Material and spiritual being, their correlation. Forms of being, their types and characteristics

Material (from lat. materialis - material) - consisting of matter. Matter - from lat. materia - material, substance; Greek - "almost non-existence", according to Plato.

Of all the forms of being, material being is the most widespread. In philosophy, there are several approaches to the concept (category) "matter":

materialistic approach , according to which matter is the basis of being, and all other forms of life - spirit, man, society - are the product of matter; according to the materialists, matter is primary and represents the existence;

objective-idealistic approach - matter objectively exists as a product (objectivization) regardless of all existing primary ideal (absolute) spirit;

subjective-idealistic approach - matter as an independent reality does not exist at all, it is only a product (phenomenon - apparent phenomenon, "hallucination") of the subjective (existing only in the form of human consciousness) spirit;

positivist - the concept of "matter" is false, because it cannot be proved and fully studied with the help of experimental scientific research.

The philosophical concept of matter has a long history. It was first introduced by Aristotle. According to him, “the beginning of everything” is precisely matter. Under the influence of empirical philosophy and natural science, I. Kant's phenomenalist doctrine of matter developed. In the words of I. Kant, matter is the "substance of the phenomenon", but not the phenomenon of the substance. Being a phenomenon, matter exists in us, it depends on the existence of a knowing subject, but it appears to be something external, objective: it is “a pure form, or a certain way of representing an unknown object with the help of that contemplation that we call external feeling.” Matter is that which fills space; extension and impenetrability constitute its concept. Matter, according to I. Kant, is the highest empirical principle of the unity of phenomena.

According to F. Schelling, matter is spirit, considered in the balance of its activities. Reality, being is not spirit and not matter, for both of them are two states of one being: matter itself is an extinct spirit, or vice versa: spirit is matter in the making.

Hegel dialectically develops the concept of matter from the opposition of two abstractions - the positive abstraction of space and the negative abstraction of time. Matter is the unity and negation of these two abstract moments, the first concrete. Thus, matter marks the boundary, the transition from ideality to reality. The transition itself, the movement is a process - a transition from space to time and back: on the contrary, matter, as a relation of space and time, is a resting self-identity. The essential definitions of matter constitute a dialectical triad (repulsion - attraction - gravity). Gravity is, according to Hegel, the substantiality of matter: it is heaviness that expresses the insignificance of the outside-of-itself-being of matter in its being-for-itself, its lack of self-sufficiency.

G. Galileo identifies the following primary qualities of matter: arithmetic (computability), geometric (shape, size, position, touch) and kinematic (mobility) properties. I. Kepler sees in matter two primordial, dialectically opposed forces: the force of motion and the force of inertia. In classical Newtonian mechanics, the main properties of matter are inertia (inertial mass), the ability to maintain a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, and gravity - the ability of heavy masses to attract each other according to the law of gravity. Matter is opposed to energy - the ability to perform mechanical work or to show force in motion. Other signs of matter: conservation of mass in all physical and chemical processes; the identity of inert and heavy mass, the difference between matter and space and time.

It is possible to distinguish the main properties of matter, which are inseparable from it and therefore are called attributes:

1) matter is eternal and infinite, uncreated and indestructible;

2) matter is in constant motion in the space-time continuum;

3) it is the cause of itself (according to Spinoza).

The elements of the structure of matter are:

Inanimate nature;

Nature;

Society (society)

The characteristic features of matter are:

The presence of movement;

Self-organization;

Placement in space and time;

Reflectivity

Under perfect usually they understand something opposite to the material, that is, something that is not in the world around us, but that is constructed by a person in his mind. These can be mental or sensual images in reality, moral and legal norms, logical schemes, rules. Everyday life, algorithms of rituals and professional activities, spiritual values, ideals and orientations.

The concept of the ideal is rooted in animism and totemism, according to which:

a) each thing (stick, weapon, food, etc.) has its own unique soul (something like steam or a shadow), which, in turn, is able to move in space and penetrate other things and people;

b) each tribal group of people owes its origin and common features to the ancestor-ancestor (totem).

– non-extension and immateriality, imperceptibility by the senses, irreducibility to material processes that accompany sensory and mental activity (physico-chemical, neurophysiological, bioelectrical, etc.);

- subjectivity in form (depends on the psycho-physiological and spiritual qualities of a person) and objectivity in content (reflects approximately correctly external world);

- non-identity with the mental (since the latter includes not only the figurative-conceptual system of consciousness, the character and temperament of a person, but also the psyche of higher animals).

Basic forms of being

Basic forms of being:

1) the existence of things (bodies), processes, which in turn is divided into the existence of things, processes, states of nature, the existence of nature as a whole and the existence of things and processes produced by man;

2) human being, which is (conditionally) subdivided into human being in the world of things and specifically human being;

3) spiritual (ideal) being, which is divided into individualized spiritual and objectified (non-individual) spiritual;

4) social being, which is divided into individual being (the being of an individual in society and in the process of history) and the being of society.

The ancient Greek philosopher Parmenides believed that being exists, it is unchanging, homogeneous and absolutely motionless. There is nothing else but being. All these ideas are contained in his statement: "One should say and think that being exists, for being is, while there is nothing else." Plato substantiated another, directly opposite tradition in the interpretation of being. Being is a world of ideas that are true, unchanging, eternally existing. True being is opposed by Plato to the untrue, which refers to things and phenomena accessible to human feelings.

Plato for the first time in the history of philosophy pointed out that not only the material, but also the ideal has being.

Heraclitus expressed a different idea. He believed that there is no stable, sustainable being at all, the essence of being is in eternal becoming, in the unity of being and non-being. The cosmic fire of Heraclitus (the basis of the world) in a visual-figurative form expresses being as an eternal becoming.

Medieval Christian philosophy singled out "true being" - the being of God, and "untrue" - commodity.

In modern times, being is seen as a reality that opposes man; as the being that a person masters through activity. In being, a substance stands out - something invariable, indestructible, existing due to itself and in itself.

BEING MATERIAL

- English being, material; German Sein, materielles. Regardless of consciousness, the existing objective world, matter.

Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009

See what "MATERIAL BEING" is in other dictionaries:

BEING MATERIAL- English. being, material; German Sein, materielles. Regardless of consciousness, the existing objective world, matter ... Explanatory Dictionary of Sociology

Philos. a concept denoting the presence of phenomena and objects in themselves or as given in the mind, and not their content aspect. It can be understood as a synonym for the concepts of "existence" and "existent" or differ from them in one or another semantic ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Being, a philosophical category denoting a reality that exists objectively, regardless of the consciousness, will and emotions of a person. The problem of interpretation of B. and its relationship with consciousness is at the center of the philosophical worldview. Dialectic... ...

I Being is a philosophical category denoting a reality that exists objectively, regardless of the consciousness, will and emotions of a person. The problem of interpretation of B. and its relationship with consciousness is at the center of the philosophical worldview. Dialectical... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

BEING- the first book of the Pentateuch of Moses, containing a story about the creation of the world, the initial history of mankind and the Israeli patriarchs. Name Heb. the title of the book (“Beresheet” at the beginning) corresponds to the usual for Dr. East tradition of naming books in ... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia

Being- (Greek einai, Latin esse), a philosophical category that denotes everything that exists, both material and ideal, regardless of any subsequent definition. Materialistic in fact, the point of view on B. was developed by Parmenides. He… … Dictionary of antiquity

The economic existence of society- Briefly The main spheres of life of Otva, the complex nature of the development of Otva is determined by its very complex structure, the action of many heterogeneous factors in it. First of all, it carries out various types of information about it, different in nature and content ... ... Small Thesaurus of World Philosophy

- (ΰλη, materia, causa materialis) that of which it consists and from which it comes given subject. When the question is: from what? is put in a general and unconditional form, in application to everything that exists, there is philosophy about M., preparation and ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

There is a free study of the basic problems of being, human knowledge, activity and beauty. F. has a very complex task and solves it in various ways, trying to combine into one reasonable whole the data obtained by science and religious ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

• , Pivovarov D.V.. study guide an analysis of a number of extremely general categories of ontology (being, essence and existence, reality, etc.) was carried out; discussed philosophical ideas about such a basic form of being, ...
• Ontology: matter and its attributes. Textbook for undergraduate and graduate studies, Pivovarov D.. The textbook analyzes a number of extremely general categories of ontology (being, essence and existence, reality, etc.); discussed philosophical ideas about such a basic form of being, ...

The concept of being refers to one of the backbone in philosophy. Different scientists in different historical periods interpreted this concept in their own way. However, they all agreed that it is being, the forms of being, that are the characteristics, analyzing and comprehending which, a person finds answers to such fundamental questions as the creation and development of the surrounding world. At present, the most complete philosophical definition of being should be considered a philosophical category that covers and includes absolutely the entire set of things and phenomena created directly by man, as well as natural and cosmic things and phenomena.

The concept of being as includes a number of components. Firstly, it is the consideration of the surrounding nature and the cosmos as a whole as an integral system that obeys certain laws. Secondly, being does not remain unchanged, it constantly develops and changes, in accordance with its internal logic. Thirdly, in its development, being goes through the process of overcoming numerous contradictions that affect its main manifestations and forms.

It can be presented in the following form:

1. Material existence, which includes all manifestations of certain natural phenomena, things, processes. Main Feature this form of being is its absolutely objective nature, as well as the fact that it is primary in relation to any other form. The main proof of the inviolability and objectivity of material natural being is the fact that, despite the rather active and destructive nature, the latter largely continues to depend on its environment.
2. The material existence of a person, which includes such components as the physical existence of a person as a subject of the animal world, as well as the social existence of a person in certain socio-historical conditions. It is worth emphasizing here that the material existence of a person manifests itself, as it were, in two hypostases: on the one hand, he acts as a part of living nature, “primary being”, but on the other hand, he not only exists in these conditions, but also actively changes them. , being the main creator of the so-called "secondary being". These two forms, which are in many respects in competition with each other, have a decisive influence on a person's awareness of himself and society in a given historical period.
3. Spiritual being, which can also be represented as two interrelated, and often opposing each other, components - individual spirituality and spirituality inherent in all mankind. First of all, it should be noted here that this term itself means interaction in human life, creativity, morality, the process of cognition, finally. In this case, individual spirituality is a person's knowledge of himself, the consciousness of himself as having the ability to change the surrounding reality. The main manifestation of universal human spirituality is the huge cultural heritage accumulated by mankind throughout its history. This is literature, and painting, and music, and architecture with sculpture. But in addition to these material manifestations of universal human spirituality, there are also various philosophical ideas, and public-state theories. Both of these forms of being not only mutually complement each other, but also contribute to the mutual development and spiritual improvement of mankind. It should be recognized that the spiritual being today plays no less important role than the natural and material.

The question of material being rests in the context of the general solution of the problem of being as such. How should the question about being be posed so that further questioning about its content, structure, and perhaps volume becomes possible? How correct is it to raise the question of the structure of being? When speaking about being, they are not really asking about the existence of the world and the structure of the existing, the present? The very expression "material being", put in a series of similar expressions, such as: "objective being" and "subjective being", "objective being", "spiritual being", etc. - pushes non-critical thinking to the identification of being and existence, and it arose, in fact, on the basis of and thanks to this identification. Therefore, as we have just noted, when people ask about the structure of being, they usually think differently: material, objective, physical, spiritual, and so on. existence of the world and its fragments.

If something has a structure, then it is, by definition, complex, heterogeneous, and therefore divisible. Meanwhile, even at the dawn of philosophical thought, Parmenides spoke of being as one and indivisible. “In the same way (being) is indivisible, since it is all homogeneous; and nowhere (DOES BEING APPEAR) neither a little more nor a little less (THAN ELSEWHERE), which could prevent its coherence, but everything (IN THE EQUAL MEASUREMENT) is filled with being. Therefore, it is continuous." Being is one, continuous, eternal; everything is filled with being, and emergence and death are rejected from it - signs that are in no way applicable to material, existing formations. It remains, moreover, to remember that Parmenides' being coincides with thought. So being here is clearly non-material and non-objective. For Plato, being is personified by ideas that are in themselves united, unstructured. Real tables, horses are structural, have parts, but “stolnost”, “horseness” do not have parts.

The structure necessarily reveals the certainty of the object whose structure it is, allows you to distinguish between parts in it, their conditionality and limitation to each other. But here Hegel, almost two and a half millennia after Parmenides and Plato, speaks of the same coincidence of being and thought and of its, being, structurelessness. “PURE BEING forms a beginning, because at the same time it is both pure thought and an indefinite simple immediacy, and the first beginning cannot be anything mediated and determined”2.

In terms of conceptual content, Hegel had little left of the thought of Parmenides, and being, in fact, has already become identified with existence. And yet, the main idea of ​​Parmenides can still be found in the interpretation of being as a beginning, unmediated, integral and unified, although, we repeat, united, according to Hegel, in its “abstract emptiness”.

V.S. Solovyov brings the conceptual and content side of Hegelian philosophy to its logical conclusion, abolishing the last remnants of the thought of being as such, all-filling, unified and continuous. For V. Solovyov and, of course, not only for him, being is only a predicate, a synonym for existence, "a real attribute of the subject." “It is impossible to say simply or unconditionally: THE THOUGHT IS, THE WILL IS, THE BEING IS, because thought, will, being are only insofar as there is a thinker, willing, being. And all the fundamental errors of scholastic philosophy come down to the hypostasis of predicates, and one of the directions of that philosophy takes general, abstract predicates, and the other - private, empirical ones; and in order to avoid these errors, we must first of all recognize that the real object of philosophy is being in its predicates, and not these predicates in themselves; only then will our knowledge correspond to what actually exists, and will not be empty thinking, in which nothing is conceived. Being, thus, turned into a predicate, loses absolutely all content, becoming an empty designation of the existence of something or someone. The domestic philosophy of the Soviet period, accustomed to citation, could confirm the coinciding with V.S. Solovyov’s position on being is a textbook phrase from F. Engels: “as soon as we move away from the simple basic fact that all these things have a common being, we move at least one millimeter away, immediately DIFFERENCES in these things begin to appear before our eyes. Whether these differences consist in the fact that some things are white, others black, some are animate, others are inanimate, some belong, say, to this world, others to the other world, we cannot conclude about all this only on the basis that all things are equally ascribed only the property of existence.

What do we get as a result? First of all, the substitution of the problem of being by the problem of existence5, as a result of which thought moves already in the logic of the problems of the empirically given world; the latter can now be understood by searching for its single inner essence and the laws of its manifestation. The essence of the world becomes a certain subjective-substantial principle, regardless of whether the subject acts as a substance (for example, in the consistent arguments of E.V. Ilyenkov6), or a spiritual principle (as in Hegel or V.S. Solovyov). This “subjective-substantial” logic underlies, ultimately, both the new European science and the new European philosophy, and M. Heidegger rightly calls this logic onto-theological: it looks at the world from the point of view of the universal, on the one hand, and the highest , on the other7. In this logic, there are both moments of anthropomorphism and doubling of the world, as well as a certain amount of empiricism. Positivism, which contradicts such logic in content, actually implements it, develops in the same thought schemes.

The expression "material being", as we understand it, is determined precisely by the onto-theological understanding of the world and man himself, testifying to the emasculation of the problem of being and its study in a series and in the logic of the world's objectivities. In fact, the ancient Greeks were right in asserting that being is non-material, it is one and indivisible. Being appears as a problem where the ontological principle of the very possibility of human understanding of the world is explored, the ability of a person, going beyond his physiological dimensions, to see the world as it is in itself is explored. This ability, quite understandably, is timeless and spaceless, non-anthropological and non-psychological. It is extremely difficult to say anything intelligible about this without falling into anthropomorphism and mythologizing how being is represented in the world in itself, outside of man. It is enough for us that it is presented in the rare possibility of a person in an existential way to realize, understand and experience the world8.

Nevertheless, we will single out the subject area of ​​the concept of “material being”, strictly remembering that now we are already moving within the synonymous use of “being” and “existence”, and it would be more correct to speak only about material existence and only about it, and nothing about material existence. In the phrase "material being" the load naturally falls on the adjective "material", and being becomes just a designation of a certain kind of givenness. The content of material being is singled out by us on the basis of its difference from the concepts of "objective being" and "physical being". All three concepts express certain forms of the objective reality of things and phenomena of the world, but in different ways. At the same time, the concept of "material being" is of fundamental importance.

The distinction between objective and material being is important in the worldview and methodological terms in the sense that it allows you to be correct and careful when building a scientific and philosophical model of the world or its fragments. It should always be taken into account that the objective image of a particular material object is not identical to this object in itself. They must be distinguished. Object being is that part of the material existence of a thing, phenomenon or a whole area of ​​reality, which is included and in a certain way presented to a person as an object of knowledge. One can also speak of the world as a whole as a certain objective being for a person in one or another era. Objectivity, objective being, can be considered a universal characteristic that determines the form and degree of manifestation of the surrounding reality to a person. Material existence is given to man in the form of objectivity, but objectivity does not completely absorb it. “The strict meaning of objective being,” writes N. Hartmann, “is “anticipation” as such. What "stands ahead" for the subject, or rather, what is brought to stand by him, is made the object of knowledge. After all, it is not at all the case that every being is initially an object ... In other words: the object of knowledge by origin is “more-than-object”; as being, it does not reveal itself in its objective being, but exists independently of it and indifferent to its own transformation into an object for the subject.

The objective existence of any material object is a quite definite, due to the available cognitive and practical capabilities of a person, the inclusion of this object in socio-historical activity. In the course of practically transforming activity, a person operates precisely with the objective image of being that has developed in him. In the case when there is a discrepancy between the objective image or objective existence of an entity with the material existence of this entity, objectivity is corrected, refined and deepened towards greater approximation, the coincidence of objective existence with material existence. Indeed, practical calculations were carried out on the basis of the geocentric model as a certain cognitive image and objective being, the objective givenness of the world, and up to a certain historical moment, a completely satisfactory explanation of the world was achieved. Further development science led to the change of the Ptolemaic object-cognitive image to the Copernican one, however, the material existence of the world is not exhausted, of course, by the last form of its objective givenness. Material existence is a certain horizon, to which objective existence is always approaching, but they can never completely coincide.

The situation is much more complicated, for example, with the objective and material existence of atoms. The recognition of the material existence of atoms has also experienced several images of its objective reality, one of which is represented, in particular, by E. Rutherford's atomistic model. The change of objective images of the atom can be recognized as quite natural and natural with the ongoing discoveries in the field of elementary particles during the 20th century. But the difficulty lies elsewhere. The atomistic theory, as is known, carried and still bears a philosophical and methodological burden, acting as a substratum substantiation of the world. However, the empirical reality of science diverges from its theoretical need, which merges with the philosophical one, to go beyond the limits of scientific experience and substantiate the experience itself in its entirety (which I. Kant wrote about). An atom from a physically present and divisible turns into a metaphysical concept, into an indivisible mathematical point, with the help of which the structure of the world is explained. Even before any decisive discoveries of nuclear physics, V.S. Solovyov wrote about this in the 70s of the 19th century, bearing in mind the ultimate failure of the materialistic explanation of the world, when the sequence of explanation forces materialists to make, in his opinion, a logically inexplicable "jump" from physical atoms to the metaphysical. Materialism, V.S. Solovyov noted, must recognize atoms as “unconditionally indivisible real points” that exist on their own and determine any experience. “Such metaphysical atoms, by their very definition, as unconditionally indivisible particles, cannot be found empirically, because in empiricism we have only relative, and not unconditional being…”10.

M.K. Mamardashvili has another explanation for this, which consists in recognizing an objectively established methodological technique in modern European science (starting from the 17th century, as he claims), when, in order to explain empirically existing processes in the world, one has to use rationalistic methods of “derealization” of the world11 . This is not the place to delve into this problem. It is important and sufficient for us to consolidate both the difference between objective and material being, as well as the methodological and ideological significance and perspective of a clear understanding of this distinction.

Regarding the difference between the physical and material types of being-existence, we can say the following. Physical existence fixes the givenness of something or someone in its immediate, sensually tangible presence, while material being takes this givenness in the whole totality of connections and the functioning corresponding to this totality. Material being in this case is a characteristic of an object from the point of view of the whole, within which it realizes itself as a functional and structural element. The material existence of such an object may be completely different from its immediate physical existence. The higher we climb the evolutionary ladder, the greater the difference, reaching the limit in human society. Let's explain with an example. K. Marx, summarizing the book of J. St. Mill, defines credit as a political and economic judgment regarding human morality. The basis for issuing a loan and the condition for its return are, in addition, of course, the material and legal solvency of the borrower, his moral qualities. “All the social virtues of the poor, all the content of his life, his very existence serve in the eyes of the rich as a guarantee of the return of his capital, along with ordinary interest. Therefore, the death of the poor is considered by the creditor as the worst evil. This is the death of his capital, coupled with interest. Here it is very clearly possible to demonstrate, in our opinion, that the physical existence of a person and his material existence differ radically. Physically, this person exists as a biological individual, but in material existence, he is conditioned by the whole system. social relations, in which it is included and on which its physical existence depends. The material existence of this person is the personification of money. “In credit, instead of metal or paper, the MAN himself became the MEDIATOR of the exchange, but not as a person, but as the BEING OF THIS OR THAT CAPITAL and interest ... In credit relations, not money was abolished by a person, but the person himself turned into MONEY, or money FOUND in a person BODY... The matter, the body of the MONEY soul is no longer money, not papers, but my own personal being, my flesh and blood, my public virtue and reputation. Credit invests monetary value no longer in money, but in human flesh and in the human heart.

The social system of relations in this case acts as a specific form of realization of the material existence of a person, which is different from his physical existence. In another case, say, in the doctrine of the biosphere, according to V.I. Vernadsky, the material existence of a person will act as an element of the biosphere, i.e. element of all living matter of the Earth, which, capturing solar energy, together with other living organisms, transforms this energy into other types: electrical, chemical, mechanical, thermal, etc. This means that despite the fact that the physical existence of any body will be one and the same, his material existence will at the same time be different according to which system of relations he is included in or in which system of relations he is considered. The physical existence of a plant is one thing, but its material existence, either as an element of biogeocenosis, or as a drug, or as an aesthetic phenomenon, etc., is another. Examples can be multiplied. The essence of the matter, most importantly, lies in the fact that in the study of the material existence of any object, which is primarily a matter of theoretical, and not ordinary practical thought, the researcher’s thought must proceed from the world as a whole and engage in a detailed consideration of the entire system of relations within which and thanks to which both the physical existence of a given object, its qualitative originality and individual “face”, and its functional objective “purpose”, due to the inclusion of the object in this system of relations, are formed. This difference between the material and physical types of being and the selection of material being makes it possible to explain the world as a concrete and connected whole, where the mutual transitions between qualitatively different levels of the physical organization of the world are also conditioned by the studied totality of connections and by those specific mechanisms that realize themselves through the direct physical existence of certain things, phenomena or living beings. This is what F. Engels was talking about, asserting the unity of the world not through being (which, we emphasize again, is identical to existence for him), but through materiality, which, quite rightly, “is proved not by a couple of magic phrases, but by a long and difficult development of philosophy and natural sciences"14. Wherever science and philosophy operate with the totality of being, the world as a whole, they consider the physical existence of a body in the context of its material existence.

Here D. Lukacs writes about the same thing when he singles out “the problems of interconnection and difference between the three great kinds of being (inorganic and organic nature and society). Without understanding their interconnection, their dynamics, it is impossible to correctly formulate any truly ontological question regarding social being, let alone arrive at a solution to these questions that would correspond to the nature of this being”15. About the same, but in the context of his philosophical system, says N. Hartman. “Knowledge is based on other parts of the world and is built into it,” he writes and continues: “After all, the real world is not simple in itself, but is very diversely stratified. In it, four layers of being are built on top of each other, the lower of which always acts as a support for the higher ones. The lowest one covers the cosmos as the totality of all physical formations, from the atom to the giant systems that astronomy tells us about. The second is the realm of the organic... Above the organism, relying on it, but completely different from it, rises the world of the soul, consciousness with its acts and contents. And spiritual life is built on top of it, which is not revealed in the consciousness of an individual, but forms a common sphere, the process of formation of which connects generations, throws bridges between them.

Material being, characteristic, for example, of the organic world, of course, will differ from material being, characteristic of social being, according to D. Lukács, or the world of the spirit, according to N. Hartmann. The latter speaks more specifically about the need to explore each layer of being, developing its own specific system of categories and warns of the danger of transferring categories that are relevant in the analysis of one layer of being to another layer of being, where they will already distort the existing picture of reality.

Let's summarize the above. “Material being” is a concept that sets the ontological foundation in the study of both the physical and objective existence of something or someone. It allows you to go beyond the statement or external consideration of a simple, sensually obvious physical presence of something, affirming the immanent inclusion of the latter in that totality of connections and relationships, which ensures the specificity and intensity of this physical existence. This concept, secondly, fixes the ontological status of any phenomenon, thing, the world as a whole, which acts as a constant basis for giving phenomena, things or the world as a whole to a person in the form of objectivity, i.e. in their objective existence. Object being, of course, also characterizes the system of connections and relations in which the object under study is included, but material being testifies to it as something that exists in itself, while objective being fixes it at the level and in the form that are available. at the moment of scientific and philosophical development. The concept of "material being" thus has an important ideological and methodological significance, but it also allows us to discover the internal inconsistency of the onto-theological approach within which it realizes itself. The fact is that material being is being for another and through another, it is always relative, conditional, and needs some additional basis for its own justification. And this, we recall, is the inevitable cost of the initially adopted onto-theological approach to understanding and interpreting the world. In one case, following the empirical logic of science, the world turns into a kind of gigantic self-developing whole, absolutely indifferent to the existence and simply the presence of any of its private fragments, including a person with his thoughts and feelings about the world. In another case, when such an “indifferent current being”, in the words of V.S. Solovyov, does not suit you, you have to recognize a certain non-material being above this material world in order to explain and justify both the existence and development of the world itself as a whole, and the presence and the position of the person in it. “The connection of man with being is dark,” writes M. Heidegger. “Nevertheless, we are everywhere and constantly in this connection, wherever and whenever we enter into relation to beings. When and where could we - ourselves being beings - NOT enter into a relationship with beings? We enter into a relationship with being and at the same time maintain a connection with being. It is only in this way that beings as a whole are our support and abode. This means: we stand in the distinction between being and being.

The problem of being, as we see, must be understood differently, not in the logic of subjective-substantial. To do this, otherwise, not in this logic, the person himself must be comprehended. Just as vision can see, and the visible can be visible due to the light, but the light itself does not enter the field of direct attention of the sighted, so being provides the being in its existence, and a person can understand being only by leaving the causal chain of explanation of the world and objective actions in it, an explanation that underlies the onto-theological approach to the world.

45. Material systems - structure and types.

The concept of "matter" has many meanings. It is used to refer to a particular fabric. Sometimes it is given an ironic meaning, speaking of "high matter." All objects and phenomena surrounding a person (animals and plants, machines and tools, works of art, natural phenomena, stellar nebulae and other celestial bodies etc.), despite their diversity, there are common feature: they all exist outside of human consciousness and independently of it, i.e. are material. People are constantly discovering more and more new properties of natural bodies, producing many things that do not exist in nature, therefore, matter is inexhaustible.

Matter is uncreated and indestructible, exists forever and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations. The material world is one. All its parts are from inanimate objects to living beings, from celestial bodies to man as a member of society - are connected in one way or another. That is, all phenomena in the world are due to natural material connections and interactions, causal relationships and the laws of nature. In this sense, there is nothing supernatural and opposing matter in the world. The human psyche and consciousness are also determined by the material processes taking place in the human brain, and are the highest form of reflection of the external world.

Structure and system organization of matter. System organization as an attribute of matter

Consistency - characteristic material reality. A system is something that is connected in a certain way with each other and is subject to the corresponding laws. Translated from Greek, a system is a whole made up of parts, a connection. Systems can be objectively existing and theoretical or conceptual, i.e. existing only in the human mind. A system is an internally or externally ordered set of interconnected and interacting elements. It captures the predominance of organization in the world over chaotic changes. All material objects of the universe have an internally ordered, systemic organization. Orderliness implies the presence of regular relations between the elements of the system, which manifests itself in the form of laws of structural organization.

The structure of matter

Structurality is the internal dismemberment of material existence. Internal order exists in all natural systems that arise as a result of the interaction of bodies and the natural self-development of matter. External - characteristic of artificial systems created by man: technical, industrial, conceptual, informational, etc. The origins of the idea of ​​the structural nature of the universe belong to ancient philosophy (the atomism of Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius Cara).

The concept of the structure of matter covers macroscopic bodies, microscopic bodies, all cosmic systems. From this point of view, the concept of "structure" is manifested in the fact that it exists in the form of an infinite variety of integral systems, closely interconnected, in the orderliness of the structure of each system. Such a structure is infinite in quantitative and qualitative terms. The manifestations of the structural infinity of matter are:

Inexhaustibility of objects and processes of the microworld;

Infinity of space and time;

Infinity of changes and development of processes.

Only the finite area of ​​the material world is empirically accessible to a person: on a scale from 10-15 to 1028 in time - yes ”2 * 109 years.

Structural levels of matter organization

In modern natural science, this structuring of matter has taken shape in a scientifically based concept systemic organization matter. Structural levels of matter are formed from some type and are characterized by a special type of interaction between their constituent elements. The criteria for distinguishing different structural levels are the following features:

Spatio-temporal scales;

Aggregate the most important properties and the laws of change;

The degree of relative complexity encountered in the process

historical development matter in a given area of ​​the world.

The division of matter into structural levels is relative. In accessible spatio-temporal scales, the structure of matter is manifested in its systemic organization, existence in the form of a multitude of hierarchically interacting systems from elementary particles to. Metagalaxies. Each of the spheres of objective reality includes a number of interrelated structural levels. Within these levels, coordination relations are dominant, and between levels - subordinate ones.

Structural levels various areas

When classifying the inorganic type of a material system, elementary particles and fields, atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies, and geological formations are distinguished. Three structural levels can be distinguished from them:

megaworld - the world of space (planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies and unlimited scales up to 1028cm);

the macrocosm - stable forms and dimensions commensurate with a person (as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms, i.e. macroscopic bodies 10-6-107cm);

microcosm - the world of atoms and elementary particles, where the principle "consists of" is inapplicable (the area is about 10-15 cm).

At different structural levels of matter, we encounter special manifestations of space-time relations, various types of motion. The microworld is described by the laws of quantum mechanics. The laws of classical mechanics operate in the macrocosm. Megaworld - associated with the laws of the theory of relativity and relativistic cosmology.

Different levels of matter are characterized different types connections:

1. On a scale of 10-13 cm - strong interactions, core integrity

provided by nuclear forces.

2. The integrity of atoms, molecules, macrobodies is provided by electromagnetic forces.

3. On a cosmic scale - gravitational forces.

With an increase in the size of objects, the energy of interaction decreases. The smaller the dimensions of material systems, the more strongly their elements are interconnected.

Organics as a type of material system also has several levels of its organization:

The precellular level includes DNA, RNA, nucleic acids, proteins;

Cellular - self-existing unicellular

organisms;

Multicellular - organs and tissues, functional systems (nervous, circulatory), organisms: plants and animals;

The body as a whole;

Populations (biotope) - communities of individuals of the same species that are connected by a common gene pool (they can interbreed and reproduce their own kind): a pack of wolves in a forest, a pack of fish in a lake, an anthill, a bush;

Biocenosis is a set of populations of organisms in which the waste products of some become the conditions for the life and existence of other organisms inhabiting a land or water area. For example, a forest: populations of plants living in it, as well as animals, fungi, lichens and microorganisms interact with each other, forming an integral system;

The biosphere is a global system of life, that part of the geographic environment (lower part of the atmosphere, upper part of the lithosphere and hydrosphere), which is the habitat of living organisms, providing the conditions necessary for their survival, formed as a result of the interaction of biocenoses.

The general basis of life at the biological level is organic metabolism (exchange of matter, energy, information with the environment), which manifests itself at any of the distinguished sublevels:

At the level of organisms, metabolism means assimilation into

dissimilation through intracellular transformations;

At the level of biocenosis, it consists of a chain of transformations of matter,

originally assimilated by producing organisms

Through consumer organisms and destroyer organisms,

belonging to different types;

At the level of the biosphere, there is a global circulation of matter

and energy with the direct participation of space factors

scale.

Within the framework of the biosphere, a special type of material system begins to develop, which is formed due to the ability of special populations of living beings to work - human society. Social reality includes sublevels: individual, family, group, collective, social group, classes, nations, state, systems of states, society as a whole. Society exists only thanks to the activity of people. The structural level of social reality is in ambiguous linear relationships with each other (for example, the level of the nation and the level of the state). The interweaving of different levels of the structure of society does not mean the absence of order and structure in society. In society, fundamental structures can be distinguished - the main areas public life: material and production, social, political, spiritual, etc., having their own laws and structures. All of them in a certain sense are subordinated, structured and determine the genetic unity of the development of society as a whole.

Thus, any of the areas of objective reality is formed from a number of specific structural levels that are in strict order within that area of ​​reality. The transition from one area to another is associated with the complication and increase in the set of formed factors that ensure the integrity of systems, i.e. the evolution of material systems proceeds in the direction from the simple to the complex, from the lower to the higher.

Within each of the structural levels there are relationships of subordination. Any higher form arises on the basis of the lower one, includes it in a sublated form. This means, in essence, that the specificity of higher forms can be known only on the basis of an analysis of the structures of lower forms. And vice versa, the essence of a form of a higher order can be known only on the basis of the content of a higher form of matter in relation to it.

The patterns of new levels are not reducible to the patterns of levels on the basis of which they arose, and are leading for a given level of matter organization. In addition, it is illegal to transfer properties higher levels matter to the lower. Each level of matter has its own qualitative specifics. In the highest level of matter, its lower forms are presented not in a “pure”, but in a synthesized (“removed”) form. For example, it is impossible to transfer the laws of the animal world to society, even if at first glance it seems that the "law of the jungle" dominates in it. Although the cruelty of a person can be incomparably greater than the cruelty of predators, nevertheless, such human feelings as love and compassion are unfamiliar to predators.

On the other hand, attempts to find on lower levels elements of higher levels. For example, a "thinking" cobblestone. This is hyperbole. But there were attempts by biologists in which they tried to create “human” conditions for the monkeys, hoping to find in their offspring an anthropoid primitive man in a hundred or two hundred years.

Structural levels of matter interact with each other as part and whole. The interaction of the part and the whole lies in the fact that one presupposes the other, they are one and cannot exist without each other. There is no whole without a part, and there are no parts without a whole. The part acquires its meaning only through the whole, just as the whole is the interaction of the parts.

In the interaction of the part and the whole, the decisive role belongs to the whole. However, this does not mean that the parts are devoid of their specificity. The determining role of the whole presupposes not a passive, but an active role of the parts, aimed at ensuring the normal life of the universe as a whole. Submitting to common system of the whole, the parts retain their relative independence and autonomy. On the one hand, they act as components of the whole, and on the other hand, they themselves are a kind of integral structures, systems. For example, the factors that ensure the integrity of systems in inanimate nature are nuclear, electromagnetic and other forces, in society - relations of production, political, national, etc.

Structural organization, i.e. system, is a way of existence of matter.

46. ​​Movement is an attribute of matter.

Motion

The existence of any material object arises only due to the interaction of its constituent elements. Interaction leads to a change in its properties, relations, states. All these changes, considered in the most general terms, are an integral characteristic of the existence of the material world. The change in form is indicated by the concept of movement.

Philosophers have always been concerned about the infinite variety of material forms. Where and how did it happen? It has been suggested that this diversity is the result of the activity of matter. Most idealistic thinkers explained activity by the intervention of God, they animated matter.

Materialistic philosophy does not recognize the presence of the soul in matter and explains its activity by the interaction of matter and fields. But, the term “movement” is understood by ordinary consciousness as the spatial movement of bodies. In philosophy, such a movement is called mechanical. There are more complex forms of movement: physical, chemical, biological, social and others. So, for example, the processes of the microcosm are characterized by interactions of elementary particles and subelementary interactions. Galactic interactions and the expansion of the Metagalaxy are new forms of the physical motion of matter, previously unknown.

All forms of motion of matter are interconnected. For example, mechanical movement(the simplest) is due to the processes of mutual transformation of elementary particles, the mutual influence of gravitational and electromagnetic fields, strong and weak interactions in the microcosm.

What is movement in general? The philosophical concept of motion denotes any interaction, as well as a change in the states of objects caused by this interaction.

Movement is change in general.

It is characterized by the fact that

- is inseparable from matter, since it is an attribute (an integral essential property object, without which the object cannot exist) matter. It is impossible to think matter without movement, just as movement without matter;

- movement is objective, changes in matter can only be made by practice;

- movement is a contradictory unity of stability and variability, discontinuity and continuity,

- movement is never replaced by absolute rest. Rest is also movement, but one in which the qualitative specificity of the object (a special state of movement) is not violated;

The types of movement observed in the objective world can be conditionally divided into quantitative and qualitative changes.

Quantitative changes are associated with the transfer of matter and energy in space.

Qualitative changes are always associated with a qualitative restructuring of the internal structure of objects and their transformation into new objects with new properties. Basically, it's about development. Development is a movement associated with the transformation of the quality of objects, processes or levels and forms of matter. Development is divided into dynamic and population. Dynamic - is carried out as a complication of objects, through the disclosure of the potentialities hidden in the previous qualitative states, and the transformations do not go beyond present type matter (development of stars). With population development, a transition is made from qualitative states characteristic of one level of matter to a qualitative state of the next (transition from inanimate to living nature). The source of the population movement is the self-movement of matter, according to the principle of its self-organization. The problem of self-organization is solved by a scientific discipline - synergetics (G. Haken, I. Prigozhin, I. Stengers).

The enumerated forms of motion of matter and their connection with the types of matter and their development are grasped in the following principles:

Each level of matter organization corresponds to a specific form of motion;

There is a genetic connection between the forms of movement, i.e. higher forms of movement arise on the basis of lower ones;

The higher forms of movement are qualitatively specific and irreducible to the lower ones.

The variety of types of movement receives unity through such universal forms as space and time.

There are qualitatively various forms of motion of matter. The idea of ​​the forms of motion of matter and their interconnections was put forward by Engels. He based the classification of forms of movement on the following principles:

forms of movement are correlated with a certain material level of organization of matter, i.e. each level of such an organization must have its own form of movement;

there is a genetic connection between the forms of movement, i.e. the form of movement arises on the basis of lower forms;

the higher forms of movement are qualitatively specific and irreducible to the lower forms.

Based on these principles and relying on the achievements of the science of his time, Engels singled out 5 forms of the movement of matter and proposed the following classification: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social movement of matter. modern science discovered new levels of organization of matter and discovered new forms of motion.

This classification is now obsolete. In particular, it is now illegal to reduce physical motion only to thermal motion. Therefore, the modern classification of the forms of motion of matter includes:

spatial movement;

– electromagnetic motion, defined as the interaction of charged particles;

– gravitational form of motion;

– strong (nuclear) interaction;

– weak interaction (neutron absorption and emission);

- the chemical form of movement (the process and result of the interaction of molecules and atoms);

- the geological form of the movement of matter (associated with changes in geosystems - continents, layers of the earth's crust, etc.):

- the biological form of movement (metabolism, processes occurring at the cellular level, heredity, etc.;

- social form of movement (processes occurring in society).

Obviously, the development of science will continue to constantly make adjustments to this classification of the forms of motion of matter. However, it seems that in the foreseeable future it will be carried out on the basis of the principles formulated by F. Engels.