"Empire" in translation from French means "imperial style". It represents the High Classicist movement in architecture and applied arts. Empire style originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I Bonaparte. The active development of the Empire style was observed at the beginning of the 19th century, but after the 30s it was replaced by. The purpose of the Empire style is the embodiment of the ideology of a powerful state and representatives of power, emphasizing the strength of an invincible army.
Peculiarities
Theatricality in the interior and constructive organization of buildings refers the Empire style to the "royal styles". Main Feature buildings of this time is the presence of various classical details - pilasters, stucco cornices, high columns, etc. In addition, there are reproductions of monuments in the Empire style - the paws of lions, mythical sphinxes and other compositions of this direction.
In the Empire style, symmetry and balance of forms are observed, all decorative elements are distributed in strict order. It is characterized by decoration with expensive details, the presence of elements on a military theme, as well as sculptural and expressive compositions.
History of occurrence
In the world
The Empire style is considered the last and final stage, which arose in the 2nd half of the 18th century. In France, the process of reviving classicism began during the reign of Emperor Bonaparte. A distinctive feature of the revived movement was the official style, the essence of which was reflected in its official name.
Empire was quite widespread in Europe and developed during the first 30 years of the 19th century.
In France, the imperial style was reflected in palace interiors and memorial architectural structures. For buildings in the Empire style, splendor and solemnity of the compositions were characteristic. The most famous French architects who worked at the court of the emperor:
- Pierre Fontaine.
- Charles Persier.
In Russia
Russian Empire appeared during the reign of Alexander I Pavlovich. At that time it was very fashionable to invite foreign architects, especially since at the beginning of the 19th century in Russia there was an active passion for French fashion and culture.
Henri Louis Auguste Ricard de Montferrand is considered one of the founders of the Empire style in Russian architecture. The French architect was invited to Russia to build the largest Orthodox church in St. Petersburg - St. Isaac's Cathedral.
The Empire style in architecture was divided into two areas:
- Moscow.
- Petersburg.
This division was determined not only on a territorial basis. It also differed in the degree of separation from the direction of classicism - the Moscow direction was much closer to it.
The most popular figure of the Empire trend in St. Petersburg is Karl Rossi. No less talented architects of this era were:
- Andrey Voronikhin.
- Domenico Gilardi.
- Andrey Zakharov.
- Vasily Stasov.
- Ostap Bove.
Among the sculptors were highly popular:
- Theodosius Shchedrin.
- Ivan Matros.
The Empire style in Russian sculpture and architecture dominated for only 10 years (1830-40). But in the period 1930-50. in the Soviet Union, this movement was revived in several degenerate forms and received the name "Stalin's Empire".
The photo shows the Mikhailovsky Palace, designed by architect Karl Ivanovich Rossi.
Mikhailovsky Palace, Karl Ivanovich Rossi
Stalinist Empire
The Russian Empire style occupied a leading position in monumental and architectural art. Soviet Union 1940-50s. The decor of various rooms is dominated by wooden furniture massive forms, bronze figurines, lamps, as well as stucco molding under ceilings of considerable height.
Stalin skyscrapers, located in the capital, are a symbol of the era of the Stalinist Empire and, in particular, architecture. In Moscow, by the end of the 1950s, 7 of the tallest buildings of that time were erected.
The Stalinist Empire style combines images of the Napoleonic era, classicism (late) and.
The brightest example interior design organized in this direction is a banquet hall located in the premises of the Central Moscow Hippodrome. The photo clearly shows the strict features of the Empire style in the architecture of the building.
Central Moscow Hippodrome
When decorating the interior of furniture, carving is used. On the surface of cabinets and cabinets one can observe reliefs in the form five pointed stars, ears of corn and laurel wreaths.
An important role in the Stalinist Empire was played by chandeliers, which not only illuminated the rooms, but also distinguished themselves by a representative solemn look. They were made of bronze and decorated with crystal pendants. To organize the decor of various rooms, materials of exclusively natural origin were used - marble, bronze, crystal, ceramics, wood.
Interior
The interior in the Empire style is characterized by clear lines of forms and unusual solutions in terms of surface finishes. It is characterized by wall carpets of ancient masters, numerous metal ornaments and paintings in gilded frames. The main features of the empirical direction include:
- Strict lines.
- Solemnity of forms.
- The splendor of the compositions.
The interior design of buildings in the Empire style is distinguished by rich colors. Bright colors are used: gold, blue, blue, white or red. Bronze and gold splashes are perfectly combined in this palette.
Interior accessories include details of the military equipment of the ancient Roman army:
- Signs of legionnaires, which depict eagles.
- Arrows collected in bunches.
- Bundles of spears, shields with reliefs.
- Axes.
Sculptural diversity is observed in the harmonious combination of mythological compositions and images of antiquity: the goddess of victory, sphinxes, caryatids or griffins.
Furniture
Empire style furniture is characterized by both architectural and interior trends. For the manufacture of headsets, walnut is used, as well as mahogany. Furniture made of birch (Karelian) was used in the interior of Russian buildings. Surfaces are decorated with gilded or bronze overlays. They depict military motifs - helmets, shields, crossed spears or swords, wreaths of laurel leaves. The backs of the chairs are given a curved lyre shape. It is worth noting that the furniture sets of the Empire era do not differ in comfort - special preference is given to the external splendor and beauty of the compositions, as in.
Empire fashion
The formation of empire fashion began in pre-revolutionary France, and popularization and active development was observed under Bonaparte. Empire was characterized by an increased interest in the ideals ancient era. After the 20s of the 19th century, the Empire style in fashion trends smoothly transitioned to the new one.
Features of style in clothes
The trendsetters of women's fashion in Paris were:
- Josephine Beauharnais.
- Teresa Talien.
- Mademoiselle Lange.
Thanks to Teresa Tallien, empire-style dresses came into fashion, which opened to prying eyes. female legs from elegant shoes to the very buttocks. This fashion received the characteristic name "ala sauvage", which means "naked" in French.
Emma Hamilton, the mistress of British Admiral Nelson Horatio, was engaged in popularizing this movement in England.
After Napoleon ascended the imperial throne, ladies' outfits became more closed, but the overall silhouette of the dress was preserved. In the era of the Napoleonic Empire, bulky antique ornaments, velvet, heavy silk appeared, and long trains were decorated with gold embroidery reliefs. The idea of gold embroidery on ladies' outfits was developed in coordination with the emperor.
In sewing dresses, cotton and linen materials were used: batiste, foulard, tulle, muslin, crepe, muslin or lace.
Dresses of light colors were evidence of a high position in society. At this time, they mastered the technique of bleaching fabric materials.
Women's dresses in appearance resembled shirts. Above the high waist, under the chest, there was a belt in the form of a wide ribbon. The arms and neck were left open. The bottom of the dress was embroidered with patterns of silver and gold threads, full of glitter, chenille and sequins. Dresses for dances and visits were complemented by puffs on short sleeves.
Under outfits that looked like tunics, they wore tights or a flesh-colored shirt (shmiz). Elastic female forms were clearly visible through the thin matter. The cloth was sometimes wetted with water to keep it in contact with the body. The wide neckline opened the neck and chest as deeply as possible.
It was customary to cover a deep neckline if a woman went out into the street. Over thin outfits, a mantle with lace was worn, fastened in front with one hook. In the cold season, redingots (a woolen coat) and spencers (a warm short jacket) were used.
An integral and expensive accessory was a shawl with multi-colored tassels. The neckline was covered with a triangular or rectangular transparent scarf (fichu) folded in half. Boas made of thick feathers, as well as short fur scarves, were observed in the outfits of married women.
Stockings were worn with decorative embroidery (oak and laurel leaves) and arrows made of silver threads. They put on long gloves of a light shade (above the elbow).
Shoes were sewn on a flat sole, in the form of a “boat” with long toes. For the manufacture of ladies' shoes, satin (blue, white or pink) was used, as well as ribbons, which, following the example of ancient images, were tied around the legs.
Men's clothing in the Empire style did not differ in special excesses. The suit was made mainly in dark color and consisted of a tailcoat with a stand-up collar, a waistcoat, a white shirt and light trousers. Redingots, tall hats, and frock coats gained significant popularity.
Hair style features
In their hairstyles, fashionistas of the Empire style imitated Greek and Roman patterns - highly collected hair was braided (a special mesh was also used). The "Knot of Psyche" flaunted on the back of the head and was a simple bundle. Smooth hairstyles were decorated with flowers and colorful ribbons, and were also parted. Hairpieces came into fashion, and the forehead of lovely ladies was hidden under curled bangs. Hoops, diadems or feronnieres served as additional decorations for the head. Especially popular were wreaths of laurel or oak leaves, spikes and natural flowers.
Features of the royal style
conclusions
Empire became a transitional stage from the Renaissance to eclecticism. During this period, there are significant transformations of women's outfits, which opened the body and flaunted elastic forms. The Empire style affected the field of architecture and monumental art - new buildings were erected, feature which was the combination of several historical styles in a common composition.
Modern designers use the ideas of the ingenious creators of the Empire era as a basis, creating unique interiors in residential premises and commercial buildings.
Empire is the final stage of classicism, which appeared in the second half of the 18th century. In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte, classicism was reborn into an official style, which is reflected in its name. The word "Empire" is derived from the French empire - "empire". The style quickly spread not only in France, but also in many other European countries.
At home, the Empire style was distinguished by the solemnity and splendor of memorial architecture and the grandeur of palace interiors. The legislators of this style were the court architects of Napoleon: Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine.
Empire in architecture is one of the so-called royal styles, which are characterized by theatricality in the external and internal design of buildings. The features of this style include the mandatory presence of columns, stucco cornices, pilasters and other classical elements. In addition, the use of ancient sculptures, as well as sculptural structures with griffins, sphinxes, lions, etc., is typical for the Empire style.
Similar decorations in the architecture of the Empire style are arranged in an orderly manner with strict observance of symmetry. The idea of the power of power and the state was emphasized by massive monumental forms and rich decor with elements of military symbols borrowed from the Roman Empire, Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt.
Empire in Russia
At the beginning of the 19th century, French culture was popular among the upper strata of Russian society. In St. Petersburg and other cities, many state buildings and houses of wealthy citizens were built by architects invited from other countries. For the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral, Emperor Alexander I invited the young French architect Auguste Montferrand, who later became the founder of the "Russian Empire".
In Russia, this style was divided into St. Petersburg and Moscow. This division was based not so much on territorial features as on proximity to classicism, which was more strongly felt in the Empire style. The most famous architect of the St. Petersburg trend was Karl Rossi, who created the Mikhailovsky Palace ensemble, the Palace Square ensemble with the General Staff Building and the triumphal arch, and the ensemble Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and the Synod.
The revival of the Empire style, as a majestic imperial style, took place in the Soviet Union from the mid-30s to the mid-50s of the XX century. This direction in architecture was called "Stalin's empire".
Following classicism in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, the Empire style came into fashion. In history, following Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome becomes powerful and influential, just like classicism is replaced by the Empire style. Classicism was more associated with the influence of Ancient Greece, and the Empire style was influenced by the art of Ancient Rome, namely the Rome of the period of the empire.
The era of the Empire style - 1800-1825. Empire means imperial, it originates in France, during the time of Napoleon, namely at the time of his successes, his victories. After all, Empire is the style of the empire, the style of triumphal arches, arches erected in honor of victories, both in ancient Rome and now in Paris. 
Empire will appear in the twentieth century, the so-called Stalinist Empire. Buildings and entire architectural ensembles in the Stalinist Empire style can be found in Kyiv, Moscow and Minsk. So in Minsk, the entire Independence Avenue from the station to the BNTU building is designed in the spirit of the Stalinist empire style, the style of the empire. 
The Kazan Cathedral was built in the Empire style, as well as the Stalinist skyscraper in the Stalinist Empire style.
The Empire style is always distinguished by great splendor, brilliance, pomposity.
But let's go back to the beginning of the 19th century. As in architecture, so in fashion, the Empire style is gaining ground. 
The silhouette of the Empire costume has a cylindrical shape, tending to the cylindrical outlines of a slender and tall column. One-color relief embroidery, symmetrical decorative trim, dense shiny fabrics are used. 
In men's clothing, the tailcoat, which appeared back in the era of classicism, is becoming common - woolen with a high stand-up collar, necessarily dark tones - black, blue, gray, brown.
They wore such a tailcoat with a light waistcoat and the same light trousers.
The outerwear also remained the previously appeared redingot or frock coat. The frock coat is gradually becoming the main element in the men's business suit. And in autumn and winter they wore a redingote with a double or even triple collar or cape.
Hairstyles - mostly short, on the heads - hats with small and curved fields on the sides.
Footwear - shoes and boots. 
But the influence of the Empire style on women's clothing was especially strong. A striking feature of the Empire style in women's clothing is the high waist, which divides the figure in a ratio of 1: 7 and 1: 6, plus a straight long skirt and a narrow bodice. 
Corsets, so popular during the Baroque and out of fashion in the era of classicism, are returning again in the Empire period. Soft and light fabrics are being replaced by dense ones, for example, dense silk, however, thin transparent fabrics are also used, but always on a dense, often silk lining.
More and more decorative elements appear in the women's costume - ruffles, frills, lace, embroidery. Embroideries are often made in plain white satin stitch with gold and silver thread, shiny sequins.
The Empire style dresses themselves were also characterized by: a train, a low neckline, a short puff sleeve with a wide cuff. 
At the beginning of the 19th century, short spencers, single-breasted coats made of cotton and woolen fabrics, trimmed with velvet, satin (and lined with fur) appeared in women's outerwear at the beginning of the 19th century. Outerwear repeats the silhouette, shape and cut of the details of the dress.
Hats - hoods of a wide variety of styles, and sometimes with a veil, hats of the current type.
Toka is a headdress that appears precisely in the era of Napoleon. It was a black velvet hat adorned with feathers. Such a hat was depicted ... on coats of arms, namely on a coat of arms. The color of the band and the number of feathers changed depending on the title of the owner of the coat of arms. So, for example, the current, depicted on the coat of arms of the nobles, had a green band and one feather. 
Soon women began to wear such a brimless and rounded headdress. 
It was at the beginning of the 19th century, as in the Baroque era, that much attention was paid to hairstyles and headdresses, namely their splendor and elegance.
Gloves are also used: long kid gloves, sometimes without fingers, the so-called mitts.
Shoes - shoes, flat and open, leather and low heels. 
Pearls (both artificial and natural), cameos, tiaras, necklaces, necklaces that were wrapped around the neck several times, on the hands - bracelets, rings, bracelets were also worn on the legs, earrings with pendants . 
The constant trendsetter in the Empire style at the beginning of the 19th century was the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte Josephine. 
Today, the Empire style in clothing is mainly represented in dresses and sundresses. Very beautiful wedding dresses. But the features of the Empire style today are the same as at the beginning of the 19th century: a high waistline, the presence of an obligatory ribbon under the bust, as well as a flowing silhouette and a feeling of lightness. The length can also be up to the toes, as in the beginning of XIX, but it can also be short. 
Dresses in the Empire style with cropped skirts give the image a certain femininity and even puppetry, naivety. Because of this puppetry, the name of the style for such dresses appeared - baby doll style.
Empire style wedding dresses are sewn, as well as from traditional Empire silk, and from chiffon. shoes for such wedding dresses serve either flat-soled sandals, or shoes on high heels. The hair is parted into a straight parting, smoothly combed, and curls fall on the forehead. If the hair is long, then they are braided into two braids and placed in a net at the back of the head. 
The advantage of Empire style dresses is that they suit almost everyone. So fat girls they will help emphasize the chest and hide the fullness, girls with a boyish figure will be given femininity. And for short girls, empire-style dresses will make them look taller and more stately.
The essence of this style is already expressed in its very name: empire - from the French "empire", empire. The customer sought to surround himself with splendor and splendor, which once surrounded the Roman emperors. The customer of this interior has been living the life of a sybarite for many years. Over the years, a lot of fashionable interiors have already passed, but due to his mentality and lifestyle, he has long gravitated towards Majestic and calm interiors, where everything speaks for the owner of the apartment about his status
The development of the spaces of the apartment is in the nature of direct adherence to the canons of style. The surfaces of walls, ceilings, niches, floors and cabinet furniture again begin to be processed with columns, pilasters, cornices. Decorative motifs appear in the design of the walls and ceilings: caryatids, antique elements, murals.
Peace, orderliness, complete balance of parts and strict symmetry reign in the interiors of the Empire style. The floors are covered with parquet, made up of colored wood. Ceilings are painted White color and either get off in the corners with a simple decor, or sign. The walls are sometimes covered with fabrics draped in the manner of antique clothes, or covered with wallpaper with a strict pattern. Light colors and spots of gilded bronze, economically introduced into the color of the interiors, somewhat soften the severity of the lines and the severity of the white color.
Probably, we shouldn't talk a lot about the complexity of the project and let the viewer see photos of the interiors.
Styles in architecture / Empire style / Empire style in architecture and interior
Empire is a style of architecture and interior, which is a kind of reflection of the Roman classics, combined with Egyptian motifs. Translated from Latin, “imperium” means command, power, and translated from French, Empire “empire” means empire.
Empire style appeared at the beginning of the 19th century in France thanks to the painter J.-L. David. For his paintings, in which he praised the great emperor and his empire, he made special furniture to order, which greatly pleased Napoleon and his retinue.
The heyday of the Empire was observed in France after the bourgeois revolution. Inspired by the ideas of David, the architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine designed the palaces and estates of Napoleon I (Malmaison, Fontainebleau, Versailles, the Louvre and the Tuileries) in this style. With this pretentious, luxurious style, Napoleon tried to show not only the greatness of the Roman Empire, but also to draw a parallel with his rule in the French possessions.
After the Patriotic War of 1812, the Empire style appeared in Russia. He was associated with the wealth and chic of the nobility, as he demanded the most expensive and beautiful materials. So, furniture was usually made to order from mahogany or walnut. Later in Russia they began to use Karelian birch. This was due to the ban on the import of mahogany into the country. Karelian birch parquet was highly valued, because thanks to its diverse color scheme wood, artists could create unusually beautiful patterned compositions on the floors.
Furniture in the ampere style was distinguished by functionality, convenience and elegance. Folding furniture was often used. The dining table, designed for four, in a minute turned into a huge dinner table to receive guests. The designs of the stools were so intricate that one could make an easel out of them. Chairs and sofas repeated the shape of the human body, striking in their comfort and sophistication. The bulge of the back smoothly passed into the leg. The legs were often made in the form of animal or bird paws. Designing and creating the atmosphere of rich houses, palaces and estates, the architects sought to achieve a unity of style. Furniture upholstery pattern, walls, interior elements, parquet and ceiling decoration - everything was combined and harmonized with each other. Once in Russia, this style became more similar to Roman classicism than to the "Napoleonic" Empire style.
The French Empire was somewhat different from classicism. This was especially noticeable in the color scheme. In classicism, complex harmonious combinations of colors predominate, in the Empire style - the bright colors of the Napoleonic flag: red, blue and white. Getting into different countries and cities, this style was transformed, adjusted to local rules and customs. The Empire style, which has come down to our time, has also changed a lot, rather, it has even become simpler, having received a different name - the Biedermeer (it is called the Empire style in the spirit of intimacy and home comfort). The colors have become more harmonious, the grandeur that the golden elements of the interior gave has faded into the background. In our time, they have been replaced by bronze parts and overlays made to look like gold. The forms and types of wood used have not changed. Columns still serve as elements of furniture and interior, musical instruments(e.g. harps), climbing plants.
Styles in architecture / Empire / Empire
Name comes from the French empire - imperial. The style that arose in France at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. It is an organic completion of the long development of European classicism. Main feature this style-- a combination of massive simple geometric shapes with items of military emblems. Its source is Roman sculpture, from which A. inherited the solemn severity and clarity of the composition.
A. originally developed in France at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in the era of the French Revolution and was distinguished by a pronounced civic pathos. During the period of the Napoleonic Empire, art was supposed to glorify the military successes and dignity of the ruler. Hence the passion for the construction of various kinds of triumphal arches, commemorative columns, obelisks. Important elements decorative decoration of buildings become porticoes. Bronze casting, painting of plafonds, alcoves are often used in interior decoration.
A. sought to approach antiquity more than classicism. In the XVIII century. The architect B. Vignon built the La Madeleine church on the model of a Roman peripter, using the Corinthian order. The interpretation of forms was distinguished by dryness and emphasized rationalism. The same features characterize Arc de Triomphe(Arch of the Star) on the Place des Stars in Paris (architect Chalgrin). The memorial Vendôme column erected by Leper and Gonduin (column " great army") is covered with sheets of bronze cast from Austrian guns. The bas-relief going in a spiral depicts the events of a victorious war.
A.'s style did not develop for long, it was replaced by the time of eclecticism.
Eclecticism
Connection of different style elements. Eclecticism has firmly taken its place in modern life. Eclecticism connects the details drawn from various sources, favorably playing and emphasizing them at the expense of each other. The secret of eclecticism lies in limiting two or three styles and combining them through texture, color, and so on.
Eclecticism (from the Greek ekiektikos - able to choose, choosing) - a combination of heterogeneous artistic elements; usually takes place during periods of decline in art. Elements of eclecticism are noticeable, for example, in late ancient Roman art, which combined forms borrowed from the art of Greece, Egypt, Western Asia, etc. Representatives of the Bologna school gravitated towards eclecticism, who believed that they could achieve perfection by combining the best, in their opinion, side of the creativity of the great masters of the Renaissance.
In the history of art, the most prominent place is occupied by the eclectic architecture of the mid-second half of the 19th century, which made extremely wide and often uncritically used forms of various historical styles (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, etc.); it is characteristic, however, that this architectural and design eclecticism, with its "freedom of choice" of architectural and ornamental motifs, had a significant influence on the formation of a holistic in its essence, but nourished from a wide variety of sources, the "modern" style.
In the field of fine arts, eclecticism is most typical of salon art. Eclectic tendencies have become widespread in Western European and American culture since the mid-20th century. in connection with the formation of postmodernism and the fashion for "retrospectivism" decoration copying certain stylistic trends of the past (including eclecticism of the 19th century).
In Moscow architecture of the second half of the XIX century. along with the "Russian-Byzantine style" in the largest state and church buildings and the "Russian style" in public buildings designed to express the revival of national culture, in many buildings (including completely new types, such as stations, banks, trade, office buildings, large tenement houses), elements of "European", so-called "historical" styles (neo-renaissance, neo-baroque, neo-rococo, neo-gothic) were used. Despite the "multi-style", eclecticism gravitated towards the creation of large urban ensembles in the "Russian" or "European" styles (Red and Lubyanka Square, Kitay-gorod development). The modern look of the historical part of Moscow is largely shaped by eclecticism, the basic principles of which corresponded to the requirements of the enlarged scale of development. The "facade" architecture of eclecticism, despite some fragmentation and monotonous repetition of details, gave the frontal surface of the buildings greater relief and picturesqueness, it actively used rustication, forms of order decoration, richly decorated architraves, finely crafted decorative stucco molding, stucco sculpture, reliefs and statues, including figures of Atlanteans and caryatids; the appearance of bay windows introduced strong plastic accents into the decor structure. Much attention was paid to the town-planning role of large buildings, the expressiveness of their silhouette, which ended in spectacular, visible from afar domes or peaked roofs with ridges. characteristic feature buildings of Moscow in 1870-90s. was the emergence of monumental, representative, often overloaded with decor, sometimes bizarre and pretentious in their forms of buildings, nevertheless, quite organically "included" in the structure of the city (State Bank on Neglinnaya Street, architect K.M. Bykovsky, 1893--95; International merchant bank on the Kuznetsk bridge, architect S.S. Eibushitz, 1898; Sandunovskie baths, architect B.V. Freidenberg, 1894--95). Eclectic public buildings and mansions are characterized by interior decoration in various "historical styles" (classicizing, neo-gothic, "Moorish", etc.).
Constructivism
Direction in Russian (USSR) art of the 1920s. (in architecture, decorating, and theatrical and decorative art, poster, book art, artistic design, design). Proponents of constructivism, putting forward the task of "designing" environment, actively directing life processes, sought to comprehend the shaping possibilities of new technology, its logical, expedient designs, as well as the aesthetic possibilities of materials such as metal, glass, and wood. The constructivists sought to oppose the ostentation of luxury with the simplicity and emphasized utilitarianism of new objective forms, in which they saw the reification of democracy and new relations between people. In architecture, the principles of constructivism were formulated in the theoretical speeches of A. A. Vesnin and M. Ya. Ginzburg. Vesnin's project of the Palace of Labor for Moscow (1923) with its clear, rational plan and identified during appearance structural basis of the building (reinforced concrete frame). In 1924, a creative organization of constructivists, the OSA, was created, whose representatives developed the so-called functional design method, based on a scientific analysis of the features of the functioning of buildings, structures, and urban complexes.
Along with other groups of Soviet architects, constructivists (the Vesnin brothers, Ginzburg, I. A. Golosov, I. I. Leonidov, A. S. Nikolsky, M. O. Barshch, V. N. Vladimirov, etc.) searched for new principles plans of populated areas, put forward projects for the reorganization of life, developed new types of public buildings (Palaces of Labor, Houses of Soviets, workers' clubs, kitchen factories, etc.). At the same time, in their theoretical and practical activities, the constructivists made a number of mistakes (treatment of the apartment as a "material form", schematism in the organization of life in certain projects of communal houses, underestimation of natural and climatic conditions, underestimation of the role of large cities under the influence of the ideas of deurbanism).
The aesthetics of constructivism in many ways contributed to the development of modern artistic design. On the basis of the developments of constructivists (A. M. Rodchenko, A. M. Gan and others), new types of utensils, fixtures, and furniture were created that were easy to use and designed for mass production; artists developed designs for fabrics (V. F. Stepanova, L. S. Popova) and practical models of work clothes (Stepanova, V. E. Tatlin). Constructivism played a significant role in the development of poster graphics (photomontages by the Stenberg brothers, G. G. Klutsis, Rodchenko) and book construction (the use of the expressive possibilities of type and other typesetting elements in the works of Gan, L. M. Lissitzky and others). In the theater, the constructivists replaced traditional scenery with "machines" subordinated to the tasks of stage action for the work of actors (works by Popova, A. A. Vesnin, and others on the productions of V. E. Meyerhold, A. Ya. Tairov).
Some ideas of constructivism were embodied in the Western European (W. Baumeister, O. Schlemmer and others) fine arts. In relation to foreign art, the term "constructivism" is largely arbitrary: in architecture it denotes a trend within functionalism that sought to emphasize the expression of modern structures; A. Pevzner).
Modernism
Art Nouveau was born at the turn of the century in European architecture as a movement to create the style of its era.
From the second half of the 19th century, with the widespread use of new building materials, primarily reinforced concrete and glass, the development of engineering, the importance of architectural creativity began to fall. There was a division of labor between engineers and architects. A significant part of the construction of buildings went to civil engineers. The architects were left with the function of mainly design application to the victorious marching construction equipment. Architects were mainly engaged in decorating structures designed by engineers without much thought about the integrity of the composition. The dominance of eclecticism and embellishment reigned in architecture.
In the 90s of the last century, Art Nouveau was defined as an architectural style. It was a means of overcoming the eclecticism that had taken hold of European architecture. Art Nouveau pursued the goal of creating a new universal synthetic style. The great masters of Art Nouveau in one work combined architecture, plastic arts, painting, decorative art in a fairy-tale organism. applied art.
Art Nouveau arose in opposition to the rationalism of the 19th century. With the advent of cast iron and steel in construction in public, and then in industrial and residential buildings, a new nomenclature of building types began to form, based on their functional purpose: supermarkets, public libraries, etc. Residential buildings are designed based on their functional zoning. Rationalism developed as if from within. Function determined form, form followed function.
Already by the 70s of the 19th century, the opinion was established that rationalism was not quite an architectural and artistic trend, but rather engineering. In architecture, the Art Nouveau style flourished rapidly and magnificently. It colored a whole period of the history of architecture at the end of the last century and entered deep into the depths of our century. This trend is known under the names: "modern style" in Russia, "art nouveau" in Belgium and France, "secession" in Austria-Hungary, "art nouveau" in Germany, "alberti style" in Italy, "modern style" in Great Britain , "Tiffany style" in the US, etc.
"Modern style" develops mainly in the architecture of urban mansions and expensive apartment buildings, country villas and cottages. Art Nouveau architects, when forming the plans and composition of buildings, boldly went for the use of asymmetric solutions in the grouping of volumes and the location of window and door openings. Here, in the private life of a very wealthy customer, the architect's imagination finds material support and freedom of creativity. The shapes of windows, doors, stairs become diverse almost to infinity. The decorative decoration of the facades, and especially the interiors, reaches incredible sophistication. Great importance is attached to the expressiveness of fluid rhythms, colors and textures of patterned glazing. ceramic cladding, wrought iron iron, window and door stained-glass windows. Modern stained glass windows are no longer abstract, like Gothic ones, but carry bionic natural forms.
Art Nouveau is characterized by silhouettes and ornaments that stylize the forms of plants and water shells in smooth, easily curving lines. The facades were distinguished by rounded, sometimes fantastically curved contours of openings, the use of gratings made of forged metal and glazed ceramics of a discreet tone of color: green, lilac, pink, gray. In architecture, weeping, soft, as if self-forming forms spread, in decorative art - a stylized ornament creeping on the surface, growing, enveloping. A number of ornamental Art Nouveau motifs were borrowed from the art of the Far East, primarily Japan. These motives subsequently became widespread.
In Art Nouveau, they were widely used as reinforced concrete (the theory of calculations of which appeared just in this period), as well as metal as a constructive and decorative element. Glass was widely used in metal structures. The appearance of these building materials influenced the creative consciousness of architects and builders. They prompted unusual constructive and architectural solutions, their development went against the eclecticism rooted in practice. Modern tries to rethink reinforced concrete as new construction material aesthetically, and not as a new auxiliary tool in construction.
The advent of electricity in 1900 played a major role in shaping Art Nouveau interiors. Artificial electric lighting has influenced the color vision of interiors. Stained-glass windows, illuminated from the inside, gave the buildings a unique appeal, and expressiveness to the interiors.
The undoubted conquest of modernity - a holistic approach to design individual rooms, striving for their ensemble solution. Art Nouveau showed particular interest in the design of window openings with a specific pattern of bindings and stained-glass windows that filled them. He actively used glazed tiles in the lining of individual inserts on the surface of the walls and in the design of window openings. One of the main roles in the design of facades, window and door openings was played by a flat gypsum stucco ornament. Flowers - irises, poppies, various herbs, as well as lilies and other water plants with long stretching stems - were used as ornamental motifs in the stained-glass windows. Geometric ornaments were also used, including the meander motif in a specific, typical for Art Nouveau drawing.
Great technological and artistic possibilities have been opened up in the field of glass. In Lorraine, the Nancy School, headed by E. Galle, arose, cultivating a complex color range of colors and textures.
Art Nouveau interprets the wall not only as a constructive and static element by definition. In the Art Nouveau era, tendencies were laid for the expression of wall plasticity in architectural volume approaching sculpture. Windows have become an organic expression of style. For the first time, window and arch openings, their fillings and decor become an equally important component of style both for the facade and in the interior of buildings.
The walls of the rooms were painted in pastel colors - lilac, greenish, pearl gray. The furniture of new forms was subtly combined with them. In furniture and headsets, drawn, sluggish wavy outlines predominate. Different types of wood were also used than before, in particular, gray smoky maple was very common. Sometimes the lining of the lower parts of the walls in the form of panels was introduced into the interiors, which was made from the same species as the furniture. Upholstery fabrics most often produced in faded softened tones with large stylized flowers, combined with stains of a curvilinear pattern. Ceramics and majolica were used for the external and internal cladding of buildings.
The ancestor of Art Nouveau is the Belgian artist-architect Victor Horta. The type of new building that arose during the formation of Art Nouveau as a style - a general store - is the most interesting. It required the use of large glazed surfaces. Innovative from this point of view can be called the store "Innovation", built by Horta in Brussels in 1901. Fully glazed, with metal bindings, the facade of this building illuminated the common trading room on the first floor, the shopping galleries of the upper floors and the unifying staircase.
The famous house of Emile Tassel (1892-1893), a professor at the University of Brussels, became a kind of manifesto for the new style. Two more mansions were built in the same style - Eitveld and Solveig. Contemporaries who made a special pilgrimage to Brussels to get acquainted with Horta's work were struck by the orderlessness of the facade of the Tassel mansion, metal bindings large windows bay window, as if merged with the facade. Horta proved to be a master of interior design. It radically changes the interior space - opens it up, replacing the partitions with well-executed ones. metal structures. Combining glass and metal in such a way that transparent films are formed, he achieves that light penetrates everywhere and the staircase turns into an illuminated center of the living space. The rooms of the mansion are flooded with light - Horta took half the area of the first floor of the mansion from the side of the courtyard under winter Garden, and placed the impassable rooms of the upper floors around the central hall and the internal staircase, illuminated by a glass skylight. Victor Horta not only strove to use metal and glass, but also, by revealing their organic qualities, to give them a new architectural and artistic expressiveness. On what would otherwise be an almost classical façade, the stone corners of the iron window 'lanterns' are designed to emphasize the presence of an internal metal frame. He searched and found a new style, which essentially became an expression of the material well-being of the emerging bourgeois class, individuality and sophistication.
In the Tassel mansion, Horta first applied a line called "blow of the whip." It was a figurative expression of the tension of the metal, the embodiment of the nervous, tense spirit of the era, its emblem. The elegance of its curve has become a model of graphic art and stylization in the windows and stained-glass windows of Art Nouveau buildings.
In Germany, the new style spread somewhat later than in other European countries. It was called "Jugendstil" ("Jugend" - an art magazine around which supporters of this movement were grouped).
The photographic studio "Elvira" (1897-1898) by the architect August Endel can rightly be considered a program building of the German Art Nouveau.
As in other countries, with the advent of reinforced concrete, the construction of covered markets, exhibition pavilions, and halls for festivities was developed. Original spatial solutions for facades and interiors were created with extensive use of glass and metal.
The most interesting in this respect is the German architect Bruno Taut (1880-1938). His "Iron House" - an exhibition pavilion - was built at a construction exhibition in Leipzig in 1913, in the form of stacked, gradually decreasing volumes, topped with a dome. Each facet of the pavilion is separated by a wide strip of metal and from the outside it was perceived as a giant glazed cage. Another pavilion, built by Taut for the Werkbund exhibition in Cologne and called the "Glass House", was a transparent dodecahedral volume with a large dome consisting of diamond-shaped glass plates.
In the work of the architect Hans Pelzig (1869-1936), emphasized expressiveness is noticeable. These are the verticals of large windows in the office building he built (1911) in Breslau, the rhythmically varied in size and shape of the windows in an industrial chemical factory in Leoban, near Poznań.
The architectural trend of Art Nouveau brought a fresh stream of research into the architecture of France and, which was especially significant, turned out to be the first stylistic trend that broke with imitative styles. The first salon called "Art Nouveau" opened in Paris in 1895. Painting and sculpture (Rodin), applied art, glass by Galle and Tiffany coexisted here, jewelry Lolica, Bodsley, Bradley, Macintosh graphics.
The main representative of Art Nouveau in the architecture of France was Hector Guimard. In 1899, he received an order for the construction of Paris metro stations. In these unusually light glass and metal pavilions repeating organic forms, the combination of structural and decorative elements was especially successful.
The Art Nouveau style also influenced the construction of the Vienna Underground. Otto Wagner, spokesman for the ideas of the "Secession", head of the Department of Architecture at the Academy of Plastic Arts, sought to create a new style that would get rid of repetitions of the past and be in tune with the times. The metro stations designed and built by Wagner are distinguished by the simplicity and purity of Art Nouveau lines, gracefully outlined lines of window and door openings, large glazing planes, and the use of metal.
When referring to Art Nouveau, the common phrase - "windows - the eyes of buildings" - takes on a special meaning. Fancy windows and stained-glass windows look at the world with the mysterious look of an exotic beauty.
Antonio Gaudí y Cornet is the most unusual and original Art Nouveau architect. In the midst of Art Nouveau, his work was so isolated that he was given a special name - "Antoniogound". His work is perhaps one of the most controversial phenomena in European architecture. The peculiarity of the style of the famous Spaniard is that he used the reinforced concrete that appeared to imitate the complex organic forms of nature in his structures, imitating the complex configurations and lines characteristic of rocks, trees, shells. Windows of smoothly outlined lines look out timidly from under the reinforced concrete "eyebrows" entwined with complex stucco decorations. One of Gaudí's most famous buildings is the Mila house, popularly nicknamed "La Pedrera", which means "stone". This six-story tenement building, located on a corner plot, resembles a huge rock, its window and door openings look like grottoes, and metal parts balcony railings - on bizarre climbing plants.
The creators of Art Nouveau freely resort to asymmetrical forms and compositions. Window and door openings filled with bizarre curves are organically woven into the living plasticity of the buildings of the new style.
Art Nouveau was not only an elitist phenomenon. He became the founder of popular culture. If rationalism became widespread in 50 years, then the seeds of modernity scattered around the world in just one week thanks to the emergence of rotary machines and, as a result, the mass distribution of printed materials - newspapers and magazines transported by trains. Art Nouveau dominated architecture for 20-25 years and was continued in functionalism and expressionism.
Japanese style, according to designers, is the most popular ethnic style now. This is a minimalist-decorative style, in which nothing overloads the attention, the space is structured calmly and distinctly. In a territorially small, resettled country, space is especially valued, which is why the interior arrangement of the premises minimizes furniture and other familiar attributes of the house in order to compensate for its shortage. The Japanese have a special relationship with nature, so the Japanese style is associated with natural colors, mostly in light colors: shades of beige, white, cream, milky. Restrained light colors are also characteristic of Japanese furniture, the surface of furniture and walls is smooth, non-textured. Fabrics are also cream and white, mostly natural: cotton and silk. In the land of the rising sun, a place to relax is located in the center of the room. A typical detail is the Japanese sliding wall, and of course the bamboo furniture. Hieroglyphs are an almost inevitable attribute of home design "under Japan." In such an interior, modest low furniture, sofas and tables of different heights fit perfectly.
Empire (late classicism) is an architectural style that organically combines Roman classics with Egyptian motifs. Translated into Russian, Empire means "empire, command, power." The style was formed in France at the beginning of the 19th century.
Empire architecture does not use the concept of a national variant. It is for this reason that the term "Empire" refers exclusively to the art of France. early XIX centuries.
The origins and fate of the Empire in Europe
Style is irreconcilable to folk traditions. Napoleon Bonaparte considered art a means of strengthening power and glorifying the exploits of his great army. Empire was at one time an expression of Napoleon's claims to world domination, and therefore was forcibly planted on the conquered territories. However, the defeated countries did not accept the new style, creating an opposition direction - Biedermeier.
The only country that adopted the Empire was Russia. Thus, the European Empire was presented in two versions: French and Russian. In the middle of the 19th century, the style loses its position, giving way to a variety of eclectic trends, which testified to the decline of classicism.
Characteristic features of the French Empire
The style is characterized by geometric correctness, proportionality, integrity and monumentality. Empire in architecture is represented mainly by triumphal arches, columns and palaces.
Facades and interiors of buildings are often decorated with military paraphernalia: armor, heraldic eagles, wreaths. So, for example, Josephine's bedroom at the Malmaison Palace was made in the form of a camping tent. The interiors of the palaces were decorated with paintings, paintings, reliefs, bronzes and vases. The dark wood furniture with gilded bronze trim looked very ornate. The ornaments were dominated by floral forms and fantastic motifs.
The Empire style is most clearly represented by the interiors of the residences of emperors - the Louvre, Fontainebleau, Malmaison.
Empire style prefers straight lines and massive geometric volumes. Regardless of the purpose, the buildings are given an antique form. The Arc de Triomphe becomes a favorite form.
Patterns and paradoxes
Empire, being a late period in the development of classicism, is fundamentally different from it. It reflects the degeneration of classical forms, while at the same time continuing its traditions. In the Empire style, traits of romanticism are also found. If classicism is characterized by soft tones, then the Empire style prefers the colorful colors of the flag of Bonaparte: blue, white and red.
Mixing elements of the arts of Ancient Rome and Egypt does not make Empire an eclectic style. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the architecture of the ancient Romans was not devoid of Egyptian exoticism in its time. Empire continues to turn to the past, to history, reviving the old classic forms.
The main representatives of the Empire were the court architects of Napoleon - Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine.
Empire: from Egypt and Rome to Napoleon:
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