatively recently, in 1972, so it still does not have enough practical evidence to testify to its correctness, but, despite this, knowledge of the main provisions of this theory is beneficial for managers, because thanks to it, new perspectives open up for managers and horizons in search of the best and effective methods motivation. It should also be noted that Alderfer's theory, due to its simple formulations, has been recognized by the scientific community, but this theory largely coincides with Maslow's pyramid of needs. Both of these theories propose a relationship of needs and different categories of these needs, which can be used to create specific programs to encourage people's behavior in organizations and motivation.

Since needs are not defined within the framework of a single hierarchical system, according to K. Alderferom, each of the needs can be active at any time, while some of them, for example, the need for growth, can generally increase as they are satisfied by a person.

ERG theory has a number of advantages that are inherent in earlier content theories of motivation, but it lacks the limitations that are inherent in them. Despite this, the theory has received only narrow support, regardless of the fact that the results of research conducted by scientists in the field of human needs are more suitable for Alderfer's theory than for Maslow's pyramid. That is why there is very little reason to see in Alderfer's theory an alternative to Maslow's pyramid, which has already become familiar and popular to many.