1. Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism.
2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
3. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
4. The law of negation of negation.
1.Philosophical concept of law. Determinism and indeterminism. Determinism is the doctrine of universal regular relationships and interdependence of objects, processes and phenomena. Proponents of determinism believe that the world is ordered, that everything in it is interconnected, and the interconnections are natural. Supporters of the opposite doctrine - indeterminism - believe that the world is chaos, randomness prevails in it and anything can happen. At the core modern science is the principle of determinism.
Types of connections: causal (cause and effect connection), structural (connection between elements of the system), functional (connection between the properties of an object, expressed by a function), target (teleonomic) - these are connections in which the development of the system is subject to a specific goal).
According to the nature of the action, connections can be necessary and accidental, essential and insignificant, general and single, temporary and stable, etc. Among the whole variety of connections, there are those that are laws. Law is a necessary, essential, general, stable connection.
Classification of laws:
1) According to the forms of movement, physical, chemical, biological, social laws are distinguished. 2) According to the nature of the action, the laws are divided into dynamic and probabilistic (statistical). Dynamic laws describe the behavior of individual objects and establish an unambiguous relationship between their states (laws of dynamics). Probabilistic (statistical) laws describe the behavior of large populations, but in relation to individual objects they make only probabilistic conclusions. These are all the laws of the microcosm (Maxwell's law on the distribution of molecules by velocities, the Heisenberg uncertainty relation). 3) According to the breadth of action, laws are private, general and universal. Private laws operate in a narrow area (Ohm's law). General laws operate either in all of nature (the law of conservation of energy), or in society (social laws), or in thinking (laws of logic). Universal laws operate both in nature and in society and in thinking.
The three basic laws of dialectics are universal. They do not directly govern objects like private or general laws. They appear as common features many private connections and laws. The laws of dialectics fix common features in the development of any objects. Together they form general theory development. Knowledge of the laws of dialectics allows you to better understand the development of an object in order to manage it.
2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The law of unity and struggle of opposites is the core of dialectics, because it reveals the source, the driving force behind the development of any system. It answers the question: why does development happen?
Already in antiquity, people noticed that among the diverse phenomena, those stand out that form pairs, are of a polar nature, and occupy extreme positions on a certain scale. Philosophers of antiquity spoke of the opposition of good and evil, light and darkness.
Opposites are aspects of an object, process or phenomenon that are mutually exclusive and mutually presuppose each other. The properties of an object, the processes occurring in it, the forces acting on it can be opposite. The opposite are arithmetic operations. In physics, electric charges are opposite, poles magnetic field, action and reaction, order and chaos; in chemistry - analysis and synthesis, association and dissociation; in biology - heredity and variability, health and disease.
Contradiction is the interaction of opposites, their unity and struggle. They crowd out, suppress each other, but at the same time they cannot exist without each other. Each of them is itself, relative to its opposite.
There are many different opposites in the world, but among them stand out such, the interaction of which becomes the cause of change, the development of the system. In any developing system there are contradictions; unity and struggle of opposite properties, forces, processes. Contradictions can lead to the destruction of the system. But if the contradictions are resolved, then this leads to the development of the system. The absence of contradictions means stability, the equilibrium state of the system. In this way, this law argues that the cause, the source of any development are contradictions.
Examples. The contradiction between the action of gravity and the increase in internal pressure determines the evolution of stars. The evolution of living nature is determined by the contradiction between heredity and variability, it is driven by intraspecific and interspecific struggle. The contradiction between negative influence the environment and the capabilities of the body forces the body to adapt. The contradiction between social forces leads to a change in society. Competition drives economics and politics. The confrontation of scientific theories makes them improve, and truth is born in the dispute. The contradiction between growing needs and lagging opportunities stimulates human development.
3. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes answers the question: how does development take place? Knowledge of this law makes it possible to reveal the mechanism of development, to single out its stages.
Quantity is the certainty of an object, which characterizes the degree of development or intensity of its properties (size, mass, temperature, movement speed etc.), and which is expressed in quantities and numbers.
Quality is the certainty of an object, which characterizes its most important features and distinguishes it from objects with a different quality.
A property is one of the manifestations of the quality of an object, which is found in interaction with other objects.
A measure is an interval of quantitative changes within which a given quality is preserved.
Any object experiences constant quantitative changes, because. matter does not exist without motion. Its individual characteristics and state as a whole are changing. But if these changes remain within the limits of the measure, then the object continues to remain itself, in this capacity. Over time, quantitative changes accumulate, violate the measure and lead to qualitative changes. The object passes into a new quality, becomes something else. For example, a cloud of hydrogen in space shrinks, flares up and becomes a star, seeds germinate and become plants, scientific facts accumulated and generalized into a new theory.
The transition of quantitative and qualitative changes is mutual, because with the birth of a new quality, a new measure is born, i.e. opens the way for new quantitative changes.
The transition to a new quality is called a leap. Jumps can be either instantaneous, taking a fraction of a second, or long, lasting millions of years. The largest leaps in the development of our world: the birth of the Universe in the Big Bang, the emergence of life on Earth, the emergence of man.
Applied to community development the concepts of evolution and revolution are used. Evolution, in this case, means gradual, quantitative changes in society, revolution - fundamental, qualitative.
4. The law of negation of negation The law of negation of negation answers the question: in what direction does development take place? Knowledge of this law allows you to determine the trajectory of development.
In the process of development, the affirmation of the new is always connected with the denial of the old. This manifests a deep dialectic: affirmation is made through negation. Each new stage of development is a negation of the previous stage. But negatives can be different. From the standpoint of metaphysical thinking, negation is always the complete destruction of the old. Such metaphysical negations exist, but they are moments of destruction, not development.
Dialectical negation is the negation of the old, previous in development, but with the preservation of everything positive, useful for further development.
One act of negation does not exhaust the development of the object. In the process of development, conditions may arise when the first negation itself, in turn, is negated, and the object can return to its original state. But the third stage repeats the first one only formally, but in terms of content it stands above it, because. is a dialectical synthesis of the two previous stages (complete reversibility is impossible). As a result of double negation, development completes a cycle in which the last stage reproduces some features of the initial stage, but for more high level.
The cycle of development of real objects may consist not of two, but of a greater number of stages of denials.
Thus, the law of negation of negation describes processes in which repetition is combined with progress and direction, in which development does not go in a circle and not in a straight line, but in a spiral. Each turn of the spiral is a repetition of the previous one, but on a higher basis.
The law of negation of negation is universal, i.e. manifested in the development of nature, society, thinking. But it is narrower than other laws of dialectics, because it does not manifest itself in any development, but only in one in which the change of several stages reveals repetition, cyclicity.
Various cyclical processes take place in the world. In real processes, absolute reversibility is impossible. This would require time reversibility. It is only possible to reproduce some characteristics of the object. In inanimate nature, fluctuations and waves are common, which are not examples of development. Spiral development is characteristic of living nature, society and human consciousness. The stages in the development of the economy, political forms, eras in the history of culture, scientific theories, and stages in human life change cyclically.
1. The general concept of dialectics and development.
Dialectics is the theory of development of all things recognized in modern philosophy and the philosophical method based on it. Dialectics theoretically reflects the development of matter, spirit, consciousness, cognition and other aspects of reality through:
laws of dialectics;
principles.
The main problem of dialectics is what is development?
Development is a common property and the main feature of matter: a change in material and ideal objects, and not a simple (mechanical) change, but a change as self-development, the result of which is a transition to a higher level of organization.
Development is the highest form of movement. In turn, movement is the basis of development.
Motion is also an intrinsic property of matter and unique phenomenon the surrounding reality, since the movement is characterized by integrity, continuity and at the same time the presence of contradictions (a moving body does not occupy a permanent place in space - at each moment of movement the body is in a certain place and at the same time is no longer in it). Movement is also a way of communication in the material world.
2. The general concept of the laws of dialectics.
Among the ways of understanding the dialectics of development - laws, categories, principles - the laws of dialectics are fundamental.
Law is objective (not dependent on the will of man), general, stable, necessary, recurring connections between entities and within entities.
The laws of dialectics differ from the laws of other sciences (physics, mathematics, etc.) in their generality and universality, since they:
cover all spheres of the surrounding reality;
reveal the deep foundations of movement and development - their source, the mechanism of transition from the old to the new, the connection between the old and the new.
There are three basic laws of dialectics:
unity and struggle of opposites;
the transition of quantity into quality;
denial of denial;
3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
The law of the unity and struggle of opposites lies in the fact that everything that exists consists of opposite principles, which, being united in nature, are in conflict and contradict each other (example: day and night, hot and cold, black and white, winter and summer , youth and old age, etc.).
The unity and struggle of opposite principles is the internal source of movement and development of everything that exists.
Hegel, who is considered the founder of dialectics, had a special view on unity and struggle and opposites. He derived two concepts - "identity" and "difference" and showed the mechanism of their interaction, leading to movement.
According to Hegel, every object, phenomenon has two main qualities - identity and difference. Identity means that the object (phenomenon, idea) is equal to itself, that is given subject there is this particular item. At the same time, in an object identical to itself, there is something that strives to go beyond the scope of the object, to violate its identity.
The contradiction, the struggle between the same identity and difference leads, according to Hegel, to a change (self-change) of the object - movement. Examples: there is an idea that is identical to itself, at the same time, it itself contains a difference - that which seeks to go beyond the idea; the result of their struggle is a change in the idea (for example, the transformation of an idea into matter from the point of view of idealism). Or: there is a society that is identical to itself, but there are forces in it that are cramped within the framework of this society; their struggle leads to a change in the quality of society, its renewal.
You can also highlight different kinds wrestling:
a struggle that benefits both parties (for example, constant competition, where each side “catches up” with the other and moves to a higher qualitative stage of development);
a struggle where one side regularly gains the upper hand over the other, but the defeated side remains and is an “irritant” for the winning side, due to which the winning side moves to a higher stage of development;
An antagonistic struggle where one side can only survive by completely destroying the other.
In addition to the struggle, other types of interaction are possible:
assistance (when both parties provide mutual assistance to each other without a fight);
solidarity, alliance (the parties do not provide each other with direct assistance, but have common interests and act in the same direction);
neutrality (the parties have different interests, do not assist each other, but do not fight among themselves);
Mutualism is a complete relationship (in order to carry out any business, the parties must act only together and cannot act independently from each other).
4. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
The second law of dialectics is the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.
Quality is a certainty identical to being, a stable system of certain characteristics and connections of an object.
Quantity - the calculated parameters of an object or phenomenon (number, size, volume, weight, size, etc.).
Measure is the unity of quantity and quality.
With certain quantitative changes, the quality necessarily changes.
At the same time, the quality cannot change indefinitely. There comes a moment when a change in quality leads to a change in the measure (that is, in the coordinate system in which the change in quality used to occur under the influence of quantitative changes) - to a radical transformation of the essence of the object. Such moments are called "nodes", and the transition to another state is understood in philosophy as a "leap".
Some examples of the operation of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones can be given.
If you heat water sequentially by one degree Celsius, that is, change the quantitative parameters - temperature, then the water will change its quality - it will become hot (due to the violation of structural bonds, atoms will begin to move several times faster). When the temperature reaches 100 degrees, a fundamental change in the quality of water will occur - it will turn into steam (that is, the former "coordinate system" of the heating process will collapse - water and the previous system of connections). A temperature of 100 degrees in this case will be a node, and the transition of water to steam (the transition of one measure of quality to another) will be a jump. The same can be said about the cooling of water and its transformation at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius into ice.
If the body is given more and more speed - 100, 200, 1000, 2000, 7000, 7190 meters per second - it will accelerate its movement (change quality within a stable measure). When the body is given a speed of 7191 m / s (“nodal” speed), the body will overcome the earth's gravity and become an artificial satellite of the Earth (the coordinate system itself of the change in quality = - measure changes, a jump will occur).
In nature, it is not always possible to determine the key moment. The transition of quantity to a fundamentally new quality can occur:
sharply, at the same time;
imperceptibly, evolutionarily.
Examples of the first case have been discussed above.
As for the second option (an imperceptible, evolutionary fundamental change in quality - measure), the ancient Greek aporias “Heap” and “Bald” were a good illustration of this process: “At the addition of what grain will the aggregate of grains turn into a heap?”; “If a hair falls out of the head, then from what moment, with the loss of which particular hair, can a person be considered bald?” That is, the edge of a specific change in quality can be elusive.
5. The law of negation of negation.
The law of negation of negation is that the new always negates the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from the new into the old and is negated by more and more new.
change of socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process);
"relay race of generations";
change of tastes in culture, music;
the evolution of the genus (children are partially parents, but already at a new stage);
daily death of old blood cells, the emergence of new ones.
The denial of old forms by new ones is the cause and mechanism of progressive development. However, the question of the direction of development is debatable in philosophy. The following main points of view stand out:
development is only a progressive process, a transition from lower forms to higher ones, that is, ascending development;
development can be both ascending and descending;
development is chaotic, has no direction.
Practice shows that of the three points of view, the second one is closest to the true one: development can be both ascending and descending, although the general trend is still ascending.
the human body develops, grows stronger (ascending development), but then, developing further, it already weakens, grows decrepit (descending development);
the historical process goes in an upward direction of development, but with recessions - the heyday of the Roman Empire was replaced by its fall, but then a new development of Europe in an ascending direction (Renaissance, modern times, etc.) followed.
Thus, development does not proceed in a linear way (in a straight line), but rather in a spiral, and each turn of the spiral repeats the previous ones, but at a new, higher level.
6. Basic principles of dialectics.
The main principles of dialectics are:
the principle of universal communication;
the principle of consistency;
the principle of causality;
the principle of historicism.
Universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness, interdependence of all its components - objects, phenomena, processes.
Links can be:
external and internal;
direct and indirect;
genetic and functional;
spatial and temporal;
random and regular.
The most common type of communication is external and internal. Example: internal connections of the human body as a biological system, external connections of a person as elements of a social system.
Consistency means that numerous connections in the world around us do not exist chaotically, but in an orderly manner. These links form an integral system in which they are arranged in a hierarchical order. Thanks to this, the surrounding world has an internal expediency.
Causality is the existence of such connections, where one gives rise to another. Objects, phenomena, processes of the surrounding world are conditioned by something, that is, they have either an external or internal cause. The cause, in turn, gives rise to the effect, and the connections as a whole are called cause-and-effect.
Historicism implies two aspects of the surrounding world:
eternity indestructibility of history, the world;
its existence and development in time, which lasts forever.
essence and phenomenon;
cause and investigation;
single, special, universal;
possibility and reality;
necessity and chance.
Introduction.
In the previous lectures, we considered the problems of dialectics. We found out that dialectics, as a science, is a system of principles, laws, categories. The principles of universal connection and development, the laws of EBP, OO, VKK have been studied by us and included in our philosophical circulation. Any other consideration is possible. But methodologically and methodologically, today we are faced with the need to study the system of categories of dialectics, which, as it were, formalizes this system into a science, and completes the lecture material on the problems of dialectics.
1 - unity of struggle and opposites;
2 - mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
3 - the law of negation of negation.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites called the core of the dialectic. First, it characterizes source and inner content of any movement and development in nature, society and consciousness. Secondly, this law has a special form of universality, since its action permeates not only all phenomena of the material and spiritual world, but also other laws of dialectics. Main the categories of this law are identity, difference, opposites, contradictions . Identity reflects the relative stability, immutability of the object. The difference fixes the moment of variability of phenomena. The limiting case of a significant difference is the opposite.
Opposites are internal interconnected, the sides and tendencies inherent in the objects and phenomena themselves, which presuppose each other and, at the same time, exclude each other, because differ sharply among themselves in their properties, directions of action and functions performed. Contradiction is a form of interaction of opposites . The specificity of the contradiction is determined by the originality of the process of their occurrence, the degree of their organization, and the peculiarities of their resolution. An internal contradiction is the interaction of opposite sides within a given system. External contradiction is the interaction between different systems.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones answers the question: how, in what way does development take place, i.e. reveals the mechanism of development. The main categories of this law are: quality, property, quantity, measure and leap. Quality is “immediate determinateness identical with being”, i.e. what distinguishes this thing from all others, without which it does not exist. Quality is the certainty of things , which determines their integrity, stability and specific character. Quality is manifested through properties. Properties, in turn, are manifested through the interactions of objects and are a way of showing a certain side of an object in relation to other objects. Quantity - "removed" quality. Quantity reflects the external, formal relationship of objects, their parts, properties and relationships, expresses the number, magnitude, volume, degree manifestations of one property or another.
Hesiod: "Respect the measure in everything and do your deeds in time." Thales: "Measure is the best." Democritus: "If you go over the limit, then the most pleasant will become the most unpleasant." Augustine: “Measure is the quantitative limit of a given quality.” A measure is an interval within which quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative changes. A leap is a transition from one quality to another.
Exists jump classification:
- by flow time: slow and instant.
- implementation mechanism: by "explosion" (the quality changes entirely) and gradually.
- by the depth of qualitative transformations: single (within the boundaries of the main quality) and general (associated with the transformation of the very basis of things).
Law of negation of negation answers the question: in which direction is developing (in a spiral). Hegel understood negation as "withdrawal", as connection between old and new , i.e. negation, as a philosophical concept, reflects the complex nature of the relationships that arise and exist in the process of changing and developing an object. Can be distinguished two negatives:
- destruction of the old , which does not meet the changed conditions;
- maintaining a new positive corresponding to the new conditions.
Need to to distinguish between the dialectical understanding of negation as a moment of connection between the old and the new from the metaphysical understanding of negation as the complete destruction of the old . The essence of the law of negation of negation expresses Hegel's triad:
1) thesis, or initial statement;
2) negation of the thesis (antithesis);
3) synthesis (negation of the previous stage, i.e. negation of negation).
Progress there is a form of development that characterizes the direction of development. However, not all development is progress. Progress is a development in which a transition is made from the lower to the higher, from the less perfect to the more perfect. The reverse process is called regression. Social Progress- this is such a form of development of society and its individual aspects, in which there is a transition from a lower to a higher, from a less perfect to a more perfect state of it.
Cause is a phenomenon that brings another phenomenon to life. Consequence is the result of a cause. Determinism - the doctrine of the universal causation of phenomena. Indeterminism - a doctrine that denies the universal causation of phenomena. Cause must be distinguished from reason.
Occasion is a phenomenon that precedes the phenomenon, but does not cause it. Mechanistic determinism denied causality in the microcosm, because the determinism characteristic of the macrocosm is not manifested there: knowing the momentum and coordinates of the body at a given moment of time, it is always possible to determine the momentum and coordinates of the body at any other moment of time. But in the microcosm, there are other regularities that are described by the Schrödinger equation. Cause and effect cannot be interchanged, yet the effect can be the cause of another phenomenon.
Necessity and chance- these are philosophical categories that reflect two types of connections of the material world: necessity follows from the inner essence of phenomena and denotes their law, order and structure. Need there is something that should happen in the given conditions. Against, accident - this is a type of connection, which is due to insignificant, external, incidental reasons for this phenomenon. Chance is that which may or may not be; it may happen this way, but it can happen otherwise. However, opinion chance is a form of manifestation and addition of necessity. Rigid determinism of Democritus manifested itself in the fact that he claimed that since all phenomena have a cause, they occur with necessity. This understanding of these categories led to the reduction of necessity to chance ("Turtle"). According to fatalism , all phenomena occur at the behest of fate, fate, fate, i.e. inevitably. Voluntarism is the other extreme. Voluntarism denies objective necessity and relies on the subjective will of people.
Essence- this is something secret, deep, arriving in things, their internal connections and being the basis of all forms of their external manifestation. Essence - a set of fundamental laws and properties of objects that determine the trend of their development. It expresses the inner, stable side of phenomena. Phenomenon is a specific property of the objects in which the entity is found. Essence is general, and phenomenon is singular . Essence appears, and appearance is essential.
Synergetics
The creator of the synergetic direction and the inventor of the term "synergy" is Professor at the University of Stuttgart and Director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics and Synergetics Herman Haken(b. 1927). The term "synergy" itself comes from from the Greek "synergen" - assistance, cooperation, "together".
Synergetics according to the definition of its creator, the German physicist G. Haken deals with the study of systems consisting of many subsystems of a very different nature, such as electrons, atoms, molecules, cells, neutrons, mechanical elements, photons, animal organs and even people ... This is the science of self-organization of complex systems, of the transformation of chaos into order.
G. Haken said that calling the scientific direction he proposed "synergetics" is accidental and unprincipled. The initiative of G. Haken turned out to be fruitful precisely because of the naturally understood associations of synergetics with self-organization.
self-organization, according to G. Haken , – it is "the spontaneous formation of highly ordered structures from nuclei or even from chaos". The transition from a disordered state to an ordered one occurs due to the joint and synchronous action of many subsystems (or elements) that form the system.
Both synergetics and the theory of self-organization investigate the processes of self-organization and self-disorganization in open non-equilibrium systems of physical, chemical, biological, ecological, social and other nature. Today, science considers all known systems from the smallest (elementary particles) to the largest (the Universe) to be open, exchanging energy, (or) matter and (or) information with environment and are, as a rule, in a state far from thermodynamic equilibrium. And the development of such systems, as it became known, proceeds through the formation of increasing orderliness. On this basis, the idea of self-organization of material systems arose.
The idea of self-organizing systems generated by an increase in the number of studies in various fields of natural science devoted to cooperative effects in open non-equilibrium systems. Initially, in the 1960s, such studies were carried out independently in different disciplines, later (in the 70s) they became the subject of comparison, and they found much in common.
It turned out that all multi-scale self-organizing systems, regardless of which branch of science they are studied, whether it be physics, chemistry, biology or social sciences, have a single algorithm for moving from less complex and less ordered states to more complex and more ordered states. This opens up the possibility of a unified theoretical description of such processes in time and space. Development theories of self-organization began in the middle of the twentieth century and continues at the present moment, and according to several converging directions.
B36 3. The concept of nature.
But representatives of the older generation, if they are “strained”, are still able to remember the formulations of the three laws of dialectics, although: are these formulations good or bad? why and how to use them so-called " common man" v Everyday life? Or should other - better - formulations be used? - they will not tell under torture for the most part.
In accordance with this experience of the alleged worthlessness of dialectics developed by the older generations, young people who grew up in the era after the collapse of the system of implanting Marxism in the USSR were brought up even “better”: for the most part, they do not even superficially know the meaning of the word “dialectics”.
One could recognize the right to ignorance of this kind, if not for one circumstance: too many people living today do not think about their personal culture of understanding Life, as a result of which, in essence, everyone tries to go all the way “from monkey to man” alone. But at the very beginning of this path, they get stuck in the web of the fuss they create and die, because, ignoring the past experience of mankind, they automatically reproduce in their lives the delusions and mistakes of past generations, thereby aggravating life circumstances both for themselves and for future generations. ... "
A few words in defense of philosophy
Before we get to the heart of the matter at hand, three small but important remarks must be made.
First remark. Every person in his daily life comes across philosophy, and every person is a bit of a philosopher. In ancient times, all scientists were primarily philosophers, and philosophy (or metaphysics) is the progenitor of all other sciences (not without reason, when entering graduate school, you need to pass an exam in philosophy). One of the main tasks of philosophy is the search for truth. However, most people are skeptical about this science, and some disliked philosophy even at the university. If engineering students (and humanities too) were given free rein, they would exclude this subject from the list of studied disciplines. The blame for this largely lies with the teachers of philosophy, who already at the very first lesson must explain the importance of understanding the foundations of philosophy in the future life of every person. And not just to say, but also to show on practical examples. In short, the problem lies not with philosophy itself, but with those who teach it. Now, unfortunately, the benefits of studying it are reduced to a minimum.
Second remark. Many dislike philosophy because they question its usefulness. Compare, for example, the work of a philosopher and a programmer. The result of the programmer's activity can be seen and immediately begin to use. The result of a philosopher's activity may never be useful. However, programmers in their work use not only the works of previous "generations" of programmers, but also the works of philosophers (methods scientific knowledge, laws of logic, etc.) - something that programmers no longer remember. A bad programmer is immediately visible, a bad philosopher is not (perhaps for this reason, “imitators” often come across among philosophers). A programmer is almost always a narrow specialist who understands only his own range of issues, while a philosopher is a "bird of a different flight", solving "non-material" problems.
Third remark. It is widely believed that philosophy is a very difficult science to study and understand. This is not so: the philosophy that is studied at the university is no more difficult than other subjects (it all depends on the efforts made).
What is dialectic?
In ancient times, the art of dialogue and argument was called dialectics. Now this term can sound like this - the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. Or, to put it simply, dialectics is the doctrine of the development of everything that exists. There are two general methods of studying the world around us: metaphysical (which prevailed until the middle of the 19th century) and dialectical. The dialectical method, in contrast to the metaphysical one (where objects and phenomena are considered separately from each other, without taking into account their mutual relations), allows us to more accurately represent the world, since it takes into account not only all types and forms of interactions between objects/phenomena, but also the fact that the interactions themselves are continuously changing.
First law: unity and struggle of contradictions
The unity and struggle of opposites is the universal law of reality and its cognition by human thinking. Each object contains opposites that are inseparable unity, interpenetrate each other and mutually exclude each other not only in different but also in the same respect. Their unity is relative, their struggle is absolute. The struggle of opposites means that the contradiction is continuously resolved and just as continuously reproduced, and this leads to the transformation of the old object into a new one. This law thus explains the objective internal "source" of any movement (answers the question "why?"), makes it possible to understand movement as self-movement.
At the everyday level, this law is well illustrated by the example of a person whose whole life consists of a struggle of opposites. Every person has both good and bad qualities. In one situation a person will behave like a "human", in another they will not; today he is one, tomorrow - another; The environment constantly changes a person, but he also constantly changes it ...
The second law: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones
Quality is the essential certainty of an object, by virtue of which it is given, and not another object, and differs from others. Quantity is the certainty of a thing, thanks to which (real or mental) it can be divided into homogeneous parts and put these parts together. There are other definitions as well. Quality is a system of certain properties and characteristics of objects, phenomena. Quantities are countable parameters.
Measure is the unity of quality and quantity. Violation of the measure leads to a change in the given object/phenomenon, to its transformation into another object/phenomenon. This happens when quantitative changes reach a certain limit and turn into qualitative ones. One person, for example, obeys one law, but the crowd exists according to slightly different laws. The moment of transition from one qualitative state to another is called a jump. It can be evolutionary or revolutionary. By the way, the meaning of management is to anticipate in which direction the controlled system is moving and to prevent possible changes. This law answers the question "how?" there is movement and development.
Third law: negation of negation.
The new always replaces the old, then the old itself and is replaced by the new, which, in turn ... (at the same time, in new form the value qualities of the old form are retained). That is, negation is itself negated.
The third law of dialectics answers the question “Where to? Which path? everything moves and develops (graphically, this can be represented as a spiral). The logical scheme of the law: thesis (affirmation), antithesis (denial of affirmation), synthesis (negation of negation). The meaning of this law can be easily understood by the following example. Marx (the creator of modern materialistic dialectics), denied Hegel's idealistic dialectics. But Marx's dialectic would hardly have appeared without Hegel's dialectic.
And one more example. In the philosophical dictionary published in 1963 (in contrast to the edition of 1955), the article "Stalin" disappeared (and I note that he was a good philosopher). In the same years of liberation from the "cult of personality", the Soviet people were at the same time "liberated" from the Stalinist legacy. As a result, the theoretical basis for the construction of socialism-communism was thrown back to Marx and Lenin, whose theories by that time were rather outdated and needed to be changed. Stalin understood that the economic policy of the USSR must change. However, the bureaucratic elite of the USSR preferred to "forget" Stalin's developments and returned to Marxism-Leninism (in fact, "rolling back" several decades ago). Since then, as is known, despite the constantly changing realities, the theoretical base in the Soviet Union has hardly been revised.
P.S. The main features of the dialectical method.
1. Dialectical materialism (d/m) considers nature as a whole, where objects and phenomena depend on each other, condition each other - everything is in connection and interaction.
2. D / m considers nature as a continuity of movement, change, renewal, where something always arises and develops, something is destroyed and outlives its age - everything is in motion and change.
3. D / m considers nature as a process in which, as a result of the accumulation of imperceptible and gradual quantitative changes, an abrupt transition is made from insignificant, hidden quantitative changes to open, radical, qualitative changes - quantitative changes turn into qualitative ones. Development is not a simple repetition of what has been passed, but a gradual movement from a lower level to a higher one, movement not in a circle, but along an ascending line (in a spiral).
4. D / m proceeds from the fact that internal contradictions are inherent in objects and natural phenomena, that everything has its own negative and positive side which is becoming obsolete and developing, and that the struggle between them is the inner content of the process of development, the transformation of quantitative changes into qualitative changes - the struggle of opposites leads forward.
Notes:
An excerpt from the work "Dialectics and atheism: two essences are incompatible."
www.dotu.ru/files/dialectica_book.zip
Or rather, with the questions that she studies.
Philosophy (according to Aristotle) is a speculative understanding of the first foundations and causes.
"Imitator" - a person who imitates his activity. There are plenty of such people in bureaucratic systems.
Development is a regular qualitative change in objects, the result of which is the transition of these objects to a different (not necessarily higher) level of organization.
See his work The Economic Problems of Socialism.
From the Concise Philosophical Dictionary, published in 1955.
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| Written by Bobby Gontarski
, at 2010-09-28 16:02:27 Very interesting article, thanks. |
| X Written by uh , at 2010-10-07 16:33:21 |
1) The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
This law is the "core" of dialectics, since determines the source of development, answers the question why it occurs.
A contradiction is the interaction of opposite sides, properties and tendencies within a particular system or between systems. Dialectical contradiction exists only where there is unity and development (*left and right side houses, black and white are opposites that do not demonstrate the operation of this law).
In the development of contradictions, several stages can be distinguished: identity - difference - opposite - contradiction - resolution of the contradiction - new identity - ...
The concept of "identity" means the sameness of an object or phenomenon in relation to itself or to another object or phenomenon. Reality is constantly changing, therefore identity is always relative, it gives rise to differences.
Difference is the first stage in the development of contradiction, it is the relation of non-identity of an object to itself or to another object. Differences are external (between separate objects or phenomena) and internal (a given thing turns into something else, remaining itself at this stage), insignificant (not affecting deep, defining connections) and essential.
The next step in the development of contradiction - the opposite - is the limiting case of significant differences. Opposite presupposes the presence of two interdependent sides, which in relation to each other act as “their other” (Hegel). Opposites form a single whole, the concept of "unity of opposites" means the stability of the object. And at the same time, they mutually exclude each other (this is their “struggle”). Therefore, the presence of opposites makes their collision inevitable, i.e. transition to the next stage - contradiction.
To become a source of development, the contradiction must be resolved.
The main forms of conflict resolution:
Compromise of the fighting parties, their adaptation or mutual transition into each other at a higher level,
The victory of one and the destruction of the other,
The death of both opposites and the radical transformation of the system.
[*Example 1: the emergence of a new species in organic nature. The original view is adapted to the environment. There is harmony (identity) between the species and the environment, as well as the identity of the given species to itself, i.e. its stability. A change in the environment leads to a discrepancy between the species and the environment (external differences), this forces the living system (species) to change its quality (inconsistency of its new state with the old one, i.e. internal difference). With the growth of new qualities, they come into conflict with the original ones. On the other hand, the old qualities, being unadapted to the changed environment, come into conflict with this environment. The action of natural selection eliminates the unviable form, continues to exist the new kind, formed as a result of increasing internal changes. The same example demonstrates the contradiction between variability and heredity in living nature: a living organism is impossible without the unity of these opposite tendencies, and in the course of evolution the resolution of this contradiction is consistent with the development needs of the entire system as a whole.
Example 2: social conflicts, their emergence, development and resolution].
The law of unity and struggle of opposites in medical knowledge is manifested in the following:
At the level of interaction between the body and the environment, it is a state of relative equilibrium of the body with the environment, the stability of the state of the body in a constantly changing external environment, which is expressed in one of the most important concepts of theoretical medicine - "homeostasis" (the state of balance of the body, which serves as a condition for the normal mode of life, which is clinically consistent with the state of health);
At the level of the body, it manifests itself in such phenomena as assimilation (the body's assimilation of substances external to it) and dissimilation (the breakdown of substances in the body), which together constitute the metabolism, which is the main property of the body's vital activity; norm and anomaly, integrity and discreteness, etc.;
At the level of psychophysiology, these are all phenomena associated with socio-biological disharmony.
2) The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
This law determines the mechanism of development, answers the question of how it occurs.
Quality is the totality of all the properties of an object in their entirety, which determines it. functional purpose. A property is a way of showing a certain side of an object in relation to other objects with which it interacts. Quality indicates the unity of the properties of an object, characterizes its relative stability. Quality makes it possible to distinguish one object from another.
Quantity is a set of homogeneous elements that, in their integrity, constitute a certain quality. Quantity expresses the external relationships of objects, their parts, properties or relationships and manifests itself as a number (if they can be counted), magnitude (if they can be measured), volume, degree of manifestation of properties.
Quality and quantity form an inseparable unity. This unity is expressed in the concept of "measure". A measure is the boundaries within which, with quantitative changes, an object or phenomenon retains its quality.
[The idea of measure has been of interest to philosophers since antiquity (Thales: “Measure is the best”; Democritus: “If you go over the measure, then the most pleasant will become the most unpleasant”, Plato: “Measure is the middle between excess and deficiency”; Augustine: “Measure is quantitative the limit of a given quality is that which it cannot be greater than or less than".]
The development process is a process of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
There is a gradual accumulation of quantitative changes in the system (this can be: - a change in the number of elements in the system,
Change in speed,
Changing the amount of information
Change in the degree of manifestation of a smth. quality, etc.)
Within the boundaries of a certain measure, the qualitative characteristics of the object are preserved. However, at a certain level of change, quantitative changes cross the border of the measure - this leads to the emergence of a new quality. The process of transition from one measure to another, the transformation of an old quality into a new one is called a "jump".
(Example: within the limits of 0 - 1000, water retains its qualitative certainty; when heated, some properties change - the temperature and speed of movement of molecules, but water remains water; at 1000, the quantitative indicators of these properties cross the border of the measure and a jump occurs - water passes from liquid to vapor condition.)
There are different types of jumps:
Gradual - long in time, its boundaries do not have a clear expression (* the emergence of life on earth, * the origin of man, the formation of new species of plants and animals, etc.);
Instant - characterized by fast pace, high intensity and clearly defined boundaries.
The development process is a unity of discontinuous and continuous. Continuous changes are gradual quantitative changes and related changes in individual properties within a given quality. Continuity in development expresses the relative stability of the world. Discontinuity means a transition to a new quality and expresses the variability of the world.
The law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones is manifested in the study of the relationship between health and disease. The philosophical concept of "measure" corresponds to the medical "norm" (in the state of health, in the selection medicines and etc.).
3) The law of negation of negation.
This law determines the direction of development, expresses continuity in development, determines the connection between the new and the old.
In the metaphysical approach, negation is understood as the simple destruction of the old by the new. In dialectics, negation is considered as a necessary moment of development, a condition for a qualitative change in an object.
The negation of the negation, or double negation, is a withdrawal - i.e. saving some elements or properties of the old object as part of the new one.
For the first time, the law of negation of negation was formulated by Hegel, who presented it in the form of a triad: thesis - antithesis - synthesis. Antithesis denies the thesis, and synthesis combines thesis and antithesis on a higher level. Synthesis is the beginning of a new triad, i.e. becomes a new thesis.
(Hegel's example: the bud disappears when the flower blooms, i.e. the flower denies the bud, at the moment the fruit appears, the flower is denied. These forms of development displace each other as incompatible. At the same time, they are necessary for the existence of each other, they are elements of the organic unity, their equal necessity constitutes the life of the whole.)
The appearance of the new both denies the old and affirms it through its removal, i.e. the preservation of the positive, necessary for the existence of the new. This is the continuity in development. The world in the present is the result of the past and the basis for the future. The social form of continuity, the form of transmission of human experience is called tradition.
The law of negation of negation in medical knowledge manifests itself in several aspects:
Allows you to reveal the trends in the development of the disease and recovery, follow the relationship and continuity of the various stages of these processes. In this aspect, the philosophical triad "thesis - antithesis - synthesis" corresponds to the concepts of "health - illness - recovery" or "natural human microflora - antibiotic exposure - altered microflora";
Associated with the hereditary conditionality of pathological processes and diseases;
Associated with the process of changing scientific theories.
Conclusion
Dialectics is an open integral organic system, the totality of stable connections and relations between the elements of which forms the structure of dialectics. It is internally subordinated, has its own hierarchy and is subdivided into structural components, which, depending on epistemological and ideological functions, represent principles, laws and categories.
Principles are general and universal, fundamental and meaning-forming ideas and attitudes that determine the role and participation, meaning and direction of all other forms in the process of cognition. They have the status of philosophical axioms, i.e. set the initial conditions for cognition, determine its nature, limits and theoretical potential.
In any process of development, the laws of dialectics appear in organic unity, but at the same time, each of them reveals a certain side in development.
The process of development of objects and phenomena is multidimensional. The basic laws of dialectics are necessarily realized in it, but do not exhaust all the essential characteristics of development. Therefore, in addition to the three basic laws, dialectics also includes non-basic laws, the content of which is expressed through the ratio of the so-called paired categories.
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