ancient philosophy– philosophy Ancient Greece and ancient Rome in the 6th century. BC. – V c. AD This is the first form of philosophy that made an exceptional contribution to the development of Western European culture and determined the main themes of philosophizing for the next millennia. Philosophers of various eras drew inspiration from the ideas of antiquity, from Thomas Aquinas to Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger. The term "philosophy" also appeared in antiquity.
Early or archaic ethane ancient philosophy(VI century - beginning of the 5th century BC). Milesians(Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes); Pythagoras and Pythagoreans, Eleatics(Parmenides, Zeno); atomists(Leucippus and Democritus); Heraclitus, Empedocles and Anaxagoras, standing outside certain schools. The main theme of the early stage of Greek philosophy is the cosmos or "physis", therefore the first Greek philosophers are called physicists, and philosophy is natural philosophy. Arguing about the cosmos, the first philosophers formulate the problem of the origin or origins of the world.
Founder of the Milesian school (VI century BC) Thales I thought that the beginning of everything is water. His student A n aximander claimed that origin and foundation of the world – apeiron; all elements, including water, arise from aneuron, and he himself has no beginning. Anaximenes- another Milesian and student of Anaximander, he considered air to be the beginning of everything; air is infinite, eternal and absolutely mobile, everything arises from air and returns to it.
Heraclitus who was nicknamed Dark because of the complexity and incomprehensibility of his teachings, believed that the beginning of everything – it's fire. Heraclitus called fire equal to itself and unchanged in all transformations. Heraclitus said that the world is an ordered cosmos, it is eternal and infinite, not created by either gods or people. The world is a fire, sometimes flaring up, sometimes dying out, the world process is cyclical, after one cycle everything turns into fire, and then from fire it is born again. Heraclitus formulated principle of universal change in the world: the same river cannot be entered twice. But there is a law in the world - the Logos, and the greatest wisdom lies in knowing it.
School of Pythagoras (VI century BC)- one of the most mysterious, the Pythagoreans formed a closed alliance, which not everyone could join. Some Pythagoreans took a vow of silence, and the founder of the school - Pythagoras - was revered by the followers almost like a god. Pythagoras was the first to use the term "philosophy", he believed that the highest way of life is contemplative, and not practical. Pythagoras believed that the basis of everything is number, and the universe is harmony and number. The number is formed from the One, and from the numbers - the whole cosmos. Things are made of numbers and imitate numbers. The Pythagoreans sought to comprehend the harmony of the cosmos and express it in numbers, and the result of these searches was ancient arithmetic and geometry. Strong influence Pythagorean school had on the Eleatics and Plato.
Eleatics (VI-V centuries BC) claimed that the beginning of the world is one, and this beginning is being. Parmenides said that Being is the same everywhere, homogeneous, unchanging and identical to itself. Being can be thought, but non-being cannot be thought, therefore being exists, but non-being does not exist. In other words, the thought and the subject of this thought are one and the same, that which is impossible to think does not exist. So Parmenides for the first time in the history of philosophy formulated the principle of the identity of being and thinking. The fact that people see change and multitude in the world is just a mistake of their feelings, the philosopher considered and directed his criticism against Heraclitus the Dark. True knowledge leads to knowledge of the intelligible world, to the affirmation of eternity, immutability and immobility of being. The philosophy of the Eleatics is the first consistently monistic doctrine in the history of philosophy.
A little later, in ancient philosophy, the opposite doctrine appears - pluralism, which is represented by the atomism of Democritus (5th century BC). Democritus I thought that there are atoms and the void in which they move. Atoms are immutable, eternal, differ from each other in size, position and shape. Atoms are innumerable, all bodies and things are composed of atoms and differ only in their number, shape, order and position. The human soul is also an accumulation of the most mobile atoms. Atoms are separated from each other by emptiness, emptiness is non-existence, if there were no emptiness, then atoms would not be able to move. Democritus argued that the movement of atoms is subject to the laws of necessity, and chance is just a cause unknown to man.
Classical stage of ancient philosophy (V-IV centuries BC). The main schools of this period are sophists(Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Protagoras, etc.); at first adjoining the sophists, and then criticizing them Socrates, Plato and its school the Academy; Aristotle and his school Lyceum. The main themes of the classical period are the essence of man, the peculiarities of cognition, the unification of philosophical knowledge and the construction of a universal philosophy. Philosophers of the classical period formulate the idea of pure theoretical philosophy, which gives true knowledge. After the philosophical reasoning of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece, they began to believe that a way of life built on the principles of philosophy is most in line with human nature and should be strived for by all means.
Sophists (5th century BC) are professional teachers of wisdom and eloquence. The word "sophist" comes from the Greek word "sophia", which means "wisdom". At first, philosophers were called sophists, but gradually this word acquired a negative connotation. Sophists began to be called a special type of philosophers who denied religion and morality, emphasized the conventionality of state laws and moral standards. Aristotle called the sophists teachers of imaginary wisdom. Sophists identified wisdom with the ability to justify anything, and not necessarily what is true and right. Truth for them turned into provability, and to prove meant to convince the interlocutor. Protagoras said that about Every thing can have two opposing opinions. For the sophists, the only measure of being, value and truth is the interests of a person, so you can have two opposite opinions about every thing. The same Protagoras stated:
"Man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and that do not exist, that they do not exist." Sophists emphasized the relativity of all truths, knowledge and human judgments. This position is called relativism.
Socrates(V century BC) was first a student of the sophists, and then their fierce opponent and critic. Socrates regarded his studies in philosophy as a service to the god Apollo, so the inscription carved over the entrance to the temple of Apollo in Delphi: "Know thyself" became the guiding thread of Socratic philosophy. Socrates reflects on life and death, good and evil, freedom and responsibility, virtue and vice. The philosopher claimed that the root cause of all things must be sought in the Logos, the natural world is only its application. Thus, the beautiful exists by itself, independently of a beautiful book, a vessel or a horse, and its knowledge cannot in any way be considered a generalization of all knowledge about beautiful objects. Socrates said that knowledge of beauty precedes knowledge of beautiful things. The measure of all things is not just a person, but a reasonable person, since it is the mind that is the source of true knowledge. The method of obtaining this knowledge is maieutics – midwifery art. Cognition takes place in the form of a conversation, questions and answers help the birth of thought, and the starting point of reflection is irony, which gives rise to doubt in generally accepted opinions. Exposing contradictions eliminates imaginary knowledge and encourages the search for truth. Knowledge is the only regulator and guideline of human actions. Socrates assured that the knowledge of good means following it, the reason for bad deeds is ignorance, of good will no one is evil. Philosophy, according to him, is the study of right life, art of Living. Most people are content with random feelings and impressions, true knowledge is available only to a few sages, but not the whole truth is revealed to them either. "I know that I know nothing," Socrates himself said. Fellow citizens accused him of corrupting youth, not recognizing gods and customs, the main purpose of these accusations was to force the philosopher to flee Athens. But Socrates refused and voluntarily took the poison of hemlock.
The life story of Socrates is known in the retelling of his student Plato(V-IV centuries BC). Plato wrote many philosophical dialogues in which he outlined his philosophical system. Plato thinks that being – it is a world of ideas that exists forever, it is unchanging and identical to itself. Being opposed to non-being - the world of matter. An intermediate position between being and non-being is occupied by the world of sensible things, which are the product of ideas and matter. The main idea is the idea of goodness, the cause of everything right and beautiful, truth, goodness and beauty depend on goodness. True knowledge is possible only about ideas, and the source of this knowledge is the human soul, or rather its memories of the world of ideas, in which the immortal soul resides before it enters the body. In other words, true knowledge is always with a person, it remains only to remember it. Man himself, being a unity of soul and body, is akin to sensible things. The soul is being in it, and the body is matter and non-being. Cleansing from the material and bodily is necessary so that the soul can again soar into the world of ideas and contemplate them.
In line with his philosophy, Plato proposed concept of the ideal state. According to the philosopher, the state appears when each person individually cannot satisfy his needs. A state can be wise and just if it is ruled by wise and just rulers - philosophers. Guards are engaged in protecting the state from enemies, and artisans and farmers provide everyone with the necessary material benefits. Each of the three castes - philosophers, guards, artisans and farmers - has its own upbringing, so the transition from one class to another brings only harm.
Aristotle(IV century BC) criticized the Platonic theory of ideas. "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer," Aristotle said and offered his philosophy of being - doctrine of the four causes. Aristotle claims that formal, material, efficient and final causes exhaust all possible causes. Matter creates a passive possibility for the emergence of things, it is the substratum of things. Form - the prototype of a thing, turns into reality what is given in matter as a possibility. The operating cause ensures movement in the world, and the target one determines what everything in the world exists for. The effective and final causes can be reduced to the concept of form, then two causes remain: matter and form. Form is primary, it is the essence of being, and matter is only material for design.
Aristotle's contribution to the creation formal logic. The philosopher believed that logic is connected with the doctrine of being. Being and thinking are identical, therefore logical forms are at the same time forms of being. Aristotle distinguished between reliable knowledge - apodeictics, and opinion - dialectics. Apodeictic - this is strictly necessary, deductive knowledge that can be logically deduced from true premises, and the tool for such a conclusion is a syllogism, i.e. conclusion from two true judgments of the third according to certain rules. In philosophy, all the premises from which the conclusion comes are seen by the mind. However, they are not given from birth. In order to receive true premises, one must collect facts. The general, according to Aristotle, exists in single things that are perceived by the senses. Thus, the general can be comprehended through the singular, and the way of cognition is inductive generalization. Plato believed that the general is known to the individual.
Hellenistic stage of ancient philosophy (IV century BC - V century AD). The main schools of this period are: Epicureans, Stoics, Skeptics, Cynics, Neoplatonists. The main topics discussed by the philosophers of the Hellenistic era are the problems of will and freedom, morality and pleasure, happiness and the meaning of life, the structure of the cosmos and the mystical relationship of man with it. All schools deny the existence of universal and stable principles of morality, the state, and the cosmos too. Philosophers teach not so much how to achieve happiness as how to avoid suffering. Perhaps only in Neoplatonism the doctrine of a single principle is preserved, but this doctrine also takes on a mystical form. The influence of Neoplatonism can be found in some systems of medieval Islamic philosophy, but it was foreign to European Christian philosophy. The formation of Christianity was influenced by another teaching of the Greeks - stoicism .
Regardless of the stages of development, ancient philosophy is one, and its main feature is cosmo- and logo-centrism. Logos is the central concept ancient philosophy. The Greeks think of the cosmos as orderly and harmonious, and ancient man appears in the same orderly and harmonious way. Evil and imperfection, according to the Greek philosophers, comes from a lack of genuine knowledge, and it can be filled with the help of philosophy. It can be said that the ancient thinkers tried to "talk" the world, remove chaos, imperfection, evil and non-existence from it, and philosophy was a universal means for this.
- See paragraph 7.4.
- See paragraph 7.4.
- See paragraph 2.3.
- See more: paragraph 6.5.
Topic 1.3 Outstanding philosophers of antiquity
Basic concepts and terms on the topic: syncretism, cosmocentricity, natural philosophy, humanism, Hellenism, Neoplatonism, idealism, Eidos, hedonism, ataraxia, cynics, stoics, apeiron.
Topic study plan:
- Features of ancient philosophy.
- Five stages of ancient philosophy.
- The views of ancient philosophers.
Brief summary of theoretical issues
Infographic Questions
1. Name and characterize two features of ancient philosophy.
2. What was the name of Aristotle's school and who was his student?
3. Which of ancient thinkers sentenced to death penalty? How exactly was the execution itself?
4. Correlate among themselves;
| Applied the dispute method | |
| Diogenes | Was from the Greek city of Kitia |
| Introduced the concept of "atom" - an indivisible particle | |
| Zeno | Plato was his teacher |
| Socrates | His school was called "academy" |
| Aristotle | |
| Leucippus, Democritus | Called himself "dog" |
| Considered the world's first narrphilosopher | |
| Epicurus | Sophist, opponent of Socrates |
| Considered the primary source of life apeiron | |
| Plato | Called himself "dog" |
| Protagoras | His real name is Aristocles; he was Aristotle's teacher |
| Thales | His school was called "Lyceum" |
| Anaximander | His school was called "Gardens", introduced the concept of ataraxia |
Truth is born in a dispute
(Socrates)
- Features of ancient philosophy.
Ancient (Ancient Greek) philosophy arises in the 7th-6th centuries BC.
By that time, in ancient Greece there was a fairly developed slave-owning society, with a complex social class structure and forms of division of labor, which were already of a specialized nature. The role of intellectual and spiritual activity is also growing, acquiring
traits of professionalism. Developed spiritual culture, art created a fertile ground for the formation of philosophy and philosophical thinking. So, Homer and his work, it is enough to note him "Iliad" And "Odyssey", had a huge impact on many aspects of the spiritual life of the Greek society of that period. It can be figuratively said that all “ancient philosophers and thinkers “came out of Homer”. And later, many of them turned to Homer and his works as an argument and proof.
At first, philosophy appears in the form of philosophizing.
So, "seven wise men":
1) Thales of Miletus,
2) Pitton of Mytilene,
3) Biant from Prysna;
4) Solon from Asia;
5) Cleobulus of Lyons;
6) Mison Henei;
7) Chilo from Lacedaemonia tried to comprehend in an aphoristic form the essential aspects of the existence of the world and man, which have a stable, universal and generally significant character and determine the actions of people.
In the form of aphorisms, they developed rules and recommendations for the actions of people, which people should follow in order to avoid mistakes:
“Honor your father” (Cleobulus),
“Know your time” (Pitton);
“Hide the bad in your house” (Thales).
They were more of a character. useful tips than philosophical statements. Their limited but rational meaning is expressed in utility. As a result, they are generally applicable. But already with Thales, statements acquire a proper philosophical character, since they fix the universal properties of nature that eternally exist. For example, “space is the most, because it contains everything in itself”, “Necessity is the strongest, because it has power”. They only hint at philosophical problems, but do not consciously pose them.
It was Thales who is considered the first philosopher!
But already within "Miletian School of Philosophers" actually formed philosophical approach to understanding the world, because they consciously raise and try to answer such fundamental questions: Is the world one and in what way is its unity expressed? Does the world (in this case, nature) have its fundamental principle and the primary cause of its existence? Such questions cannot be answered on the basis of life experience but only through thinking in abstract, generalized terms.
"Miletian philosophers" designate objectively existing nature special concept "cosmos", (in Greek - the universe, the world). From here comes one of the first theoretical ways of knowing the world - cosmologism(cosmos + logos, knowledge).
According to Diogenes Laertius, Pythagoras was first who named the universe "Cosmos".
Features of ancient philosophy:
— syncretism(man is a part of nature);
— cosmocentricity(man is part of the cosmos - the universe).
Ancient philosophy is characterized by the search for the meaning of life through the concepts of love, freedom, happiness, harmony.
- Five stages of ancient philosophy.
1. natural philosophers (presocratics): Thales (water), Heraclitus (fire), Democritus, Leucippus (atom), Pythagoras (number), Anaximander (apeiron). All natural philosophers have tried to find the "original source" of life.
2. Humanist period : Socrates, sophists (Protagoras). Socrates was the first to draw attention to the fact that a person differs from all life on Earth in his Soul, therefore philosophy becomes humanistic, i.e. studying man.
3. Classic period: Plato (idealism), Aristotle (logic). Plato and Aristotle are considered theorists of philosophy.
4. Hellenism: Cyrenaics (Aristippus), Hedonism (Hegesius), Epicureans (Epicurus), Cynics (Diogenes from Sinope), Stoics (Zeno from Kitias). The era of Hellenism gives rise to practical philosophy (philosophers not only theoretically substantiate their ideas and live according to them, for example, Diogenes lived in a barrel).
5. Neoplatonism: Plotin.
As already mentioned, Thales, a natural philosopher, is considered to be the first philosopher.
Philosophy lessons in that period were usually held on the street, in the form of a conversation between a teacher and his students.
- The views of ancient philosophers.
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HeraclitusEphesian th "About nature" "Everything flows, everything changes.- You can't step into the same river twice." Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of all the elements. Therefore, for Heraclitus, fire became the beginning of the world, while water is only one of its states. Fire condenses into air, air turns into water, water into earth (“the way down”, which is replaced by the “way up”). The Earth itself, on which we live, was once a red-hot part of the universal fire, but then it cooled down. |
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ThalesMilesian
First Philosopher (Ionic school) “What is difficult? - Know yourself. What is easy? - Giving advice to others. Thales believed that everything [is born] from water; everything arises from water and turns into it. The beginning of the elements, of things that exist, is water; the beginning and end of the universe is water. Everything is formed from water by its solidification / freezing, as well as evaporation; When it condenses, water becomes earth; when it evaporates, it becomes air. The reason for the formation / movement is the spirit "nesting" in the water. |
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PythagorasSamos
"The beginning is half of the whole." "Don't go down the road" "Don't break the bread in two" "Don't Eat Your Heart" The basis of things is the number, Pythagoras taught, to know the world means to know the numbers that control it. By studying numbers, they developed numerical relationships and found them in all areas of human activity. Numbers and proportions were studied in order to cognize and describe the soul of a person, and having cognized, to control the process of the transmigration of souls with the ultimate goal of sending the soul to some higher divine state. |
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AnaximanderMilesian
representative of the Milesian school of natural philosophy, a student of Thales. Author of the first Greek scientific work written in prose(“On Nature”, 547 BC). Introduced the term "law" by applying the concept of social practice to nature and science. Anaximander is credited with one of the first formulations of the law of conservation of matter (“from the same things from which all existing things are born, into these same things they are destroyed according to their destiny”). Anaximander believes that the source of the origin of all things is a certain infinite, "ageless" [divine] principle - apeiron - which is characterized by continuous movement. |
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DemocritusBUTbdersky, student Leucippe, one of the founders of atomism. "It's better to expose your own mistakes than someone else's." « atom"- an indivisible particle of matter, possessing true being, not collapsing and not arising |
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ParmenidesAndfrom Elea
"About nature" "Being is, but non-being is not." Proved that there is only eternal and unchangeable Being, identical thought. His main theses are: “Besides being, there is nothing. Likewise, thinking is Being, for one cannot think about anything. Being is generated by no one and nothing, otherwise one would have to admit that it originated from Non-Being, but there is no Non-Being. |
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SOCRATES 469 BC e., - 399 BC. e., an ancient Greek philosopher, whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and the world, to the consideration of man. Sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" and "disrespecting the gods". His work is a turning point in ancient philosophy. With its method of analyzing concepts (maieutics, dialectic of Socrates - the art of argument) and by identifying virtue and knowledge, he directed the attention of philosophers to the unconditional significance of the human person. maieutics- the method of Socrates to extract the knowledge hidden in a person with the help of skillful leading questions. "Truth is born in a dispute" "I only know that I know nothing." “There are so many things in the world that I don’t need!” Know yourself and you will know the most important thing .... |
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PLATO 428 or 427 BC e., - 348 or 347 BC. e., - an ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Real name - Aristocles, Plato - a nickname meaning "wide, broad-shouldered." Plato's writings are written in the form of highly artistic dialogues. Founder of philosophy idealism. The world obeys the Idea (Eidos)- lives, exists and develops in accordance with general laws, those rules that establish ideas. Ideas are the basis of the whole world. They are not visible to people and cannot be felt, since feelings do not allow one to know the true nature of things (water, trees and the rest of the material world exist, but people remain unaware of the reason for their existence, purpose, meaning of their being). The highest idea (main) is the idea of the absolute good (agaton); world Mind; Deity. "Man is a wingless, bipedal, flat-nailed being, receptive to knowledge based on reasoning." |
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ARISTOTLE 384 BC e., - 322 BC. e., an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. From 343 BC e. - teacher of Alexander the Great. In 335 BC. e. founded Lyceum (Lyceum, or peripatetic school). Peripatetics (from Greek, "walk, walk") The name of the school arose from the habit of Aristotle to walk with students during lectures. Founder of formal logic. He created a conceptual apparatus that still permeates the philosophical lexicon and the very style of scientific thinking. Aristotle's "First Philosophy" (later called metaphysics) contains the doctrine of the basic principles of being: matter and form, active cause and purpose, possibility and implementation. Matter is the variety of things that exist objectively; matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible; it cannot arise from nothing, increase or decrease in its quantity; it is inert and passive. Form is a stimulus and a goal, the reason for the formation of diverse things from monotonous matter. Creates forms of various things from matter God (or mind-prime mover). Aristotle approaches the idea of a single being of a thing, a phenomenon: it is a fusion of matter and form. Entelechy is an internal force that potentially contains the goal and the final result; “Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer” “What is the meaning of life? Serve others and do good" |
SOCRATES - PLATO - ARISTOTLE
(three pillars of philosophy)
Philosophers of the Hellenistic Age.
LIFE is fun
HEDONISM
The founder is considered Aristippus(435-355 BC), a contemporary of Socrates. Aristippus distinguishes between two states of the human soul: pleasure as soft, tender, and pain as a rough, impetuous movement of the soul. Here no distinction is made between types of pleasure, each of which is qualitatively similar to the other in its essence. The path to happiness, according to Aristippus, lies in achieving maximum pleasure while avoiding pain. According to Aristippus, the meaning of life lies precisely in physical satisfaction.
CYRENAIC or Cyrenians, followers of a school founded in the 4th century. A disciple of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene. Representative - Hegesius. According to the teachings of this school, the only goal in life is pleasure (hedonistic or eudemonistic point of view), which is the highest good virtue - the ability to dominate one's pleasure and control one's desires. Also, representatives of this school opposed the study of nature. Subsequently, the Cyrene school passed into the Epicurean. Hegesius came to negative results. Pleasure is either unattainable or deceitful, and decidedly outweighed by pain.
EPICUREANISM Epicurus describes satisfaction as the principle of a successful life. Epicurus considers the satisfaction of desires to be freedom from reluctance and aversion. The goal in this case is not satisfaction itself, but getting rid of suffering and unhappiness: in the philosophy of happiness of Epicurus, we are talking about its achievement with the help of ataraxia- liberation from pain and anxiety, not by increased consumption of earthly goods, but thanks to a keen attention to the truly necessary needs, among which Epicurus lists friendship.
LIFE - moderation
KINIKI .
(in translation- " dog»)
school founder Antisthenes Athensky, developing the principles of the teacher, began to assert that best life lies not just in naturalness, in getting rid of conventions and artificialities, in freedom from possessing superfluous and useless things - Antisthenes began to argue that in order to achieve good, one should live "like a dog", that is, combining: - simplicity of life, following one's own nature , contempt for conventions; - the ability to firmly defend one's way of life, stand up for oneself; - loyalty, courage, gratitude
Diogenes of Sinop. He, preaching an ascetic lifestyle, despised luxury, contenting himself with the clothes of a tramp, using a wine barrel for housing, and in terms of expression he was often so straightforward and rude that he earned himself the names "Dog" and "crazy Socrates."
STOICS
Founder of the school Zeno of Kitia . Man's goal is to live "in harmony with nature." This the only way achieving harmony. Happiness is achievable only if the peace of the soul is not disturbed by any affect that is not considered as an excessively increased attraction. It is, by its very nature, based on a notion that is given false significance. Acting, he becomes pathos, passion. Since a person rarely masters its object completely, he experiences dissatisfaction. Stoic ideal - apathy freedom from such influences.
Whoever agrees, fate leads, whoever disagrees, she drags. (Seneca)
Heraclitus
he was also called the "Dark" philosophers, because he expressed his ideas in a florid way, that is, difficult to understand.
In the philosophy of Heraclitus we find the basics dialectics(movements). The philosopher associates “life” with “struggle”, and death with constancy (immutability). the source of "Life" is "struggle" (war, conflict).
Let's remember history! Thanks to the fact that Peter the Great chose the strongest army of the Swedes as Russia's rivals, our country was able to create one of the best armies and the strongest fleet.
And here's another story: a subordinate disliked her boss so much that she always meticulously read his papers. to criticize him. When she decided to quit, the boss got upset. why? Hating him alone really found errors in the text! So who was the winner?
Labs/Practices – not provided
Tasks for self-fulfillment
Based on the philosophical concepts of hedonists, epicureans, cynics, stoics, write a report (speech) on one of the topics:
- "Socrates and Plato - teachers of European civilization"
- "Socratic irony"
- "Plato's Utopian State Project"
- “Ancient Greek cynics (Diogenes from Sinope). Cynicism in modern world»
- "The meaning of life: pleasure or moderation?"
- Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
- Reader on the history of philosophy. In 3 vols. T.1. - M., 2000.
Form of control of independent work
The work is performed in electronic form and sent for verification indicating the group number, full name. student teacher by mail.
Questions for self-control
Is ancient philosophy. Its ancestors are the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the arsenal of thinkers of that time, the “tools” of knowledge were subtle speculation, contemplation and observation. Ancient philosophers were the first to set themselves eternal questions, exciting a person: what is the origin of everything around, the existence and non-existence of the world, the unity of contradictions, freedom and necessity, birth and death, the appointment of a person, moral duty, beauty and sublimity, wisdom, friendship, love, happiness, dignity of the individual. These issues are still relevant today. It was ancient philosophy that served as the basis for the formation and development of philosophical thought in Europe.
Periods of development of the philosophy of antiquity
Let us consider what main problems were solved by ancient philosophy, the stages of its development as a science.
In the development of ancient Greek and ancient Roman philosophical thought, four important stages can be conditionally distinguished.
The first, pre-Socratic, period falls on VII - V Art. BC. It is represented by the activities of the Elean and Miletus schools, Heraclitus of Ephesus, Pythagoras and his students, Democritus and Leukipus. They dealt with the laws of nature, the construction of the world and the Cosmos. The significance of the pre-Socratic period can hardly be overestimated, because it was the early ancient philosophy that largely influenced the development of culture, social life and Ancient Greece.
characteristic feature the second, classical, period (V - IV century is the appearance of the sophists. They shifted their attention from the problems of nature and the cosmos to the problems of man, laid the foundations of logic and contributed to the development. In addition to the sophists, early ancient philosophy in this period is represented by the names of Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Protogoras.At the same time, Roman philosophy begins to take shape, in which three main directions are defined - epicureanism, stoicism and skepticism.
During the period from IV to II century BC. e. ancient philosophy goes through the third, Hellenistic, stage of development. At this time, the first philosophical systems, deep in content, new philosophical schools appear - Epicurean, academic, perepatetics and others. Representatives of the Hellenistic period move on to solving ethical problems and moralizing precisely at a time when Hellenic culture is in decline. The names of Epicurus, Theophrastus and Carneades represent this stage in the development of philosophy.
With the beginning of our era (I - VI centuries), ancient philosophy enters its last period of development. At this time, the leading role in belongs to Rome, under the influence of which Greece is also. On the formation of Roman philosophy big influence renders the Greek, in particular, its Hellenistic stage. In the philosophy of Rome, three main directions are formed - epicureanism, stoicism and skepticism. This period is characterized by the activities of such philosophers as Aristotle, Socrates, Protogoras, Plato.
The third-fourth centuries - the time of the emergence and development of a new direction in ancient philosophy - Neoplatonism, the founder of which was Plato. His ideas and views largely influenced the philosophy of early Christianity and the philosophy of the Middle Ages.
This is how ancient philosophy arose, the stages of development of which gave rise to interesting ideas: the idea of a universal connection of all phenomena and things that exist in the world, and the idea of endless development.
It was at that time that epistemological trends were formed - Democritus, being, in essence, a materialist, suggested that the atom is the smallest particle of any substance. This idea of his was ahead of the centuries and millennia. Plato, adhering to idealistic views, created a dialectical doctrine of separate things and general terms.
The philosophy of ancient times became one of the independent ones. With its help, an integral picture of the world was formed. Ancient philosophy allows us to trace the entire path of the formation of theoretical thought, full of non-standard and bold ideas. Many questions that the ancient Greek and Roman philosophical minds tried to solve have not lost their topicality in our time.
PHILOSOPHY OF ANTIQUITY
philosophy antiquity cosmocentrism materialism
Ancient philosophy is a set of teachings that developed in ancient Greece and ancient Rome from the 6th century BC. BC e. according to the VI century. n. e. Usually in ancient philosophy there are three periods:
The first, the period of natural philosophy (6th century BC) - the problems of the philosophy of nature come to the fore. The first period ends with the appearance of the philosophy of Socrates, which radically changed the nature of ancient philosophy, therefore it is also called the pre-Socratic period.
The second period - the period of classical ancient philosophy (4 - 5 centuries BC), is associated with the names of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
The third period - Hellenistic-Roman philosophy (3rd century BC - 6th century AD), which developed in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, is represented by such currents as epicureanism, skepticism, stoicism and neoplatonism.
The main feature of ancient philosophy in the first period is cosmocentrism, based on the traditional Greek ideas about the world as a harmonious unity, reflected in the very concept of "cosmos". All the efforts of representatives of early ancient philosophy were focused on comprehending the causes of the origin of the material world, identifying the source of its harmonious structure, some guiding principle, which was called the beginning (arche).
Answers to the question about the beginning of the world were different. Thus, representatives of the Milesian school of ancient philosophy, Thales and his students, asserted one of the natural elements as the beginning. Such a position in the history of philosophy is called naive naturalism.
Thales argued that everything comes from water, Anaximenes - from air, Anaximander offers a variant of the ether "apeiron".
The representative of the city of Ephesus, the great philosopher Heraclitus, who is considered the creator of dialectics - the theory of development, also proposed his own version of the beginning - Logos - the fiery beginning and at the same time the world order.
The basis of the teachings of Heraclitus was the problem of opposites. He discovers that the world consists of struggling opposites and these opposites are correlative (there is no top without bottom, right without left, etc.). Heraclitus uses the image of war to describe the struggle of opposites: "War is universal," he writes. However, Heraclitus notices not only the struggle, but also the unity of opposites. According to him, opposites are the cause of movement, development, change of the world. He describes the universe as a flux—something ever becoming, moving, flowing, and changing. Heraclitus believed that the struggle of opposites appears as harmony and unity if you look at the world as a whole.
A departure from the ideas of naive naturalism is the philosophy of the famous mathematician and geometer Pythagoras. From his point of view, the beginning of the world is the number, as a certain principle of order. Evidence of progress here is that something non-material, abstract is offered as a starting point.
The crowning thought of the philosophers of the pre-Socratic period should be recognized as the teachings of Parmenides, a representative of the Eleatic school of philosophy. Parmenides is known as the creator of one of the basic concepts of the philosophy of the term "Being". Being is a term that focuses on the fact of the existence of objects and phenomena of the world around us. Parmenides reveals the basic properties of being as the beginning of the world. It is one, indivisible, infinite and immovable. In this regard, the being of Parmenides is a set of connections between the phenomena of the world, a certain principle that determines the unity of the world as a whole. Parmenides expresses his understanding of being in the well-known thesis: “Being exists, but there is no non-being”, meaning by this an expression of the unity of the world. After all, a world without voids (non-existence) is a world where everything is interconnected. It is noteworthy that Parmenides does not distinguish between Being and thinking. For him, "being and the thought of being" are one and the same.
However, the image of Being without voids does not imply movement. Zeno was busy solving this problem. He declared that the movement does not exist and put forward in defense of this position and now striking arguments (aporia).
Separately, we should consider the philosophy of the representatives of ancient materialism: Leucippus and Democritus. Very little is known about the life and teachings of Leucippus. His writings have not been preserved, and the glory of the creator of the complete system of atomism is carried by his student Democritus, who completely obscured the figure of the teacher.
Democritus was a representative of ancient materialism. He argued that in the world there are only atoms and the void between them. Atoms (from the Greek "indivisible") are the smallest particles that make up all bodies. Atoms vary in size and shape (spherical, cubic, hook-shaped, etc.).
The beginning of the classical period of ancient philosophy is associated with a fundamental change in the subject of philosophical reflection - the so-called anthropological turn. If the thinkers of early antiquity were interested in the questions of the origin and structure of the universe, then in the classical period there is a turn of interest in the study of the problems of man and society. First of all, this refers to the philosophy of the sophists.
Sophists - an ancient philosophical school that existed in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. Its most famous representatives are the so-called senior sophists: Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias. The Sophists were known as unsurpassed masters of eloquence. With the help of ingenious reasoning, often using errors of logic, they confused the interlocutor and "proved" obviously absurd theses. This kind of reasoning is called sophism.
Sophists also taught those who wished the skill of public speaking. At the same time, they did not hesitate to take payment for their lessons, which caused discontent and reproaches from other thinkers.
The philosophy of the sophists is based on the principle of relativity. They believed that there are no absolute truths, truths "in themselves." There are only relative truths. The sophists declared man to be the criterion of these truths. As Protagoras, one of the founders of sophistry, stated: "Man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist." This means that it is the person who determines what will be considered true at a given moment. Moreover, what is true today may not be true tomorrow, and what is true for me is not necessarily true for another person.
One of the most famous thinkers of antiquity is the Athenian sage Socrates (469 - 399 BC). Socrates left no writings behind him, and everything that is known about him, we know only in the presentation of his students. Socrates was close to the school of sophists, often used elements of sophistry in his reasoning, although he did not share them. philosophical views. In particular, he stated that absolute truths exist, moreover, he believed that they can be found in the mind (soul) of any person.
According to Socrates, knowledge cannot be taught or passed on, it can only be awakened in the human soul. Socrates called the method of birth of truth from the depths of the human soul Mayevtika (obscurity). Maieutics was the art of consistent, methodical questioning of a person in such a way that an understanding of more complex truths would come from simple and obvious truths for him.
The basis of Socrates' method of reasoning in the framework of this kind of dialogue was irony. Socrates "prompted" the interlocutor the right direction of reasoning, reducing his point of view to absurdity, exposing it to ridicule, which often led to resentment.
Socrates' doctrine of truth also had an ethical component. The main problem of ethics, from the point of view of Socrates, is the achievement of a single point of view regarding universal truths. All evil comes from ignorance. In other words, a person commits an evil deed not because he wants to do evil, but from a misunderstanding of good. The logical continuation is the thesis of Socrates that any knowledge, by definition, is good.
Socrates' life ended in tragedy: he was accused of blasphemy by his compatriots and was executed. Socrates left behind many students who later founded their own philosophical schools. The so-called Socratic schools include: the Academy of Plato, Cynics, Cyrenaics, Megarics.
One of the most famous students of Socrates, the successor of the classical ancient tradition was Plato (427 - 347 BC). Plato is the creator of a large-scale system of objective idealism. His doctrine of the world of ideas has become one of the most influential in the history of Western European philosophy. Plato's ideas are expressed in works that take the form of genre scenes, dialogues, the main character of which was his teacher Socrates.
After the death of Socrates, Plato founded his own philosophical school in the suburbs of Athens (named after the local hero Akadema). The basis of his philosophical views is the doctrine of ideas. Ideas (Greek "eidos") are objectively existing formations, unchanging and eternal, constituting an ideal or model for everything in our world. Ideas are non-material, they are cognizable only with the help of the mind and exist independently of a person. They are in a special world - the world of ideas, where they form a special kind of hierarchy, at the top of which is the idea of the good. The world of things, that is, the world in which man lives, was created, according to Plato, by imposing ideas on formless matter. This explains why groups of things in our world correspond to ideas from the world of ideas. For example, to many people - the idea of a person.
Ideas about the world of ideas underlie the epistemology and social philosophy of Plato. So the process of cognition, according to Plato, is nothing but the recollection of ideas from the world of ideas.
Plato believed that the human soul is immortal and during its rebirth contemplates the world of ideas. Therefore, each person, if the method of questioning is applied to him, can recall the ideas that he saw.
The structure of the world of ideas determines the structure of the state. Plato creates a project of an ideal state structure in the work "State". It, according to Plato, should contain three estates: philosophers, guards and artisans. Philosophers have to govern the state, guards have to ensure public order and protection from external threats, and artisans have to produce material wealth. In the ideal state of Plato, the destruction of the institutions of marriage, family and private property (for representatives of the estates of guards and philosophers) was supposed.
Another great philosopher of antiquity was Plato's student Aristotle (384-322, BC). After the death of Plato, Aristotle left the academy and founded his own school of philosophy, the Lyceum. Aristotle acted as a systematizer of all ancient knowledge. He was more of a scientist than a philosopher. The main task of Aristotle was to get rid of mythologization and ambiguity of concepts. He divided all knowledge into First Philosophy (philosophy proper) and Second Philosophy (concrete sciences). The subject of the first philosophy is pure, unalloyed being, which is the ideas of Plato. However, unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas exist in single things, constitute their essence, and not in a separate world of ideas. And they can be known only by knowing single things, and not by means of recollection.
Aristotle identifies four types of reasons on the basis of which the movement and development of the world occurs:
- -- material cause (the presence of matter itself)
- -- a formal cause is what a thing becomes
- -- driving cause - the source of movement or transformation
- -- target cause - the ultimate goal of all transformations
Aristotle considers every thing from the point of view of matter and form. Moreover, each thing can act as both matter and form (a block of copper is matter for a copper ball and the form of copper particles). A kind of staircase is formed, at the top of which is the last form, and at the bottom - the first matter. The form of forms is the god or prime mover of the world.
The period of Hellenism is the period of the crisis of Greek society, the collapse of the policy, the capture of Greece by Alexander the Great. However, since the Macedonians did not have a highly developed culture, they completely borrowed the Greek, that is, they became Hellenized. Moreover, they spread samples of Greek culture throughout the territory of the Empire of Alexander the Great, which stretched from the Balkans to the Indus and the Ganges. At the same time, the development of Roman culture began, which also borrowed a lot from the Greeks.
At this time, a search is made for ways of spiritual renewal. Not a single fundamentally new concept has been created. A powerful trend was Neoplatonism, which developed the ideas of Plato. An influential trend of that time was Epicureanism, named after its founder Epicurus. Epicurus that the rule of social life should be the expression "Live unnoticed" (in contrast to the social activism of classical antiquity). aim human life Epicurus declared pleasure. He divided pleasures into three groups: 1. Useful and not harmful 2. Useless and not harmful 3. Useless and harmful. Accordingly, he taught to limit the second and avoid the third.
Cynicism is an influential philosophical doctrine, the founder of which was Antisthenes, but the spiritual leader is Diogenes of Sinope. The meaning of Diogenes's formulations was to reject and expose the great illusions that drove people's behavior:
1) pursuit of pleasure; 2) fascination with wealth; 3) a passionate desire for power; 4) thirst for fame, brilliance and success - all that leads to misfortune. Refraining from these illusions, apathy and self-sufficiency are the conditions for maturity and wisdom, and ultimately happiness.
Another influential trend was Skepticism, founded in the 4th century. BC e. Pyrrho. Skeptics believed that no human judgment could be true. Therefore, it is necessary to refrain from judgment and achieve complete equanimity (ataraxia).
The Stoics offer a different position. This is the philosophy of duty, the philosophy of fate. This philosophical school was founded in the 6th century. BC e. Zeno. Its prominent representatives are Seneca, Nero's teacher, Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The positions of this philosophy are opposite to Epicurus: trust fate, fate leads the humble, and drags the rebellious.
THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution
Higher professional education
TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY
Branch office in Zavodoukovsk
on the topic "Ancient Philosophy"
Fulfilled
1st year student
Specialty "Economics-282"
Ushakov Alexey Anatolievich
Zavodoukovsk, 2009
Introduction…………………………………………………………….3
The origin of ancient Greek philosophy…………..……………4
Stages of development, main problems
and schools of ancient philosophy…………………………………….….….7
4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………12
5. List of used literature………………………………..13
Introduction
The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to call them a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be accurately determined, but they largely coincide with the time of existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th-9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and before V AD. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.
Common to ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Their civilization was common with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of indisputable features and differences in the life of ancient societies. The main, pivotal ancient culture beaten religion and mythology. Mythology was for the ancient Greeks the content and form of their worldview, their worldview, it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and social life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Next, science and artistic culture should be singled out as pivotal phenomena in ancient culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary first of all to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.
Antique culture is a unique phenomenon that gave general cultural values in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose lives practically fit into the classical period of the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations of European civilization and created images to follow for millennia to come. The distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before the peoples imitate the Greeks, build a culture according to the patterns they created.
1. The origin of ancient Greek philosophy.
Ancient philosophy arose and lived in a "force field", the poles of which were, on the one hand, mythology, and on the other, science, which was being formed precisely in Ancient Greece.
A leap in the development of productive forces due to the transition from bronze to iron, the emergence of commodity-money relations, the weakening of tribal structures, the emergence of the first states, the growth of opposition traditional religion and its ideologists in the person of the priestly class, criticism of normative moral attitudes and ideas, strengthening the critical spirit and growth scientific knowledge- these are some of the factors that formed the spiritual atmosphere that favored the birth of philosophy.
In ancient Greece, philosophy is formed at a time when the meaning of human life, its habitual structure and order are under threat, when the old traditional mythological ideas of the slave-owning society reveal their insufficiency, their inability to satisfy new worldview demands.
The crisis of mythological consciousness was caused by a number of reasons. The main role here was played by the economic development of Greece, the economic recovery in the 9th-7th centuries BC: the expansion of trade and shipping, the emergence and expansion of Greek colonies, the increase in wealth and its redistribution, the growth of population and its influx into cities. As a result of the development of trade, navigation, colonization of new lands, the geographical horizon of the Greeks expanded, the Mediterranean Sea became known to Gibraltar, where the Ionian merchant ships reached, and thus the Homeric idea of the Universe revealed its inadequacy. But the most important was the expansion of ties and contacts with other peoples, the discovery of customs, mores and beliefs previously unfamiliar to the Greeks, which suggested the relativity, conventionality of their own social and political institutions. These factors contributed to social stratification and the destruction of former forms of life, led to a crisis in the traditional way of life and to the loss of strong moral guidelines.
In Greece in the VI century BC. there is a gradual decomposition of the traditional type of sociality, which assumed a more or less rigid division of estates, each of which had its own established way of life for centuries and passed on both this way of life and its skills and abilities from generation to generation. Mythology acted as the form of knowledge that was common to all classes; and although each locality had its own gods, these gods did not fundamentally differ from each other in their character and way of relating to man.
Socio-economic changes that took place in the 7th-6th centuries BC. e., led to the destruction of the established forms of communication between people and required the individual to develop a new position in life. Philosophy was one of the answers to this demand. She offered the man new type self-determination: not through habit and tradition, but through one's own mind. The philosopher told his student: do not take everything on faith - think for yourself. Education took the place of customs, the teacher took the place of the father in education, and thus the power of the father in the family was called into question.
Philosophy arose at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 6th century. BC, in the Greek city-states at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. First, on the western coast of Asia Minor (in Ionia), then in the Greek cities of Southern Italy, in the coastal Greek cities of the island of Sicily, and, finally, in Greece proper - in Athens (5th century BC). Having experienced a period of brilliant prosperity in the VI-V centuries. BC e., the philosophy of ancient Greece continued to develop in the era of the formation of the monarchy of Alexander the Great (4th century BC) and under his successors, and then under the rule of the Roman Empire and during the period of its division - in the Eastern Empire - until the beginning of the 6th century . n. e.
The Greek philosophers belonged for the most part to various strata of the "free", that is, predominantly to the slave-owning class. Their socio-political, moral and pedagogical teachings expressed the views and interests of this class. Nevertheless, in developing even these questions, and especially in developing the foundations of a philosophical worldview, the ancient Greeks created doctrines that rose high above the narrow historical horizon of a slave-owning society.
Thales (c.625-547 BC) is considered the founder of ancient Greek philosophy, and Anaximander (c.610-546 BC) and Anaximenes (c.585-525 BC) were his successors. e.).
A characteristic feature of ancient Greek philosophy lies primarily in the opposition of philosophical reflections to practical activity, in its peculiar relationship to mythology. Spiritual development in the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. went from mythology and religion to science and philosophy. An important link and condition for this development was the assimilation by the Greeks of scientific and philosophical concepts developed in the countries of the East - in Babylon, Iran, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Especially great was the influence of Babylonian science - mathematics, astronomy, geography, systems of measures. Cosmology, calendar, elements of geometry and algebra were borrowed by the Greeks from their predecessors and neighbors to the east.
Gradually, in ancient philosophy, two main types of philosophical worldview appear - materialism and idealism. Their struggle is the main content of philosophical development in all subsequent time. At the same time, there is an opposition between the two main methods of thinking - dialectics and metaphysics.
2. Stages of development. The main problems and schools of ancient philosophy.
Stages of development.
The history of Greek philosophy is a general and at the same time a living individual image of spiritual development in general. The first period can be called cosmological, ethical-political and ethical-religious-philosophical according to the interests prevailing in it. Absolutely all scientists-philosophers note that this period of development of ancient philosophy was the period of natural philosophy. A peculiar feature of ancient philosophy was the connection of its teachings with the teachings about nature, from which independent sciences later developed: astronomy, physics, biology. In the VI and V centuries. BC. philosophy did not yet exist separately from the knowledge of nature, and knowledge about nature did not exist separately from philosophy. Cosmological speculation of the 7th and 6th centuries BC raises the question of the ultimate foundation of things. Thus, the concept of world unity appears, which opposes a multitude of phenomena and through which they try to explain the connection between this multitude and diversity, as well as the regularity that manifests itself primarily in the most general cosmic processes, in the change of day and night, in the movement of stars. simplest form there is a concept single world substance from which things come in perpetual motion and into which they are again transformed.
The second period of Greek philosophy (V-VI centuries BC) begins with the formulation of anthropological problems. Naturphilosophical thinking reached limits beyond which it could not go at that time. This period is represented by the Sophists, Socrates and Socrates. In his philosophical activity, Socrates was guided by two principles formulated by the oracles: "the need for everyone to know himself and the fact that no person knows anything for sure and only a true sage knows that he knows nothing." Socrates ends the natural philosophical period in the history of ancient Greek philosophy and begins a new stage associated with the activities of Plato and Aristotle. Plato goes far beyond the boundaries of the Socratic spirit. Plato is a conscious and consistent objective idealist. He was the first among philosophers to pose the fundamental question of philosophy, the question of the relationship between spirit and matter. Strictly speaking, it is possible to speak about philosophy in ancient Greece with a significant degree of certainty only starting from Plato.
The third period of ancient philosophy is the age of Hellenism. These include the Stoics, the Epicureans, the Skeptics. It includes the period of early Hellenism (III-I centuries BC) and the period of late Hellenism (I-V centuries AD). Culture of Early Hellenism characterized primarily by individualism, due to the liberation of the human person from political, economic and moral dependence on the policy. The subjective world of the individual becomes the main subject of philosophical research. During the period of late Hellenism, the main trends in the development of ancient philosophical thought were brought to their logical conclusion. There was, as it were, a return to the ideas of the classics, to its philosophical teachings about being (neopythagoreanism, neoplatonism), but a return enriched with knowledge of the subjective world of the individual. Interaction with Eastern cultures within the framework of a single Roman Empire led philosophical thought to a partial departure from rationalism and an appeal to mysticism. The philosophy of late Hellenism, freeing itself from the free-thinking of early Hellenism, took the path of sacred, that is, religious comprehension of the world.
Problems of ancient philosophy.
The cumulative problems of ancient philosophy can be thematically defined as follows: cosmology (natural philosophers), in its context, the totality of the real was seen as “physis” (nature) and as cosmos (order), the main question is: “How did the cosmos arise?”; morality (sophists) was a defining theme in the knowledge of man and his specific abilities; metaphysics (Plato) declares the existence of an intelligible reality, claims that reality and being are heterogeneous, and the world of ideas is higher than the sensual; methodology (Plato, Aristotle) develops the problems of the genesis and nature of knowledge, while the method of rational search is understood as an expression of the rules of adequate thinking; aesthetics is developed as a sphere for solving the problem of art and beauty in itself; the problems of proto-Aristotelian philosophy can be grouped as a hierarchy of generalizing problems: physics (ontology-theology-physics-cosmology), logic (epistemology), ethics; and at the end of the era of ancient philosophy, mystical-religious problems are formed, they are characteristic of the Christian period of Greek philosophy.
It should be noted that in line with the ancient ability to perceive this world, philosophically theoretical philosophical thought seems to be the most important for the subsequent formation of philosophical knowledge. At the very least, the doctrine of philosophy as life has now undergone a significant change: philosophy is no longer just life, but life precisely in cognition. Of course, the elements of practical philosophy that develop the ideas of ancient practical philosophy retain their significance: the ideas of ethics, politics, rhetoric, the theory of state and law. Thus, it is theory that can be considered the philosophical discovery of antiquity, which determined not only the thinking of modern man, but also his life. And without a doubt, the "reverse influence" of the mechanisms of cognition generated by the ancient Greek consciousness had a very strong effect on the very structure of a person's conscious life. In this sense, if the theory as a principle of organization of knowledge and its results is fully verified, then its "reverse" effect as a reverse principle of organization of consciousness is not yet completely clear.
Schools of ancient philosophy.
According to the estimates of Roman historians, in ancient Greece there were 288 philosophical teachings, of which, in addition to the great philosophical schools, the teachings of the Cynics and Cyrenian philosophers stand out. There were four great schools in Athens: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, Portico (Stoic school) and Garden (Epicurean school).
Ionian(or Milesian, according to the place of occurrence) school- the oldest school of natural philosophy. According to A.N. Chanyshev, “Ionian philosophy is proto-philosophy. It is also characterized by the absence of polarization into materialism and idealism ..., the presence of many images of mythology, significant elements of anthropomorphism, pantheism, the absence of proper philosophical terminology, the presentation of physical processes in the context of moral issues. But Ionian philosophy is already philosophy in the basic sense of the word, because already its first creators - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes - sought to understand this or that principle as a substance (water, air, fire, etc.). Their origin is always the same, it is material, but also reasonable, even divine. Each of the philosophers defined one of the elements as this beginning. Thales is the founder of the Milesian or Ionian school, the first philosophical school. He was one of the founders of philosophy and mathematics, he was the first to formulate geometric theorems, he studied astronomy and geometry from the Egyptian priests.
Eleatic school called the ancient Greek philosophical school, the teachings of which developed from the end of the VI century. until the beginning of the second half of the 5th c. BC. with the crown of major philosophers - Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus. Since the main teachings of the school were developed by Parmenides and Zeno, citizens from the city of Elea, the school as a whole was called Elea. And if the Pythagoreans considered the world order exclusively from its quantitative side, then in the 6th century they are opposed by directions that, like the ancient Ionian thinkers, understand the idea of world unity qualitatively, however, they see the world unity not in a single world substance, but in a single ruling world principle, in a single concept that dominates the change of all phenomena. For the Eleatics, such a concept is being, which remains constant with every change in things.
Appearance sophist schools was a response to the need of democracy in education and sciences. Wandering teachers for money could teach anyone the art of speech. Their main goal was to prepare young people for an active political life. The activity of the sophists, which relativized any truth, laid the foundation for the search for new forms of the reliability of knowledge - those that could stand before the court of critical reflection.
Conclusion
In the social philosophical problems of antiquity, ethical themes predominate: it is scattered with wise aphorisms that make us think even today. So, in Plato's "Dialogues" alone, definitions of the concepts of fate, old age, virtue, rationality, justice, patience, composure, conscientiousness, freedom, modesty, decency, generosity, goodness, peacefulness, frivolity, friendship, nobility, faith, sanity and others
Summing up the consideration of philosophy ancient world, it should be said that it is the "soul" of its culture, largely determines the face of the spiritual civilization of the West and East. The fact is that philosophy embraced all the spiritual values of the ancient world: art and religion, ethics and aesthetic thought, law and politics, pedagogy and science.
The entire spiritual civilization of the East carries an appeal to the being of the individual, his self-consciousness and self-improvement through the departure from the material world, which could not but affect the whole way of life and methods of mastering all the values of culture, the history of the peoples of the East.
The spiritual civilization of the West turned out to be more open to changes, the search for truth in various directions, including atheistic, intellectual, and practical ones.
In general, the philosophy of the ancient world had a huge impact on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization.
Bibliography:
V.F. Asmus "Antique Philosophy", Moscow, "Higher School", 2002
I.T.Frolov Introduction to Philosophy, Moscow, Political Literature Publishing House, 2001.
A.N. Chanyshev Course of lectures on ancient philosophy, Moscow, 2004.
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