Plutarch (also called Plutarch of Chaeronea) is an ancient Greek writer, historian, philosopher, and biographer. The description of his life path as something integral has not reached our time, but the works of Plutarch allow us to restore many events. The philosopher was a native of Boeotia, a small town of Chaeronea, where he was born around the year 46. He was a descendant of an old wealthy family, received a rhetorical and grammatical education typical of his social stratum.
Education was continued in Athens, where Plutarch comprehended rhetoric, mathematics and philosophy. As a philosopher, Plutarch considered himself a Platonist, but, most likely, his views could be called eclectic, and he was mainly interested in practical application philosophy. It is known that in his youth, Plutarch, in company with his mentor Ammonius and brother Lamprey, paid a visit to Delphi, where the cult of Apollo still existed, although it had fallen into decay. This event left a noticeable imprint on the future life path Plutarch and his literary activity in particular.
After studying in Athens, he returned to his native Chaeronea, where he successfully completed the assignment given to him by the city community. Subsequently, he was active public life, held various positions, in particular, was the caretaker of buildings, a member of the council of the Boeotian Union; they elected him archon. On city affairs, he traveled to Rome and other Italian cities more than once. In the capital, he met prominent statesmen, in particular, Arulen Rustik, Quintus Sosius Sention, who was a close friend of Emperor Trajan and a consul.
Friendly relations with them helped Plutarch seriously advance as a public figure. He was given Roman citizenship, and with it he received a new name - Mestrius Plutarch, turned into an extremely influential person in his province. The governor of Achaia had to coordinate any events with him in advance: this was ordered by the emperor Trajan, later by his successor Adrian.
Good connections and increased fame as a writer helped Plutarch become proconsul under Trajan and procurator of the province of Achaia under Hadrian. But even with such a brilliant career as a politician, Plutarch did not move to the capital, preferring her quiet hometown, where he lived, surrounding himself with children and students, creating a kind of small academy in which he taught young people.
When Plutarch was almost 50, he was elected by his fellow citizens as a member of the college of priests of the temple of Apollo at Delphi and put a lot of effort into making the sanctuary regain its former grandeur. Died around 127.
His literary heritage was very large - about 250 works, of which no more than a third part survived. His activity in the field of literature was educational, enlightening, moral and ethical, and was addressed to the widest readership.
The main work of Plutarch, which he wrote in the last period of his life, was the Comparative Lives, which are biographies of famous citizens of Rome and Greece. In total, 70 works were written within their framework, of which 50 have survived to our time. Comparative Biographies are one of the most famous works of the era of antiquity, the pinnacle of the biographical genre of that time. Plutarch's works on philosophy, ethics, pedagogy, religion, politics, history, literature, and natural science are a valuable source of information about the history of ancient peoples.
When dinner was over, Iren ordered whom to sing, to whom he asked questions that required reflection and ingenuity, such as: “Who is the best among husbands?” or “What is the act of such and such a person?” So from the very beginning of their lives they were accustomed to judge the merits of fellow citizens, for if the one to whom the question was addressed “Who is a good citizen?” Who deserves blame? , did not find what to answer, this was considered a sign of nature sluggish and indifferent to virtue. In the answer, it was supposed to name the reason for this or that judgment and give evidence, putting the thought into the shortest words. The one who spoke out of place, not showing due diligence, Iren punished - he bit his thumb. Often, Iren punished boys in the presence of old people and authorities, so that they would be convinced of how justified and fair his actions were. During the punishment he was not stopped, but when the children dispersed, he held the answer if the punishment was stricter or, on the contrary, softer than it should have been.
And the good fame and dishonor of the boys was shared with them by their beloved. It is said that when one day a boy, having grappled with a comrade, suddenly got scared and screamed, the authorities imposed a fine on his lover. And, although the Spartans allowed such freedom in love that even worthy and noble women loved young girls, rivalry was unfamiliar to them. Not only that: common feelings for one person became the beginning and source of mutual friendship of lovers, who united their efforts in an effort to bring their loved one to perfection.
19. Children were taught to speak in such a way that in their words caustic wit was mixed with grace, so that short speeches caused lengthy reflections. As already mentioned, Lycurgus gave the iron coin great weight and negligible value. He acted completely differently with the “verbal coin”: under a few mean words, a vast and rich meaning should have been hidden, and by forcing the children to be silent for a long time, the legislator elicited accurate and accurate answers from them. For just as the seed of people who are immensely greedy for intercourse is mostly fruitless, so the intemperance of the tongue gives rise to empty and stupid speeches. Some Athenian scoffed at the Spartan swords - they are so short that they are easily swallowed by magicians in the theater. “But with these daggers we perfectly get our enemies,” King Agid objected to him. I find that the speech of the Spartans, with all its external brevity, perfectly expresses the very essence of the matter and remains in the minds of the listeners.
Lycurgus himself apparently spoke little and aptly, as far as one can judge from his sayings that have come down to us. So, to a man who demanded the establishment of a democratic system in Sparta, he said: “First, you establish democracy in your house.” Someone asked why he made the sacrifices so modest and modest. “So that we never cease to honor the deity,” replied Lycurgus. And here is what he said about competitions: “I allowed fellow citizens only those types of competitions in which you do not have to raise your hands.” It is reported that in letters he answered his fellow citizens no less successfully. “How can we avert the enemy’s invasion from ourselves?” - "Remain poor, and let no one try to become more powerful than another." About city walls: "Only that city is not without fortifications, which is surrounded by men, and not by bricks." It is difficult, however, to decide whether these letters are genuine or forged.
20. The following statements testify to the disgust of the Spartans for lengthy speeches. When someone began to talk about an important matter, but inappropriately, Tsar Leonid said: “Friend, all this is appropriate, but in a different place.” Lycurgus' nephew Harilaus, when asked why his uncle issued so few laws, replied: "Those who manage with a few words do not need many laws." Some people scolded the sophist Hecataeus, because, invited to a common meal, he kept silent throughout the dinner. “Whoever knows how to speak, knows the time for this,” Archidamid objected to them.
And here are examples of sharp, but not without elegance, memorable words, which I have already mentioned above. Some rogue pestered Demarat with absurd questions and, by the way, kept wanting to know who was the best of the Spartans. “The one who is least like you,” Demarat finally said. Agid, hearing the praises of the Eleans for the excellent and fair organization of the Olympic Games, remarked: “It’s really a great thing to do justice once every four years.” A foreigner, to show his friendly feelings, told Theopompus that among his fellow citizens he is called a friend of the Laconians. “It would be better for you to call yourself a friend of fellow citizens,” answered Theopompus. The son of Pausanias Plistoanakt said to the Athenian speaker, who called the Spartans ignoramuses: “You are right - of all the Greeks, we alone did not learn anything bad from you.” Archidamid was asked how many Spartans there were. “Enough, friend, to repel the villains,” he assured. From the jokes of the Spartans, one can also judge their habits. They never chatted in vain, never uttered a word that did not have a thought behind it, one way or another worthy of thinking about it. The Spartan was called to listen to how they imitate the song of a nightingale. “I heard the nightingale himself,” he refused. Another Spartan, reading the epigram:
remarked: "And rightly so: it was necessary to let her burn to the ground." A young man said to a man who promised to give him roosters that fight to the last breath: “Keep them for yourself, and give me those that beat the enemy to the last breath.” Another young man, seeing people who emptied their intestines while sitting on a toilet seat, exclaimed: “I wish I never had a chance to sit in such a place that it is impossible to give way to an old man!” Such are their sayings and memorable words, and some, not without reason, assert that to imitate the Laconians means to attach one's soul to philosophy rather than to gymnastics.
21. Singing and music were taught with no less care than the clarity and purity of speech, but even in the songs there was a kind of sting that aroused courage and compelled the soul to enthusiastic impulses to action. Their words were simple and unsophisticated, the subject - majestic and didactic. These were mainly glorifications of the happy fate of those who fell for Sparta and reproaches to cowards doomed to drag out life in insignificance, promises to prove their courage or, depending on the age of the singers, boasting of it. It would be useful to place here, as an example, one of these songs. On holidays, three choirs were composed - old men, husbands and boys. The old people sang:
Men in their prime picked up:
And the boys finished:
In general, if anyone reflects on the works of the Laconian poets, some of whom have survived to this day, and restores to memory the marching rhythms of melodies for the flute, to the sounds of which the Spartans marched on the enemy, he will perhaps admit that Terpander and Pindar were right in finding connection between courage and music. The first says of the Lacedaemonians thus:
And Pindar exclaims:
Both depict the Spartans as both the most musical and the most warlike people.
said the Spartan poet. Not without reason, before the battle, the king sacrificed to the Muses - in order, it seems to me, that the soldiers, remembering the upbringing they received and the sentence that awaits them, boldly walked towards danger and performed feats worthy of being preserved in speeches and songs.
22. During the war, the rules of behavior for young people were made less severe: they were allowed to take care of their hair, decorate their weapons and clothes, mentors rejoiced at seeing them like war horses that proudly and impatiently dance, snort and rush into battle. Therefore, although the boys began to look after their hair as soon as they were children, they especially diligently anointed and combed it on the eve of danger, remembering the words of Lycurgus about hair, that they make beautiful hair even more plausible, and ugly - even more terrible. On campaigns, gymnastic exercises became less strenuous and tiring, and in general at this time the young men were asked less strictly than usual, so that on the whole earth for the Spartans alone, the war turned out to be a rest from preparation for it.
When the construction of the battle line ended, the king, in front of the enemy, sacrificed a goat and gave a sign to everyone to crown himself with wreaths, and the flutists ordered Kastorov to play the tune and at the same time he tightened the marching paean. The spectacle was majestic and formidable: the warriors advanced, stepping in accordance with the rhythm of the flute, firmly holding the line, not experiencing the slightest turmoil - calm and joyful, and their song led. In such a state of mind, probably, neither fear nor anger has power over a person; unshakable steadfastness, hope and courage, as if bestowed by the presence of a deity, gain the upper hand. The king went to the enemy, surrounded by those of his people who deserved the wreath by winning the competition. It is said that at the Olympic Games one Laconian was given a large bribe, but he refused the money and, having gathered all his strength, defeated the enemy. Then someone said to him: “What is the benefit to you, Spartan, from this victory?” “I will take a place in front of the king when I go into battle,” the winner replied smiling.
The Spartans pursued the defeated enemy only as much as was necessary to secure victory for themselves, and then immediately returned, considering it ignoble and contrary to the Greek custom to destroy and exterminate those who stopped the fight. This was not only beautiful and generous, but also beneficial: their enemies, knowing that they killed those who resisted, but spared those who retreated, found it more useful for themselves to flee than to remain in place.
23. Lycurgus himself, according to the sophist Hippias, was a man of proven militancy, a participant in many campaigns. Philostephan even attributes to him the division of the cavalry into ulama. Ulam under Lycurgus was a detachment of fifty horsemen, built in a quadrangle. But Demetrius of Phaler writes that Lycurgus did not touch on military affairs at all and established a new political system during the time of peace. And it is true that the idea of the Olympic Truce could, apparently, belong only to a meek and peace-loving person. However, as Hermippus says, others argue that at first Lycurgus had nothing to do with all this and had nothing to do with Ifit, but arrived at the games by accident. There he heard a voice behind him: someone reproved him and marveled that he did not incline fellow citizens to take part in this general celebration. Lycurgus turned around, but the speaker was nowhere to be seen, and, considering what happened to be a divine sign, he then only joined Ifit; together they made the festival more magnificent and glorious, gave it a reliable foundation.
24. The upbringing of the Spartan continued into adulthood. No one was allowed to live the way he wanted: as if in a military camp, everyone in the city obeyed the strictly established rules and did what was assigned to them from the affairs useful to the state. Considering themselves belonging not to themselves, but to the fatherland, the Spartans, if they had no other assignments, either watched the children and taught them something useful, or themselves learned from the old people. After all, one of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to his fellow citizens was the abundance of leisure. They were strictly forbidden to engage in craft, and in the pursuit of profit, which required endless labor and trouble, there was no need, since wealth had lost all its value and attractive power. The helots cultivated their land, paying the appointed tax. One Spartan, being in Athens and having heard that someone was condemned for idleness and the condemned returned in deep despondency, accompanied by friends, also saddened and distressed, asked those around him to show him a man to whom freedom was imputed as a crime. That's how low and slavish they considered all manual labor, all sorts of worries associated with profit! As was to be expected, litigation disappeared along with the coin; and need and excessive abundance left Sparta, their place was taken by the equality of prosperity and the serenity of complete simplicity of morals. The Spartans devoted all their free time from military service to round dances, feasts and festivities, hunting, gymnasiums and forests.
25. Those under thirty years of age did not go to the market at all and made the necessary purchases through relatives and lovers. However, even for older people it was considered shameful to constantly push around in the market, and not spend most of the day in gymnasiums and forestries. Gathering there, they sedately talked, not mentioning a word about either profit or trade - the hours flowed in praise of worthy deeds and censures of bad ones, praises, combined with jokes and ridicule, which inconspicuously exhorted and corrected. And Lycurgus himself was not overly harsh: according to Sosibius, he erected a small statue of the god of Laughter, wishing that a joke, appropriate and timely, would come to feasts and similar meetings and become a kind of seasoning for the labors of every day.
In a word, he taught fellow citizens that they did not want and did not know how to live apart, but, like bees, were inextricably linked with society, everyone was closely united around their leader and wholly belonged to the fatherland, almost completely forgetting about themselves. in a fit of inspiration and love for glory. This way of thinking can be discerned in some of the sayings of the Spartans. So Pedarit, not chosen among the three hundred, went away, beaming and rejoicing that there were three hundred better people in the city than he. Polystratides and his comrades arrived as an embassy to the commanders of the Persian king; they inquired whether they were on private business or on behalf of the state. “If everything goes well - on behalf of the state, if not - on a private matter,” answered Polystratides. Several citizens of Amphipolis, who ended up in Lacedaemon, came to Argyleonida, the mother of Brasidas, and she asked them how Brasidas died and whether his death was worthy of Sparta. They began to extol the deceased and declared that there was no second such husband in Sparta. "Don't talk like that, strangers," said the mother. “It is true that Brasidas was a worthy man, but there are many more remarkable ones in Lacedaemon.”
26. As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decided to replace the dead every time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desirable! And it’s true, because it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or the strongest among the strong, but about who among the kind and wise is the wisest and best, who, as a reward for virtue, will receive the supreme one until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable, - power in the state, will be master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest blessings. The decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the Assembly. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next competitor had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others. With a wreath on his head, he went around the temples of the gods. He was followed by a huge crowd of young people, praising and glorifying the new elder, and women who sang of his valor and proclaimed his fate happy. Each of his relatives asked him to eat, saying that the state was honoring him with this treat. Having finished his rounds, he went to a common meal; the established order was not violated in any way, except for the fact that the elder received the second share, but did not eat it, but put it off. His relatives stood at the door, after dinner he called one of them, whom he respected more than others, and, handing her this share, said that he was giving away the award that he himself had received, after which the rest of the women, glorifying this chosen one, escorted her home.
27. No less remarkable were the laws concerning burial. Firstly, having done away with all kinds of superstition, Lycurgus did not interfere with burying the dead in the city itself and placing tombstones near temples, so that young people, getting used to their appearance, would not be afraid of death and would not consider themselves defiled by touching a dead body or stepping over a grave. Then he forbade anything to be buried with the deceased: the body was to be interred wrapped in a purple cloak and entwined with olive green. It was forbidden to inscribe the name of the deceased on the gravestone; Lycurgus made an exception only for the fallen in the war and for the priestesses. He set a short period of mourning - eleven days; on the twelfth, a sacrifice was to be made to Demeter and an end to sorrow. Lycurgus did not tolerate indifference and inner relaxation, he somehow combined the necessary human actions with the assertion of moral perfection and the condemnation of vice; he filled the city with many instructive examples, among which the Spartans grew up, which they inevitably encountered at every step, and which, serving as a role model, led them along the path of good.
For the same reason, he did not allow to travel outside the country and travel, fearing that foreign customs would not be brought to Lacedaemon, they would not begin to imitate someone else's, disorderly life and a different form of government. Moreover, he drove out those who flocked to Sparta without any need or definite purpose - not, as Thucydides claims, that he was afraid that they would not adopt the system he had established and would not learn valor, but rather, fearing how if these people themselves did not turn into teachers of vice. After all, along with strangers, other people's speeches invariably appear, and new speeches lead to new judgments, from which many feelings and desires are inevitably born, as opposed to the existing state system as wrong sounds are to a well-coordinated song. Therefore, Lycurgus considered it necessary to guard the city more vigilantly from bad morals than from an infection that could be brought from outside.
28. In all this there is not a trace of injustice, for which some blame the laws of Lycurgus, believing that they instruct quite enough in courage, but too little in justice. And only the so-called cryptia, if only she, as Aristotle claims, is a Lycurgus innovation, could inspire some, including Plato, with a similar judgment about the Spartan state and its legislator. That's how cryptos happened. From time to time, the authorities sent young people, who were considered the most intelligent, to roam the neighborhood, providing them with only short swords and the most necessary food supply. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads. Often they went around the fields, killing the strongest and strongest helots. Thucydides in the Peloponnesian War tells that the Spartans chose helots who distinguished themselves by their special courage, and those with wreaths on their heads, as if preparing to gain freedom, visited temple after temple, but a little later they all disappeared - and there were more than two thousand of them - and neither then nor afterwards could anyone say how they died. Aristotle specifically dwells on the fact that the ephors, taking power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. In general, the Spartans treated them rudely and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing cheesy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding the entertainments befitting a free man. Even much later, during the campaign of the Thebans in Laconia, when the captured helots were ordered to sing something from Terpander, Alkman, or the Laconian Spendont, they refused, because the gentlemen did not like it. So, whoever says that in Lacedaemon the free man is free to the end, and the slave is completely enslaved, he correctly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictnesses appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after a great earthquake, when, as they say, the helots, having set out together with the Messenians, terribly outraged throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the city. I, at least, cannot attribute such a vile deed as cryptia to Lycurgus, having formed an idea of \u200b\u200bthe character of this man from that meekness and justice, which otherwise mark his whole life and are confirmed by the testimony of a deity.
29. When the most important of the laws took root in the customs of the Spartans and the political system was strong enough to continue to be maintained by its own forces, then, like the god of Plato, who rejoiced at the sight of the emerging universe, which first set in motion, Lycurgus was delighted and delighted with the beauty and grandeur of his legislation, launched in the course and already coming in his own way, and wished to ensure him immortality, inviolability in the future - since this is accessible to human understanding. So, having gathered the National Assembly, he declared that now everything has been given the proper measure, that what has been done is enough for the prosperity and glory of the state, but there remains one more question, the most important and basic, the essence of which he will reveal to his fellow citizens only after he asks God for advice. . Let them strictly adhere to the published laws and do not change anything in them until he returns from Delphi, but when he returns, he will do what God commands. Everyone agreed and asked him to leave as soon as possible, and, having taken an oath from the kings and elders, and then from other citizens that, until Lycurgus returned, they would remain faithful to the existing system, he left for Delphi. Having arrived at the oracle and made a sacrifice to God, Lycurgus asked if his laws were good and sufficient to lead the city to prosperity and moral perfection. God answered that the laws were good, and the city would be at the height of its glory if it did not change the Lycurgus system. Having written down the prophecy, Lycurgus sent it to Sparta, and he himself, again sacrificing to God and saying goodbye to his friends and son, decided not to release his fellow citizens from their oath and to die voluntarily for this: he had reached the age when you can still continue life, but you can also to leave her, especially since all his plans came, apparently, to a happy conclusion. He starved himself to death, firmly believing that even the death of a statesman should not be useless for the state, that his very death should not be a weak-willed submission, but a moral deed. For him, he reasoned, after the most beautiful deeds that he accomplished, this death will truly be the crown of good luck and happiness, and for fellow citizens who have sworn to remain faithful to his institutions until he returns, it will be the guardian of those blessings that he delivered to them during his lifetime. And Lycurgus was not mistaken in his calculations. Sparta excelled all Greek cities in goodness and glory for five hundred years, while observing the laws of Lycurgus, in which none of the fourteen kings who ruled after him, up to Agida, the son of Archidamus, changed anything. The creation of the post of ephors served not to weaken, but to strengthen the state: it was only at first glance a concession to the people, but in fact it strengthened the aristocracy.
30. In the reign of Agida, the coin first penetrated Sparta, and with it greed and money-grubbing returned, and all through the fault of Lysander. Personally, he was inaccessible to the power of money, but he filled the fatherland with a passion for wealth and infected with luxury, bringing - bypassing the laws of Lycurgus - gold and silver from the war. Before, however, when these laws remained in force, Sparta led the life not of an ordinary city, but rather of a highly experienced and wise husband, or, more precisely, like Hercules in the songs of poets goes around the universe with only a club and a skin on his shoulders, punishing unjust and bloodthirsty tyrants, in the same way, Lacedaemon, with the help of a wandering stick and a simple cloak, dominated Greece, voluntarily and willingly obeying him, overthrew lawless and tyrannical power, resolved disputes between the belligerents, calmed the rebels, often without even moving his shield, but sending one the only ambassador, whose orders everyone immediately obeyed, like bees, when the queen appears, they gather in unison and take their place. Such were the prosperity and justice that flourished in the city.
All the more, some writers amaze me, claiming that the Spartans perfectly carried out orders, but they themselves did not know how to order, and referring with approval to King Theopompus, who, in response to someone’s words, that de Sparta is kept by the firm power of kings, said: “ No, or rather, the obedience of citizens. People do not long obey those who cannot rule, and obedience is an art taught by a ruler. Whoever leads well, they follow well, and just as the skill of a horse tamer is to make a horse meek and meek, so the king’s task is to inspire humility, while the Lacedaemonians inspired the rest not only humility, but also a desire to obey. Well, yes, because they were asked not for ships, not for money, not for hoplites, but only for a Spartan commander and, having received, they met him with respect and fear, like the Sicilians of Gylippus, the inhabitants of Chalkis - Brasida, and the entire Greek population of Asia - Lysandra, Kallikratida and Agesilaus. These commanders were called the rulers and mentors of the peoples and authorities of the whole earth, and the state of the Spartans was looked upon as an uncle, a teacher of a decent life and wise administration. This, apparently, is jokingly hinted at by Stratonicus, proposing a law according to which the Athenians are charged with the duty of celebrating the sacraments and organizing processions, the Eleans - to be judges at the games, since in these studies they know no equal, and if one or the other in what guilty - flog the Lacedaemonians. But this, of course, is a mischievous mockery, nothing more. But Aeschines, a follower of Socrates, seeing how the Thebans boast and boast of their victory at Leuctra, noticed that they are no different from the boys who rejoice, puffing up their uncle.
31. However, this was not the main goal of Lycurgus - he did not at all strive to put his city at the head of a huge number of others, but, believing that the well-being of both an individual and an entire state is a consequence of moral height and internal harmony, he directed everything towards the Spartans remained free as long as possible, independent and prudent. On the same foundations, Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and in general everyone who spoke about this and whose works gained praise built their state. But after them, only writings and speeches remained, and Lycurgus, not in writings and not in speeches, but in fact, created a state that had no equal and no, showing the eyes of those who do not believe in the existence of a true sage, a whole city, devoted to philosophy. It is quite understandable that he surpasses in glory all the Greeks who have ever acted in the public arena. That is why Aristotle claims that Lycurgus did not receive in Lacedaemon everything that is due to him by right, although the honors rendered by the Spartans to their legislator are extremely great: a temple was erected to him and sacrifices are made annually, as to a god. It is said that when the remains of Lycurgus were transferred to their homeland, lightning struck the tomb. Subsequently, this did not fall to the lot of any of the famous people, except for Euripides, who died and was buried in Macedonia near Aretusa. With him alone, after death, the same thing happened that once - with the purest and most amiable man to the gods, and in the eyes of the passionate admirers of Euripides - this is a great sign that serves as a justification for their ardent commitment.
Lycurgus died, according to some writers, in Kirra, Apollothemis reports that shortly before his death he arrived in Elis, Timaeus and Aristoxenus - that the last days of his life were spent in Crete; Aristoxenus writes that the Cretans even show his tomb near Pergamon by the high road.
He left, they say, the only son named Antior, who died childless, and the line of Lycurgus ceased. But friends and relatives, in order to continue his labors, established a society that existed for a long time, and the days on which they met were called Lycurgides. An aristocrat, the son of Hipparchus, says that when Lycurgus died in Crete, those who received him at home burned the body and scattered the ashes over the sea; such was his request, for he was afraid that if his remains were transferred to Lacedaemon, they would not say that, they say, Lycurgus had returned and the oath had lost its force, and under this pretext they would not make changes to the system he created.
This word means “contract”, as well as “saying of the oracle”.).... - The chant, under which the Spartans went into battle, is also mentioned by Xenophon (Numa, 12 Lys., 19. Sparta was the only state in Greece that cared about preserving military secrets.
Plutarch (ancient Greek Πλούταρχος) (c. 46, Chaeronea, Boeotia - c. 127, place of death unknown) - ancient Greek writer and philosopher, public figure of the Roman era. He is best known as the author of Comparative Biographies, in which he recreated the images of prominent political figures in Greece and Rome. Publicistic, literary and philosophical writings of Plutarch on various topics are usually combined into a series called "Moral writings" ("Morals"), which, among other things, includes the popular "Table Talk" (in 9 volumes).
Biography
Plutarch came from a wealthy family who lived in the small town of Chaeronea in Boeotia. In his youth in Athens, Plutarch studied philosophy (mainly with the Platonist Ammonius), mathematics, and rhetoric. In the future, the Peripatetics and Stoics had a significant influence on the philosophical views of Plutarch. He himself considered himself a Platonist, but in fact he was more of an eclecticist, and in philosophy he was mainly interested in its practical application. Even in his youth, Plutarch, together with his brother Lamprey and teacher Ammonius, visited Delphi, where the cult of Apollo, which had fallen into decay, was still preserved. This journey had a serious impact on the life and literary work of Plutarch.
Shortly after returning from Athens to Chaeronea, Plutarch received an assignment from the city community to the Roman proconsul of the province of Achaia and successfully carried it out. In the future, he faithfully served his city, holding public positions. Teaching his own sons, Plutarch gathered young people in his house and created a kind of private academy, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer.
Plutarch was well known to his contemporaries both as a public figure and as a philosopher. He repeatedly visited Rome and other places in Italy, had students with whom he taught in Greek (he began to study Latin only “in his declining years”). In Rome, Plutarch met with the neo-Pythagoreans, and also struck up friendships with many prominent people. Among them were Arulen Rusticus, Lucius Mestrius Florus (companion of Emperor Vespasian), Quintus Sosius Senecion (personal friend of Emperor Trajan). Roman friends rendered the most valuable services to Plutarch. Having become purely formally a member of the Mestrian family (in accordance with Roman legal practice), Plutarch received Roman citizenship and a new name - Mestrius Plutarch. Thanks to Senecion, he became the most influential person in his province: Emperor Trajan forbade the governor of Achaia to hold any events without prior approval from Plutarch. This position allowed Plutarch to freely engage in public and educational activities in his homeland in Chaeronea, where he held not only the honorary position of archon-eponym, but also more modest magistracies.
In the fiftieth year of his life, Plutarch became a priest of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. In trying to restore the sanctuary and the oracle to their former importance, he earned the deep respect of the Amphictyons, who erected a statue of him.
Creation
According to Lampria's catalogue, Plutarch left behind about 210 writings. A significant part of them has come down to our time. According to the tradition coming from the publishers of the Renaissance, the literary heritage of Plutarch is divided into two main groups: philosophical and journalistic works, collectively known as "Moralia" (ancient Greek Ἠθικά, lat. Moralia), and biographies (biography).
Moralia traditionally includes about 80 compositions. The earliest of them are rhetorical in nature, such as praise of Athens, discussions about Fortuna (ancient Greek Τύχη), her role in the life of Alexander the Great and in the history of Rome (“On the luck and valor of Alexander the Great”, “On the glory of Alexander” , "On the Fortune of the Romans").
Plutarch outlined his philosophical positions in works devoted to the interpretation of Plato’s works (“On the Origin of the Soul in Plato’s Timaeus”, “Platonic Questions”, etc.), and criticism of the views of the Epicureans and Stoics (“Is the saying good:“ Live inconspicuously? ” ”, “Against Kolot”, “On the fact that even a pleasant life is impossible if you follow Epicurus”, “On the contradictions among the Stoics”). Without going deep into theoretical reasoning, Plutarch cites in them a lot of valuable information on the history of philosophy.
For educational purposes, other essays have been conceived containing advice on how to act in order to be happy and overcome shortcomings (for example, “On excessive curiosity”, “On talkativeness”, “On excessive timidity”). The compositions on the topics of family life include "Consolation to the wife", written in connection with the death of his daughter. Plutarch's pedagogical interests are reflected in a number of works ("How a young man should listen to poets", "How to use lectures", etc.). Thematically approaching them are the political writings of Plutarch, in which a large place is occupied by instructions for rulers and statesmen(“On the Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy”, “Instructions on State Affairs”, etc.)
Along with popular works in dialogic form, Moralia also includes others stylistically similar to scientific treatises. So, the treatise "On the face on the lunar disk" presents various astronomical ideas popular for that time; at the end of the treatise, Plutarch refers to the theory adopted in the Academy of Plato (Xenocrates from Chalcedon), seeing in the moon the homeland of demons.
Plutarch was also interested in the psychology of animals ("On the Intelligence of Animals").
Plutarch was a deeply pious man and recognized importance traditional pagan religion to preserve morality. He devoted numerous works to this topic, including “Pythian” dialogues concerning the oracle of Apollo in Delphi (“On the “E” in Delphi”, “On the fact that the Pythia no longer prophesies in verse”, “On the decline of the oracles”), dialogue “Why the deity delays in retribution”, etc. In the treatise “On Isis and Osiris”, Plutarch outlined various syncretic and allegorical interpretations of the mysteries of Osiris and ancient Egyptian mythology.
Plutarch’s interest in antiquities is evidenced by the works “Greek questions” (ancient Greek Αἴτια Ἑλληνικά, lat. Quaestiones Graecae) and “Roman questions” (ancient Greek Αἴτια Ῥωμαϊκά, lat. Quaestiones Romanae), which reveal the meaning and the origin of various customs of the Greco-Roman world (a lot of space is devoted to questions of worship). Plutarch's predilection for anecdotes, which also manifested itself in his biographies, is reflected in the collection of Lacedaemon winged sayings. One of the currently popular works is “Table Talk” (in 9 books), where the traditional form of symposium (feast) for Greek literature allows the writer to raise and discuss (with the involvement of a large number quotations from authorities) a variety of life and scientific topics.
Plutarch's Moralia traditionally includes works by unknown authors attributed to Plutarch in antiquity and widely known under his name. The most important of them are the treatises “On Music” (one of the main sources of our knowledge about ancient music in general) and “On the Education of Children” (a work translated into many languages back in the Renaissance and considered authentic until the beginning of the 19th century). In relation to non-authentic writings, modern scholars use the (conventional) name Pseudo-Plutarch. Among those - who lived presumably in the II century AD. e. unknown author of the works “Small comparative biographies” (another name is “Collection of parallel Greek and Roman stories”) and “On rivers”, containing a lot of information on ancient mythology and history, which, as is generally recognized in science, are completely invented by him. The collection of winged sayings "Apothegms of kings and generals" is not authentic either. In addition to those mentioned, under the name of Plutarch, many other works that do not belong to him (mostly anonymous) have been preserved.
Comparative biographies
Plutarch owes his literary fame not to eclectic philosophical reasoning, and not to writings on ethics, but to biographies (which, however, are most directly related to ethics). Plutarch outlines his goals in the introduction to the biography of Aemilius Paulus (Aemilius Paulus): communication with the great people of antiquity has an educational function, and if not all the heroes of biographies are attractive, then negative example also has value, it can have an intimidating effect and turn to the path of a righteous life. In his biographies, Plutarch follows the teachings of the Peripatetics, who in the field of ethics attributed decisive importance to human actions, arguing that every action gives rise to virtue. Plutarch follows the scheme of peripatetic biographies, describing in turn the birth, youth, character, activity, death of the hero. Nowhere is Plutarch a historian critical of the facts. The huge historical material available to him is used very freely (“we write a biography, not a history”). First of all, Plutarch needs a psychological portrait of a person; in order to visually represent him, he willingly draws on information from the private life of the persons depicted, anecdotes and witty sayings. The text includes numerous moral arguments, various quotations from poets. This is how colorful, emotional narratives were born, the success of which was ensured by the author's talent for storytelling, his craving for everything human and moral optimism that elevates the soul. Biographies of Plutarch have for us a purely historical value, because he had many valuable sources, which were subsequently lost.
Plutarch began to write biographies in his youth. At first, he turned his attention to the famous people of Boeotia: Hesiod, Pindar, Epaminondas. Subsequently, he began to write about representatives of other regions of Greece: the Spartan king Leonidas, Aristomenes, Arata of Sicyon. There is even a biography of the Persian king Artaxerxes II. During his stay in Rome, Plutarch wrote biographies of Roman emperors intended for the Greeks. And only in the later period did he write his most important work, Comparative Biographies (ancient Greek Βίοι Παράλληλοι; Latin Vitae parallelae). These were biographies of prominent historical figures of Greece and Rome, compared in pairs. Currently, 22 couples and four single biographies of an earlier period are known (Arat of Sicyon, Artaxerxes II, Galba and Otho). Among the couples, some are well-composed: the mythical founders of Athens and Rome, Theseus and Romulus; the first legislators were Lycurgus of Sparta and Numa Pompilius; the greatest generals- Alexander the Great and Gaius Julius Caesar; the greatest orators are Cicero and Demosthenes. Others are compared more arbitrarily: "children of happiness" - Timoleon and Aemilius Paul, or a couple illustrating the vicissitudes of human destinies - Alcibiades and Coriolanus. After each pair, Plutarch apparently intended to give comparative characteristic(synkrisis), a brief indication of the common features and main differences between the characters. However, for several couples (in particular, for Alexander and Caesar), the juxtaposition is missing, that is, it has not been preserved (or, less likely, it has not been written). In the text of biographies there are cross-references, from which we learn that there were originally more of them than in the body of texts that has come down to us. Lost biographies of Leonidas, Epaminondas, Scipio Africanus).
The lack of historical criticism and the depth of political thought did not interfere, and still do not prevent Plutarch's biographies from finding numerous readers who are interested in their diverse and instructive content and highly appreciate the warm humane feeling of the author.
reception
Despite the compilation method and eclectic style of Plutarch, his legacy was actively studied, translated and republished from the Renaissance until the 20th century.
The influence of Plutarch is already evident in the work of the historians Appian of Alexandria and Amintian; Apuleius and Aulus Gellius speak respectfully of Plutarch.
Shakespeare's tragedies Antony and Cleopatra, Julius Caesar and Coriolanus follow Plutarch in many details. Plutarch was appreciated by Rabelais, Montaigne, Moliere. Rousseau noted the enormous influence of his images of heroes, which he experienced in his youth, and was especially interested in the everyday detailing of his biographies. The "moralistic psychologism" of his writings had a significant impact on the development of biographical literature in the European tradition, as well as novels. Literary imitations arose - for example, the collections "German Plutarch", "French Plutarch", "Plutarch for Youth", "Plutarch for Ladies". In Russia, the general term "Plutarch" even began to be called any biographies of famous people, regardless of who owned their authorship. In the drama "The Robbers" by F. Schiller, Karl Moor exclaims: "Oh, how disgusting this age of mediocre scribblers becomes, as soon as I read in my dear Plutarch about the great men of antiquity."
In 1935, the International Astronomical Union named a crater on the visible side of the Moon after Plutarch.
“I don’t need a friend who, agreeing with me in everything, changes his views with me, nodding his head, because the shadow does the same better.”
These words belong to the famous ancient Greek biographer, philosopher, historian Plutarch. They allow us to understand why the name and works of this truly unique and interesting person are known to this day. Although the facts of the biography of Plutarch are largely lost, some information is still available thanks to Plutarch himself. In his own writings, he mentioned certain events that took place on his life path.
Childhood of Plutarch
Plutarch was born in 46 in the Greek city of Chaeronea in Boeotia. Thanks to his parents, the future philosopher received an excellent education, which formed the basis of his future activities. Family upbringing had a great influence on his worldview, helped Plutarch to comprehend many knowledge, and later become the author of numerous works.
His father Autobulus and grandfather Lamprius were well-educated and intelligent people. They told him interesting historical facts, about famous personalities, could keep up the conversation on any topic. The education of his father and grandfather allowed Plutarch to receive his primary education at home.
He had two more brothers - also enlightened people. It is known that despite the education of all family members, they were not aristocrats, although they were wealthy citizens. All this made their family very respected among those around them.
Youth of Plutarch
From the earliest years, Plutarch was constantly studying and, by the way, did this all his life. To receive a special education, he went to Athens, where he studied such sciences as rhetoric, mathematics, philosophy and others. His main teacher in those years was Ammonius, who played a significant role in shaping Plutarch's philosophical views.
Plutarch's activities
After receiving his education, Plutarch returns to his hometown and devotes the rest of his life to the service of Chaeronea. Thanks to his versatile knowledge, he has been working in managerial positions since his youth. By the nature of his activities, he often had to visit the Roman emperor Trajan himself in order to resolve certain political issues.
During business visits to Rome, he still managed to attend philosophical and historical lectures, and actively spoke at them himself. During such conversations, he became friends with the consul Quintus Sosius Senekion, Trajan's best friend. This friendship with Senekion, coupled with Plutarch's growing fame, served to advance him in his career. Until 117, he served as consul, and after the death of Trajan, under the new Roman emperor Adrian, Plutarch served as procurator of the province of Achaia.
These positions were very responsible and important. To understand their full significance, it should be noted that not a single decision in the province of Achaia could be valid without the participation of Plutarch. This means that any event had to be coordinated with it. This or that decision was carried out only if it was approved by Plutarch.
In addition to politics, he paid great attention to religion and social activities. So, around the year 95, Plutarch was elected priest in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The priests at that time were chosen by society, and this fact testifies to the deep respect and veneration of Plutarch among the people. People even erected a statue in honor of him.
Works of Plutarch
Plutarch left behind many significant works. He wrote more than two hundred essays on a variety of topics. Mostly, they were historical and instructive in nature. Unfortunately, only a small part of his works have survived to our century. Among them is his main work - "Comparative Biographies", where he described the biographies of famous people: Romans and Greeks.
The essence of "Comparative Lives" is that the author took the biographies of two personalities and made comparisons. So, in this work one can find descriptions of the life of Alexander the Great, Gaius Julius Caesar, Theseus, Romulus, Cicero and others. This work is of great importance for us, as it contains reliable and most complete information about ancient personalities. The biographies of twenty-two couples have survived to this day, the rest have been lost.
Among the other works of Plutarch: "Political Instructions", "On the Ingenuity of Animals", "On the Love of Children", "On Talkativeness", "On the Malice of Herodotus", "On Excessive Curiosity" and many others on a wide variety of topics. Of great interest are the Pythian dialogues, where he discusses various religious and philosophical issues of his time.
Plutarch's Disciples
Despite the fact that he was a very influential politician and was active in public life, Plutarch was also a good family man and father to his children. It is not known for certain how many children he had. Some sources mention five sons.
Like Plutarch's father, he taught his children himself. His house was never empty. Young people have always been welcome here. In this regard, Plutarch opened his own Academy, where he was a leader and lecturer. Thus, he had many students, but history, unfortunately, does not mention their names. It is only known that one of the followers of Plutarch is his nephew Sextus of Chaeronea, who raised Marcus Aurelius himself, the famous future emperor.
Plutarch died in 127. He lived for eighty-one years. For that time it was a very respectable age, few managed to live up to such years. He always adhered to a healthy lifestyle and constantly warned his loved ones and all people in general with the words: “No body can be so strong that wine cannot damage it.” Indeed, the "golden" words, which through many centuries have not lost their relevance.
In his youth in Athens, Plutarch studied philosophy (mainly with the Platonist Ammonius), mathematics, and rhetoric. In the future, the Peripatetics and Stoics had a significant influence on the philosophical views of Plutarch. He himself considered himself a Platonist, but in fact he was more of an eclecticist, and in philosophy he was mainly interested in its practical application. Even in his youth, Plutarch, together with his brother Lamprey and teacher Ammonius, visited Delphi, where the cult of Apollo, which had fallen into decay, was still preserved. This journey had a serious impact on the life and literary work of Plutarch.
Shortly after returning from Athens to Chaeronea, Plutarch received an assignment from the city community to the Roman proconsul of the province of Achaia and successfully carried it out. In the future, he faithfully served his city, holding public positions. Teaching his own sons, Plutarch gathered young people in his house and created a kind of private academy, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer. Plutarch was well known to his contemporaries both as a public figure and as a philosopher. He repeatedly visited Rome and other places in Italy, had students with whom he taught in Greek (he began to study Latin only "in his declining years"). In Rome, Plutarch met the Neo-Pythagoreans, and also struck up friendships with many prominent people. Among them were Arulen Rusticus, Lucius Mestrius Florus (companion of Emperor Vespasian), Quintus Sosius Senecion (personal friend of Emperor Trajan). Roman friends rendered the most valuable services to Plutarch. Having become purely formally a member of the Mestrian family (in accordance with Roman legal practice), Plutarch received Roman citizenship and a new name - Mestrius Plutarch. Thanks to Senekion, he became the most influential person in his province: Emperor Trajan forbade the governor of Achaia to hold any events without prior approval from Plutarch. Subsequently, this order of Trajan was confirmed by his successor Hadrian.
In the fiftieth year of his life, Plutarch became a priest of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. In trying to restore the sanctuary and the oracle to their former importance, he earned the deep respect of the Amphictyons, who erected a statue of him.
Compositions
Plutarch was not an original writer. Basically, he collected and processed what others had written before him. However, the tradition of Plutarch influenced European thought and literature for many centuries.
The "Ethics" includes about 80 works. The earliest of these are those that are rhetorical in nature, such as praise for Athens, discussions about Fortune (Greek Tyche) and its role in the life of Alexander the Great or in the history of Rome. big group they also compose popular-philosophical treatises; of these, perhaps the most characteristic of Plutarch is the short essay On the State of the Spirit. Without going deep into theoretical reasoning, Plutarch often gives a lot of valuable information on the history of philosophy. Such are the works "Platonic Questions" and "On the Creation of the Soul in the Timaeus", as well as polemical works directed against the Epicureans and Stoics.
For educational purposes, other essays have been conceived containing advice on how to act in order to be happy and overcome shortcomings (for example, “On excessive curiosity”, “On talkativeness”, “On excessive timidity”). For the same reasons, Plutarch dealt with issues of love and marriage. The compositions on the topics of family life also include consolation (that is, a consolatory essay after a grievous loss), addressed to Plutarch's wife Timoxene, who lost her only daughter. Plutarch's pedagogical interests are reflected in many of his works (“How a young man should listen to poets”, “How to use lectures”, etc.). Thematically, the political writings of Plutarch approach them, especially those that contain recommendations for rulers and statesmen.
Along with the most popular works in the dialogic form, the Ethics also included others - close in nature to a scientific report. So, for example, the essay “On the face on the lunar disk” presents various theories regarding this celestial body; at the end, Plutarch turns to the theory adopted at the Academy of Plato (Xenocrates of Chalcedon), seeing in the Moon the homeland of demons.
Plutarch also wrote about the human soul, was interested in psychology, the psychology of animals (“On the ingenuity of animals”, “On meat-eating”).
Plutarch devoted numerous works to questions of religion, among them the so-called "Pythian" dialogues concerning the oracle of Apollo in Delphi. The most interesting in this group is the work "On Isis and Osiris", in which Plutarch, himself initiated into the mysteries of Dionysus, outlined the most diverse syncretic and allegorical interpretations of the mysteries of Osiris and ancient Egyptian mythology.
Plutarch's interest in antiquities is evidenced by two works: "Greek questions" (Aitia Hellenika; lat. Quaestiones Graecae) and "Roman questions" (Aitia Romaika; lat. Quaestiones Romanae), which reveal the meaning and origin of various customs of the Greco-Roman world ( much space is devoted to questions of worship). Plutarch's predilection for anecdotes, which also manifested itself in his biographies, is reflected in the collection of Lacedaemon sayings (another collection of well-known sayings, "Apothegms of Kings and Generals", is most likely not authentic). A variety of topics are revealed in the form of a dialogue by such works as "The Feast of the Seven Wise Men" or "Table Talk" (in 9 books).
The Ethics of Plutarch also includes non-authentic works (of unknown authors, attributed to Plutarch in antiquity and widely known under his name). The most important of them are the treatises “On Music” (one of the main sources of our knowledge about ancient music in general) and “On the Education of Children” (a work translated into many languages back in the Renaissance and considered authentic until the beginning of the 19th century).
A number of works previously attributed to Plutarch were written by unknown authors, in relation to which scientists now use the (conditional) name Pseudo-Plutarch. Among those - who lived presumably in the II century AD. e. unknown author of the works “Small comparative biographies” (another name is “Collection of parallel Greek and Roman stories”, abbreviated as ICJ) and “On rivers”, containing a lot of information on ancient mythology and history, which, as is generally recognized in science, are completely invented by him. In addition to these two, many other works not belonging to him have been preserved under the name of Plutarch, for example, the treatise On Music.
Comparative biographies
Plutarch owes his literary fame not to eclectic philosophical reasoning, and not to writings on ethics, but to biographies (which, however, are most directly related to ethics). Plutarch outlines his goals in the introduction to the biography of Aemilius Paulus (Aemilius Paulus): communication with the great people of antiquity has educational functions, and if not all the heroes of biographies are attractive, then a negative example is also valuable, it can have an intimidating effect and turn to the path of the righteous life. In his biographies, Plutarch follows the teachings of the Peripatetics, who in the field of ethics attributed decisive importance to human actions, arguing that every action gives rise to virtue. Plutarch follows the scheme of peripatetic biographies, describing in turn the birth, youth, character, activity, death of the hero. Nowhere is Plutarch a historian critical of the facts. The huge historical material available to him is used very freely (“we write a biography, not a history”). First of all, Plutarch needs a psychological portrait of a person; in order to visually represent him, he willingly draws on information from the private life of the persons depicted, anecdotes and witty sayings. The text includes numerous moral arguments, various quotations from poets. This is how colorful, emotional narratives were born, the success of which was ensured by the author's talent for storytelling, his craving for everything human and moral optimism that elevates the soul. Biographies of Plutarch have for us a purely historical value, because he had many valuable sources, which were subsequently lost.
Plutarch began to write biographies in his youth. At first, he turned his attention to the famous people of Boeotia: Hesiod, Pindar, Epaminondas. Subsequently, he began to write about representatives of other regions of Greece: the Spartan king Leonidas, Aristomenes, Arata of Sicyon. There is even a biography of the Persian king Artaxerxes II. During his stay in Rome, Plutarch wrote biographies of Roman emperors intended for the Greeks. And only in the later period did he write his most important work “Comparative Biographies” (ancient Greek. Βίοι Παράλληλοι ; lat. Vitae parallelae). These were biographies of prominent historical figures of Greece and Rome, compared in pairs. Currently, 22 couples and four single biographies of an earlier period are known (Arat of Sicyon, Artaxerxes II, Galba and Otho). Among the couples, some are well composed: the mythical founders of Athens and Rome - Theseus and Romulus; the first legislators are Lycurgus of Sparta and Numa Pompilius; the greatest generals are Alexander the Great and Gaius Julius Caesar; the greatest orators are Cicero and Demosthenes. Others are compared more arbitrarily: "children of happiness" - Timoleon and Aemilius Paul, or a couple illustrating the vicissitudes of human destinies - Alcibiades and Coriolanus. After each pair, Plutarch apparently intended to give a comparative description (synkrisis), a brief indication of the common features and main differences between the characters. However, for several couples (in particular, for Alexander and Caesar), the juxtaposition is missing, that is, it has not been preserved (or, less likely, it has not been written). In the text of biographies there are cross-references, from which we learn that there were originally more of them than in the body of texts that has come down to us. Lost biographies of Leonidas, Epaminondas, Scipio Africanus).
The lack of historical criticism and the depth of political thought did not interfere, and still do not prevent Plutarch's biographies from finding numerous readers who are interested in their diverse and instructive content and highly appreciate the warm humane feeling of the author.
Other works
The standard edition includes 78 treatises, some of which (according to modern science) do not belong to Plutarch.
Plutarch's translations
For editions of ethical writings, see Moralia (Plutarch)Of the translators of Plutarch into new European languages, the French author Amyot enjoyed special fame.
Russian translations
Plutarch began to be translated into Russian since the 18th century: See the translations of Stepan Pisarev, “Plutarch’s Instructions on childcare” (St. Petersburg, 1771) and “The Word of Unceasing Curiosity” (St. Iv. Alekseev, "The Moral and Philosophical Writings of Plutarch" (St. Petersburg, 1789); E. Sferina, "On Superstition" (St. Petersburg, 1807); S. Distunis and others. "Plutarch's comparative biographies" (St. Petersburg, 1810, 1814-16, 1817-21); "Biography of Plutarch" ed. V. Guerrier (M., 1862); biographies of Plutarch in a cheap edition by A. Suvorin (translated by V. Alekseev, vols. I-VII) and under the title "Life and deeds of famous people of antiquity" (M., 1889, I-II); "Conversation about the face visible on the disk of the moon" ("Phil. Review" vol. VI, book 2).
- reprint: Comparative biographies. / Per. V. A. Alekseev. M.: Alfa-kn. 2008. 1263 pages.
The best Russian edition"Comparative Lives", where most of the translation is done by S. P. Markish:
- Plutarch. Comparative biographies. In 2 volumes / Ed. preparation S. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, S. P. Markish. Rep. ed. S. S. Averintsev. (Series "Literary monuments"). 1st ed. In 3 volumes - M.-L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1961-1964. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - M.: Nauka, 1994. - T. 1. 704 p. - T. 2. 672 p.
- Plutarch/ Per. G. A. Ivanova. Based on materials from the collection "Philosophy of Nature in Antiquity and the Middle Ages". Moscow: Progress-Tradition, 2000.
Research
For the comparative merits of Plutarch's manuscripts, see critical apparatuses for editions of Reiske (Lpts., 1774-82), Sintenis ("Vitae", 2nd ed., Lpts., 1858-64); Wyttenbach ("Moralia", Lpts., 1796-1834), Bernardakes ("Moralia", Lpts. 1888-95), also Treu, "Zur Gesch. d. Oberlieferung von Plut. Moralia" (Bresl., 1877-84). Dictionary of the Plutarchian language - under the name. Wyttenbach's edition. About the life of Plutarch, Svyda gives meager information.
From other Op. cf. Wesiermann, "De Plut. vita et scriptis” (Lpts., 1855); Volkmann "Leben, Schriften und Philosophie des Plutarch" (B., 1869); Muhl, "Plutarchische Studien" (Augsburg, 1885) and others.
- Yelpidinsky Ya. S. Religious and moral outlook of Plutarch of Chaeronea. - St. Petersburg, 1893. 462 pages.
- Averintsev S. S. Plutarch and ancient biography: On the question of the place of the classic of the genre in the history of the genre. - M., 1973.
- reissue in the book: Averintsev S.S. The image of antiquity. Sat. - St. Petersburg: ABC-classics. 2004. 480 pages, 3000 copies.
Memory
Write a review on the article "Plutarch"
Links
- in ancient Greek
- in the library of Maxim Moshkov
- on ancientrome.ru
- about "Comparative Lives"
|
||||||||||||||
An excerpt characterizing Plutarch
“Yes, but it’s hard for us to imagine eternity,” said Dimmler, who approached the young people with a meek, contemptuous smile, but now spoke as quietly and seriously as they did.Why is it so hard to imagine eternity? Natasha said. “It will be today, it will be tomorrow, it will always be, and yesterday was and the third day was ...
- Natasha! now it's your turn. Sing me something, - the voice of the countess was heard. - Why are you sitting down, like conspirators.
- Mum! I don’t feel like it,” Natasha said, but at the same time she got up.
All of them, even the middle-aged Dimmler, did not want to interrupt the conversation and leave the corner of the sofa, but Natasha got up, and Nikolai sat down at the clavichord. As always, standing in the middle of the hall and choosing the most advantageous place for resonance, Natasha began to sing her mother's favorite play.
She said that she did not feel like singing, but she had not sung for a long time before, and for a long time after, as she sang that evening. Count Ilya Andreevich, from the study where he was talking to Mitinka, heard her singing, and like a pupil in a hurry to go to play, finishing the lesson, he got confused in words, giving orders to the manager and finally fell silent, and Mitinka, also listening, silently with a smile, stood in front of count. Nikolai did not take his eyes off his sister, and took a breath with her. Sonya, listening, thought about what an enormous difference there was between her and her friend, and how impossible it was for her to be in any way as charming as her cousin. The old countess sat with a happily sad smile and tears in her eyes, occasionally shaking her head. She thought about Natasha, and about her youth, and about how something unnatural and terrible is in this upcoming marriage of Natasha to Prince Andrei.
Dimmler, sitting down next to the countess and closing his eyes, listened.
“No, countess,” he said at last, “this is a European talent, she has nothing to learn, this gentleness, tenderness, strength ...
– Ah! how I fear for her, how I fear,” said the countess, not remembering to whom she was speaking. Her maternal instinct told her that there was too much in Natasha, and that she would not be happy from this. Natasha had not yet finished singing, when an enthusiastic fourteen-year-old Petya ran into the room with the news that mummers had come.
Natasha suddenly stopped.
- Fool! she shouted at her brother, ran up to a chair, fell on it and sobbed so that she could not stop for a long time afterwards.
“Nothing, mother, really nothing, so: Petya scared me,” she said, trying to smile, but tears kept flowing and sobs squeezed her throat.
Dressed-up servants, bears, Turks, innkeepers, ladies, terrible and funny, bringing with them cold and fun, at first timidly huddled in the hallway; then, hiding one behind the other, they were forced into the hall; and at first shyly, but then more and more cheerfully and amicably, songs, dances, choral and Christmas games began. The countess, recognizing the faces and laughing at the dressed up, went into the living room. Count Ilya Andreich sat in the hall with a beaming smile, approving the players. The youth has disappeared.
Half an hour later, in the hall, among the other mummers, another old lady in tanks appeared - it was Nikolai. The Turkish woman was Petya. Payas - it was Dimmler, the hussar - Natasha and the Circassian - Sonya, with a painted cork mustache and eyebrows.
After condescending surprise, misrecognition and praise from those who were not dressed up, the young people found that the costumes were so good that they had to be shown to someone else.
Nikolay, who wanted to give everyone a ride on his troika along an excellent road, suggested that, taking ten dressed-up people from the yard with him, go to his uncle.
- No, why are you upsetting him, the old man! - said the countess, - and there is nowhere to turn around with him. To go, so to the Melyukovs.
Melyukova was a widow with children of various ages, also with governesses and tutors, who lived four miles from the Rostovs.
“Here, ma chere, clever,” said the old count, who had begun to stir. “Now let me dress up and go with you.” I'll stir up Pasheta.
But the countess did not agree to let the count go: his leg hurt all these days. It was decided that Ilya Andreevich was not allowed to go, and that if Luiza Ivanovna (m me Schoss) went, the young ladies could go to Melyukova's. Sonya, always timid and shy, began to beg Louisa Ivanovna more insistently than anyone else not to refuse them.
Sonya's outfit was the best. Her mustache and eyebrows were unusually suited to her. Everyone told her that she was very good, and she was in a lively and energetic mood unusual for her. Some kind inner voice told her that now or never her fate would be decided, and in her man's dress she seemed like a completely different person. Luiza Ivanovna agreed, and half an hour later four troikas with bells and bells, screeching and whistling in the frosty snow, drove up to the porch.
Natasha was the first to give the tone of Christmas merriment, and this merriment, reflected from one to another, grew more and more intensified and reached its highest degree at the time when everyone went out into the cold, and talking, calling to each other, laughing and shouting, sat down in the sleigh.
Two troikas were accelerating, the third troika of the old count with an Oryol trotter in the bud; Nikolai's fourth own, with its low, black, shaggy root. Nikolay, in his old woman's attire, on which he put on a hussar, belted cloak, stood in the middle of his sleigh, picking up the reins.
It was so bright that he could see plaques gleaming in the moonlight and the eyes of the horses looking frightened at the riders rustling under the dark canopy of the entrance.
Natasha, Sonya, m me Schoss and two girls sat in Nikolai's sleigh. In the old count's sleigh sat Dimmler with his wife and Petya; dressed up courtyards sat in the rest.
- Go ahead, Zakhar! - Nikolai shouted to his father's coachman in order to have an opportunity to overtake him on the road.
The troika of the old count, in which Dimmler and other mummers sat, screeching with runners, as if freezing to the snow, and rattling with a thick bell, moved forward. The trailers clung to the shafts and bogged down, turning the strong and shiny snow like sugar.
Nikolai set off for the first three; the others rustled and squealed from behind. At first they rode at a small trot along a narrow road. While we were driving past the garden, the shadows from the bare trees often lay across the road and hid the bright light of the moon, but as soon as we drove beyond the fence, a diamond-shiny, with a bluish sheen, a snowy plain, all doused with moonlight and motionless, opened up on all sides. Once, once, pushed a bump in the front sleigh; the next sleigh and the following jogged in the same way, and, boldly breaking the chained silence, the sleigh began to stretch out one after the other.
- A hare's footprint, a lot of footprints! - Natasha's voice sounded in the frosty constrained air.
– As you can see, Nicolas! Sonya's voice said. - Nikolai looked back at Sonya and bent down to get a closer look at her face. Some kind of completely new, sweet face, with black eyebrows and mustaches, in the moonlight, close and far, peeped out of the sables.
"It used to be Sonya," Nikolai thought. He looked closer at her and smiled.
What are you, Nicholas?
“Nothing,” he said, and turned back to the horses.
Having ridden out onto the main road, greased with runners and all riddled with traces of thorns, visible in the light of the moon, the horses themselves began to tighten the reins and add speed. The left harness, bending its head, twitched its traces with jumps. Root swayed, moving his ears, as if asking: “Is it too early to start?” - Ahead, already far separated and ringing a receding thick bell, Zakhar's black troika was clearly visible on the white snow. Shouting and laughter and the voices of the dressed up were heard from his sleigh.
“Well, you, dear ones,” shouted Nikolai, tugging on the reins on one side and withdrawing his hand with a whip. And only by the wind, which seemed to intensify against them, and by the twitching of the tie-downs, which were tightening and increasing their speed, it was noticeable how fast the troika flew. Nicholas looked back. With a shout and a squeal, waving their whips and forcing the natives to gallop, other troikas kept up. Root steadfastly swayed under the arc, not thinking of knocking down and promising to give more and more when needed.
Nikolai caught up with the top three. They drove off some mountain, drove onto a widely rutted road through a meadow near a river.
"Where are we going?" thought Nicholas. - “It should be on a slanting meadow. But no, it's something new that I've never seen before. This is not a slanting meadow and not Demkina Gora, but God knows what it is! This is something new and magical. Well, whatever it is!” And he, shouting at the horses, began to go around the first three.
Zakhar restrained his horses and turned his already frosted face up to the eyebrows.
Nicholas let his horses go; Zakhar, stretching his hands forward, smacked his lips and let his people go.
“Well, hold on, sir,” he said. - The troikas flew even faster nearby, and the legs of the galloping horses quickly changed. Nicholas began to take forward. Zakhar, without changing the position of his outstretched arms, raised one hand with the reins.
“You’re lying, master,” he shouted to Nikolai. Nikolai put all the horses into a gallop and overtook Zakhar. The horses covered the faces of the riders with fine, dry snow, next to them there was a sound of frequent enumerations and the fast-moving legs were confused, and the shadows of the overtaken troika. The whistle of skids in the snow and women's screams were heard from different directions.
Stopping the horses again, Nikolai looked around him. All around was the same magical plain soaked through with moonlight with stars scattered over it.
“Zakhar shouts for me to take the left; why to the left? Nikolay thought. Are we going to the Melyukovs, is this Melyukovka? We God knows where we are going, and God knows what is happening to us – and what is happening to us is very strange and good.” He looked back at the sleigh.
“Look, he has both a mustache and eyelashes, everything is white,” said one of the sitting strange, pretty and strange people with thin mustaches and eyebrows.
“This one, it seems, was Natasha,” Nikolai thought, and this one is m me Schoss; or maybe not, but this is a Circassian with a mustache, I don’t know who, but I love her.
- Aren't you cold? - he asked. They didn't answer and laughed. Dimmler was shouting something from the rear sleigh, probably funny, but it was impossible to hear what he was shouting.
“Yes, yes,” answered the voices, laughing.
- However, here is some kind of magical forest with iridescent black shadows and sparkles of diamonds and with some kind of enfilade of marble steps, and some kind of silver roofs of magical buildings, and the piercing squeal of some kind of animals. “And if this is indeed Melyukovka, then it is even stranger that we drove God knows where, and arrived at Melyukovka,” thought Nikolai.
Indeed, it was Melyukovka, and girls and lackeys with candles and joyful faces ran out to the entrance.
- Who it? - they asked from the entrance.
“The counts are dressed up, I can see by the horses,” the voices answered.
Pelageya Danilovna Melyukova, a broad, energetic woman, in glasses and a swinging bonnet, was sitting in the living room, surrounded by her daughters, whom she tried not to let get bored. They quietly poured wax and looked at the shadows of the coming out figures, when steps and voices of visitors rustled in the front.
Hussars, ladies, witches, payas, bears, clearing their throats and wiping their frost-covered faces in the hall, entered the hall, where candles were hurriedly lit. Clown - Dimmler with the mistress - Nikolai opened the dance. Surrounded by screaming children, mummers, covering their faces and changing their voices, bowed to the hostess and moved around the room.
"Oh, you can't find out! And Natasha is! Look who she looks like! Right, it reminds me of someone. Eduard then Karlych how good! I didn't recognize. Yes, how she dances! Ah, fathers, and some kind of Circassian; right, how goes Sonyushka. Who else is this? Well, consoled! Take the tables, Nikita, Vanya. And we were so quiet!
- Ha ha ha! ... Hussar then, hussar then! Like a boy, and legs!… I can’t see… – voices were heard.
Natasha, the favorite of the young Melyukovs, disappeared together with them into the back rooms, where a cork was demanded and various dressing gowns and men's dresses, which, through the open door, received bare girlish hands from the footman. Ten minutes later, all the youth of the Melyukov family joined the mummers.
Pelageya Danilovna, having disposed of the clearing of the place for the guests and treats for the gentlemen and servants, without taking off her glasses, with a suppressed smile, walked among the mummers, looking closely into their faces and not recognizing anyone. She did not recognize not only the Rostovs and Dimmler, but she could not recognize either her daughters or those husband's dressing gowns and uniforms that were on them.
- And whose is this? she said, turning to her governess and looking into the face of her daughter, who represented the Kazan Tatar. - It seems that someone from the Rostovs. Well, you, mister hussar, in which regiment do you serve? she asked Natasha. “Give the Turk some marshmallows,” she said to the bartender who was scolding, “this is not forbidden by their law.
Sometimes, looking at the strange but funny steps performed by the dancers, who decided once and for all that they were dressed up, that no one would recognize them and therefore were not embarrassed, Pelageya Danilovna covered herself with a scarf, and her whole corpulent body shook from the uncontrollable kind, old woman's laughter . - Sachinet is mine, Sachinet is mine! she said.
After Russian dances and round dances, Pelageya Danilovna united all the servants and gentlemen together, in one large circle; they brought a ring, a rope and a ruble, and general games were arranged.
After an hour, all the costumes were wrinkled and upset. Cork mustaches and eyebrows smeared over sweaty, flushed, and cheerful faces. Pelageya Danilovna began to recognize the mummers, admired how well the costumes were made, how they went especially to the young ladies, and thanked everyone for having so amused her. The guests were invited to dine in the living room, and in the hall they ordered refreshments for the courtyards.
- No, guessing in the bathhouse, that's scary! said the old girl who lived with the Melyukovs at dinner.
- From what? asked the eldest daughter of the Melyukovs.
- Don't go, it takes courage...
"I'll go," Sonya said.
- Tell me, how was it with the young lady? - said the second Melyukova.
- Yes, just like that, one young lady went, - said the old girl, - she took a rooster, two appliances - as it should, she sat down. She sat, only hears, suddenly rides ... with bells, with bells, a sleigh drove up; hears, goes. Enters completely in the form of a human, as an officer, he came and sat down with her at the device.
- BUT! Ah! ... - Natasha screamed, rolling her eyes in horror.
“But how does he say that?”
- Yes, like a man, everything is as it should be, and he began, and began to persuade, and she should have kept him talking to the roosters; and she made money; – only zarobela and closed hands. He grabbed her. It's good that the girls came running here ...
- Well, what to scare them! said Pelageya Danilovna.
“Mother, you yourself guessed ...” said the daughter.
- And how do they guess in the barn? Sonya asked.
- Yes, at least now, they will go to the barn, and they will listen. What do you hear: hammering, knocking - bad, but pouring bread - this is good; and then it happens...
- Mom, tell me what happened to you in the barn?
Pelageya Danilovna smiled.
“Yes, I forgot…” she said. “After all, you won’t go, will you?”
Chocolate biscuit: the secrets of cooking in a slow cooker and oven
Chemical composition and nutritional value
Apple chips at home
Braised cabbage with white beans, recipe
How to reduce the ass, hips and stomach at home?