The philosophy of Taoism briefly. Taoism: the main ideas in brief

12.10.2019

Taoism. Story.

The tops of Chinese society lived according to Confucian norms, performed rites and rituals in honor of the ancestors, Heaven and Earth, according to the requirements of Liji. Any of those who were above the level of the common people, or sought to advance from their midst, had to subordinate their lives to the strict observance of these norms and ceremonies; without knowledge and observance of them, no one could count on respect, prestige, success in life. However, neither society as a whole, nor a person in particular, no matter how they were shackled by the official dogmas of Confucianism, could always be guided only by them. After all, the mystical and irrational remained outside Confucianism, not to mention ancient mythology and primitive prejudices. And without all this, a person, even skillfully drawn into a Confucian uniform that has been adjusted for centuries, could not help but experience a feeling of spiritual discomfort from time to time. The existential function of religion under these conditions fell to the lot of Taoism - a doctrine that aimed to reveal to man the secrets of the universe, the eternal problems of life and death.

Confucius did not recognize spirits and was skeptical of superstition and metaphysical speculation:
"We do not know what life is," he used to say, "how can we know what death is?" (Lunyu, ch. XI, § 11). It is not surprising that all the vague, subconscious, belonging to the sphere of feelings beyond the control of the mind, Confucianism left aside. But all this continued to exist, whether it was the superstitions of the common people or the philosophical searches of creatively thinking and searching individuals. In the pre-Han time, and especially at the beginning of the Han (II century BC) - a very rich time for the history of China, when the already reformed Han Confucianism took shape and took its final form, all these beliefs and rituals were combined within the framework of the Confucianism religion Taoists - religious Taoism.

Philosophy of Taoism.

Taoism arose in Zhou China almost almost simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius in the form of an independent philosophical doctrine. The founder of Taoist philosophy is the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu. An older contemporary of Confucius, about whom - unlike Confucius - there is no reliable information of either historical or biographical nature in the sources, Lao Tzu is considered a legendary figure by modern researchers. Legends tell of his miraculous birth (his mother carried him for several decades and gave birth to an old man - hence his name, "Old Child", although the same sign tzu simultaneously meant the concept of "philosopher", so his name can be translated as "Old philosopher ") and his departure from China. Going west, Lao Tzu graciously agreed to leave his Tao Te Ching to the keeper of the border outpost.

The treatise Tao Te Ching (IV-III century BC) outlines the foundations of Taoism, the philosophy of Lao Tzu. At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created him, but everything comes from him. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - through de, and if Tao gives birth to everything, then de nourishes everything.

It is difficult to get rid of the impression that the concept of Tao in many respects, down to minor details, resembles the Indo-Aryan concept of the great Brahman, the faceless Absolute, which was repeatedly recorded in the Upanishads, the emanation of which created the visible phenomenal world and to merge with which (to get away from the phenomenal world) was the goal of the ancient Indian philosophers, brahmins, hermits and ascetics. If we add to this that the highest goal of the ancient Chinese Taoist philosophers was to get away from the passions and vanity of life to the primitiveness of the past, to simplicity and naturalness, that it was among the Taoists that the first ascetic hermits in ancient China were, whose asceticism he himself spoke with respect Confucius, the resemblance will seem even more obvious and mysterious. How to explain it? This question is not easy to answer. It is difficult to talk about direct borrowing, because there are no documentary grounds for this, except perhaps the legend of Lao Tzu's journey to the west. But this legend does not explain, but only confuses the problem:

Lao Tzu could not bring to India a philosophy that had been known there for at least half a millennium before his birth. One can only assume that the very fact of travel shows that even at that remote time they were not impossible and that, consequently, not only from China to the west, but also from the west (including India) people could move to China and their ideas.

In its concrete practice, Taoism in China, however, bore little resemblance to the practice of Brahmanism. On Chinese soil, rationalism overcame any mysticism, forcing it to go aside, to hide in corners, where it could only be preserved. This is what happened with Taoism. Although the Taoist treatise Zhuangzi (4th-3rd centuries BC) said that life and death are relative concepts, the emphasis was clearly placed on life, on how it should be organized. The mystical deviations in this treatise, expressed, in particular, in references to fantastic longevity (800, 1200 years) and even immortality, which righteous hermits who approach the Tao can achieve, played an important role in the transformation of philosophical Taoism into religious Taoism.

History of Taoism.

Taoism is the traditional religion of China. Formed as a religion during the reign of Emperor Shundi (125 - 144) of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Taoism had a great influence on the economy, culture and political thinking of feudal China for more than 1700 years. During the reign of Emperor Shundi, Zhang Daoling founded the Five Measures of Rice Sect, which was a form of Taoism in China. early stage. Her followers declared Laozi their great teacher, and his treatise "Daodejing" - a sacred canon. Believing that a person can achieve immortality through self-improvement, they built their teaching on the basis of ancient magic and recipes for immortality. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the leader of the peasant rebels Zhang Jiao founded the Taoist sect - Taiping Dao (Way of Great Tranquility). He managed to gather 10 thousand like-minded people and in 184 raise an uprising that dealt a severe blow to the feudal ruling class. The Five Measures of Rice sect spread widely throughout the country. It gave its name to another peasant uprising that took place at the end of the Eastern Jin Dynasty under the leadership of Sun En and Lu Xun and lasted for more than 10 years. During the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Taoism was divided into 2 main branches - southern and northern. And during the reign of Tang (618 - 907) and Song (960 - 1279), he gained special significance; Taoist monasteries and temples became more majestic and spread throughout the country. During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368 - 1911), the influence of Taoism began to gradually weaken, but among a part of the population it has survived to this day. In 1949, there were about 40 thousand Taoist priests and nuns, 20 thousand temples and monasteries.

Taoism after the founding of the PRC

In April 1957, at the 1st Congress of Taoism, held in Beijing, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed. Congress elected a board of directors, which in turn selected the members of the standing committee, the chairman, vice chairman, and general secretary. Yue Chongdai was the chairman of the 1st Council of the Chinese Taoist Association. He was succeeded by Chen Yingning and Li Yuhang. Recently, the association has received many foreign scientists.

The most famous Taoist monasteries are the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing, the Black Sheep Monastery in Chengdu, the Monastery of Supreme Purity in Shenyang, and the Monastery of Supreme Truth on Mount Qionglong in Suzhou.

Taoism in Qin-Han (111 century BC - III century AD)

The preaching of longevity and immortality ensured the Taoist preachers popularity among the people and the favor of the emperors, who were by no means indifferent to their life and death. As far as one can judge, the first to be seduced by this idea was the unifier of China, Qin Shih Huangdi. The Taoist magician Xu Shi told him about magical islands where there is an elixir of immortality. The emperor sent an expedition, which, as expected, failed (Xu Shi referred to the fact that the abundance of sharks prevented him from landing on the island). Other expeditions for magical potions ended in the same way. The angry emperor often executed the losers, but immediately sent others on a new campaign, without questioning the very idea. The first Han emperors, especially the powerful Wudi, continued this tradition: they equipped expeditions, supported Taoist magicians, generously donated money for their work on pills and elixirs.

Official support helped Taoism survive and even gain a foothold under the dominance of Confucianism. But, having survived, Taoism has changed quite a lot. General philosophical metaphysical speculations about Tao and Te were relegated to the background, as was the idea of seclusion with its principle of wuwei (non-action). On the other hand, numerous Taoist magicians and preachers came to the fore, healers and shamans who joined Taoism, who not only sharply increased their activity, but also skillfully synthesized some philosophical ideas Taoism with the primitive beliefs and superstitions of the peasant masses. In particular, many long-forgotten or newly introduced myths were used for this purpose. So, for example, with the help of the Taoists, the myth of the goddess of immortality Sivanmu, in whose garden somewhere in the west the peaches of immortality supposedly bloom once every 3000 years, became widespread. The myth of the first man Pangu also spread.

Of particular interest is the problem of the Pangu myth. In paragraph 42 of the Taoist treatise Tao Te Ching, there is a vague but full of deep meaning phrase: "Tao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three - all things." Commentators and interpreters of this phrase put forward many variants of its* understanding. But in almost any case, the final part of the formula is reduced to the Pangu myth. Without going into the details of the debate, it is worth noting that the original creative triad, which is able to give rise to all things (three give rise to all things), is reduced in the philosophical Taoist treatise most likely to Tao, de and qi. We have already talked about Tao and de, they are close to the ancient Indian Brahman and Atman. As for qi, it is something like life force, i.e., the great first-substance that makes all living things alive, all things that exist. To some extent, it can be compared with the pre-Buddhist dharmas, the complex of which is life, something that exists. But even more the primary substance qi resembles purusha.

The concept of purusha in ancient Indian texts is ambiguous and most often comes down, as already discussed, to the spiritual principle of the living. This is its similarity with qi. However, already in the Rig Veda (X, 90) a myth is recorded, according to which it was the first giant Purusha, having broken up into parts, that gave rise to everything - from earth and sky, sun and moon to plants, animals, people and even gods. It is worth adding to this that another ancient Indian cosmogonic myth, which was mentioned in the chapter on Hinduism, proceeds from the fact that the world was created by Brahma, who was in a cosmic egg. The Taoist myth about Pangu, recorded in post-Han texts (3rd-4th centuries), is briefly reduced to the story of how the first giant grew from a cosmic egg, two parts of the shell of which became heaven and earth, whose eyes then became the sun and moon , body - soil, bones - mountains, hair - herbs, etc. In a word, everything was created from Pangu's primary substance, including people.

The identity of Pangu and Purusha has long been noticed by specialists. It seems that the very idea which in the dry treatise is expressed by the formula "three give birth to all things" and which clearly goes back to the idea of the original Brahman, Atman and Purusha (in Chinese version, most likely to Tao, de and qi), in the Pangu myth popularized by the Taoists, was presented in an accessible and colorful language. The secondary nature of this myth, i.e., borrowing it from the mythological constructions of Brahmanism and Hinduism, once again raises the question that the mysticism and metaphysics of the Taoists, at least in part, go back to external sources. However, this did not prevent the fact that on Chinese soil, Taoism as a doctrine, regardless of the origin of one or another of its ideas, from the very beginning was precisely the Chinese religion.

Peasant Taoist uprising "Yellow Turbans".

The end of the Han Dynasty was marked in China by a crisis and political decline, aggravated by natural disaster, an epidemic during which the Taoist magician Zhang Jue became famous among the people for curing the sick with charms and spells. Huge crowds of people, distraught with grief and disasters, rushed to him, and soon the magician found himself at the head of a powerful sect, almost militarily organized, zealous followers of the new religion.

With dizzying speed, Taoism turned from a respectable teaching of court alchemists and preachers of immortality into a banner of the destitute and oppressed. The Taoist treatise Taipingjing (Book of Great Equality) theoretically substantiated the policy and practice of the Taoists who appealed to the masses. As has happened more than once in history, the new religion announced itself with a powerful revolutionary explosion - the uprising of the "Yellow Turbans".

Zhang Jue's sect aimed to overthrow the existing system and replace it with the Kingdom of Great Equality (taiping). Although the specific outlines of this kingdom were presented to the leaders of the sect very vaguely, the demands of the dispossessed peasantry were taken into account by them in the first place. Zhang Jue and his assistants proclaimed the year 184, the year of the beginning of a new 60-year cycle, which played the role of a century in China, the beginning of the era of the new "Yellow Sky", which will bring joy and happiness to the world and forever end the era of the "Blue Sky", which has become a symbol of evil and injustice of the Han time. As a sign of their commitment to new ideas, the rebels wore yellow bands on their heads.

The plan of the uprising became known to the authorities, and severe persecution of sectarians began. Soon, their prematurely raised uprising was suppressed, and the surviving followers of the deceased Zhang Jue fled to the west, where another powerful Taoist sect, Udoumidao, was operating in the mountainous border regions of China, led by Zhang Lu, the grandson of the famous Taoist magician Zhang Dao-lin who is considered the founder of the Taoist religion. Strengthened by the remnants of the rebels, the Zhang Lu sect soon, especially in connection with the final collapse of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the era of interpower, the period of the Southern and Northern dynasties (III-VI centuries), turned into a virtually independent theocratic entity that managed to achieve a certain autonomy; the official Chinese authorities subsequently reckoned with him.

Theocratic state of the Taoists

The "state" of the Taoist popes-patriarchs, who passed on their power by inheritance, existed in China until recently (the 63rd Taoist pope from the Zhang family moved to Taiwan after 1949). At first it was strictly organized and consisted of 24 religious communities headed by hereditary ruling "bishops". All power in each of the communities belonged to a group of Taoist spiritual mentors headed by a "bishop", and all sectarians obeyed them implicitly. Life in the Taoist communities was organized in such a way that everyone could purify themselves, repent and, having gone through a series of fasts and rites, prepare themselves for immortality.

During the Tutanzhai fast (the fast of mud and coal), which at first was intended for the sick who repented of sins, and later became common to everyone, the sectarians smeared their faces and bodies with mud and coal, sang psalms, bowed, drove themselves into a frenzy, and finally rushed to the ground. Slightly catching their breath, they repeated the same cycle the next day - and so for three, or even seven - nine days. During the Huangluzhai fast (the fast of the yellow talisman), members of the community, led by mentors, performed a ritual on a special site in order to purify the souls of their ancestors and make them immortal. On the days of the rites-saturnalia Heqi (fusion of souls), orgies were performed in the communities, which was explained by the teaching of the Taoists about the beneficial interaction. The forces of yin and yang - the feminine and masculine principles. In total there were 28 such fasts and ceremonies; moreover, the origin of some of them, in particular Heqi, may have had a connection with the ideas of Tantrism, which were widespread at the beginning of our era in the eastern border mountainous regions of India, from where they apparently became known to the Taoists.

Despite the important role of the hereditary theocracy of the Zhangs and the various Taoist sects associated with it, the heads of which were often credited with miraculous powers and even power over demons and spirits, all of them were only the highest spiritual authority, a kind of guardians of the principles and dogmas of the teaching. Taoist patriarchs and "bishops" had no real administrative power outside their communities and sects. They didn't aspire to it. The Taoist religion during its almost two thousand years of existence did not create a coherent church structure, and this was justified under the dominance of Confucianism: the organizational weakness of religious Taoism outside its communities and sects contributed to the penetration of this religion into all pores of Chinese society. In this sense, Taoism was close to Buddhism - a doctrine from which it took a lot both in the field of theoretical, doctrinal, and in organizational terms. Most of all, the influence of Buddhism and Indian thought in general is noticeable on the transformation that Taoist concepts about the ways and methods of achieving immortality experienced. These concepts were developed in a number of treatises.

Taoism is about achieving immortality.

The human body is a microcosm, which in principle should be likened to the macrocosm, i.e. the Universe. Just as the Universe functions during the interaction of Heaven and Earth, the forces of yin and yang, has stars, planets, etc., the human body is also an accumulation of spirits and divine forces, the result of the interaction of male and female principles. Aspiring to the attainment of immortality, one must first of all try to create conditions for all these spirit-monads (there are 36,000 of them) so that they do not seek to leave the body. Even better - by special means to strengthen their positions so that they become the predominant element of the body, as a result of which the body dematerializes and the person becomes immortal. But how to achieve this?

First of all, the Taoists proposed a restriction in food - a path explored to the limit by Indian hermit ascetics. A candidate for immortality had to first give up meat and wine, then in general from any coarse and spicy food (spirits cannot stand the smell of blood and generally no pungent odors), then from vegetables and grains, which nevertheless strengthen the material principle in the body. Gradually lengthening the breaks between meals, one had to learn to get by with very little - light fruit soufflés, pills and mixtures of nuts, cinnamon, rhubarb, etc. Special potions were prepared according to strict recipes, because their composition was also determined by the magical power of the ingredients. You should also learn to satisfy your hunger with your own saliva.

Other important element the achievements of immortality were physical and breathing exercises, ranging from innocent movements and postures (poses of a tiger, deer, stork, turtle) to instructions for communication between the sexes. The complex of these exercises included tapping your teeth, rubbing your temples, ruffling your hair, as well as the ability to control your breath, hold it, turn it into a barely noticeable - "uterine". The influence of physical and respiratory gymnastics of yogis and the system of yogis in general is manifested quite clearly here. However, Taoism was still a Chinese teaching, even if it was influenced to some extent from outside. And this is most evident in how much importance the Taoist theory of achieving immortality attached to moral factors. Moreover, morality is precisely in the Chinese sense - in terms of virtuous deeds, demonstrations of high moral qualities. To become immortal, the candidate had to perform at least 1200 virtuous actions, while even one immoral act brought everything to naught.

The preparation for immortality had to take a lot of time and effort, in fact, the whole life, and all this was only a prelude to the final act - the merging of a dematerialized organism with the great Tao. This transformation of a person into an immortal was considered very difficult, accessible only to a few. The very act of reincarnation was considered so sacred and mysterious that no one could record it. There was just a man - and he is not. He did not die, but disappeared, left his body shell, dematerialized, ascended to heaven, became immortal.

Taught by the fate of their predecessors, who were executed by the emperors Qin Shi-huangdi and Wu-di, the Taoists diligently explained that visible death is not yet proof of failure: it is quite likely that the deceased ascended to heaven and achieved immortality. As an argument, the Taoists skillfully used the legends they created in abundance. Here, for example, is the legend of Wei Bo-yang, the author of one of the Han treatises on the search for immortality. They say that he made magic pills and went with his students and a dog to the mountains in order to try to gain immortality there. First they gave the pill to the dog - she died; this did not bother Wei - he took the pill and fell down lifeless. Believing that this was only a visible death, one of the disciples followed him - with the same result. The rest returned home to later come for the bodies and bury them. When they left, those who took the pills were resurrected and turned into immortals, and they left a corresponding note to their companions who did not believe.

The most interesting thing in the legend is its instructiveness: it is after death that immortality comes, therefore visible death can be considered imaginary. Such a turn in the Taoist cult of immortality was natural. After all, the emperors who encouraged the Taoists and patronized them were by no means interested in exhausting fasting and self-restraint. They did not seek to learn how to eat saliva - they were interested in pills, talismans and magic elixirs. And the Taoists tried to please their royal patrons. The Chinese chronicles mention that in the IX century. four emperors of the Tang Dynasty committed suicide prematurely precisely because of the use of Taoist drugs. Of course, the record in the official (Confucian) source is not yet conclusive evidence. However, there is no reason to doubt: for the educated and rationalistically thinking Confucians, the charlatanism of the Taoist magicians and the gullibility of the rulers were obvious, which turned out to be recorded in the sources. At the same time, it is very likely that some Tang emperors did not perceive this kind of death as evidence of failure - perhaps they also believed that this was the path to true immortality. However, it is worth noting that cases of death from the abuse of pills were infrequent, and rather among the emperors who believed the Taoists and passionately desired immortality than among the Taoists themselves.

Taoist Pseudosciences

Enthusiasm magic elixirs and pills in medieval China caused the rapid development of alchemy. The Taoists-alchemists who received funds from the emperors worked hard on the transmutation of metals, on the processing of minerals and products of the organic world, inventing new ways of preparing magical preparations. In Chinese alchemy, as in Arabic or European, in the course of countless trial and error experiments, useful side discoveries were made (for example, gunpowder was discovered). But these side discoveries were not theoretically comprehended, and therefore they did not play a significant role in the development of natural and technical sciences. This, as mentioned, was also facilitated by the official position of Confucianism, which considered only humanitarian knowledge in their Confucian interpretation as science. Not surprisingly, alchemy, like some other proto-scientific disciplines, remained pseudosciences in the hands of the Taoists.

Among them was astrology, a science that was practiced by the ancient Confucians. Unlike the Confucians, who vigilantly followed the luminaries and used their movements and celestial phenomena in political struggle, Taoists saw in astrology opportunities for divination and predictions. Knowing well the firmament, the location of stars and planets, the Taoists compiled many astrological maps, atlases and calendars, with the help of which they drew conclusions about what star a person was born under, what his fate was, etc. Becoming monopolists in the field of occult sciences in medieval China , Taoists made horoscopes and made predictions; moreover, without the advice of a Taoist fortuneteller, no one usually started a serious business, and marriage in China always began with the exchange of horoscopes, more precisely, with the sending of the bride's horoscope to the groom's house.

One of the popular occult sciences was geomancy (feng shui).
Having connected celestial phenomena, stars and planets with the signs of the zodiac and the countries of the world, with space forces and symbols (Heaven, Earth, yin, yang, five primary elements, etc.), geomancers have developed a complex system of interaction between all these forces and the earth's relief. Only with a favorable combination heavenly powers a piece of land was considered suitable for construction, grave arranging, or acquisition of ownership. Taoist geomancy has always been successful: even the most refined, refined and superstitious Confucians did not neglect it. On the contrary, in necessary cases, they turned to Taoist fortune-tellers for advice and assistance. Taoist fortune-tellers furnished the entire procedure of divination with the greatest care and seriousness. It is significant that the compass, one of the greatest inventions of the Chinese, appeared precisely in the depths of geomancy and for its needs, i.e., for orientation on the ground.

Taoists did a lot for Chinese medicine. Relying on practical experience healers-shamans and giving this experience their mystical calculations and magical techniques, the Taoists in the process of searching for immortality got acquainted with the anatomy and functions of the human body. Although they did not know the scientific basis of human physiology, many of their recommendations, remedies and methods turned out to be quite reasonable and gave positive results. However, it should be noted that the Taoists themselves, and indeed their patients, have always pinned more hopes not on Medications, and on the magical techniques and spells that accompanied them, on amulets and talismans, on the magical properties of some objects, for example, bronze mirrors, to reveal evil spirits. By the way, the Taoists considered all illnesses to be a punishment for sins, and for their own good, the sick had not so much to be treated as "cleansed" with the help of a Taoist magician.

Taoists in medieval China

Strengthened by the further development of their theory, the Taoists in early medieval China managed to become a necessary and indispensable part of the spiritual culture of the country and people. In the Tang era (7th-10th centuries), Taoists settled widely throughout the country. As strongholds of Taoism, large monasteries were created everywhere, where learned Taoist magicians and preachers prepared their followers, acquainting them with the basics of the theory of immortality. Taoist fortune-tellers and healers, having received their initial education, spread across China and practically merged with the citizens of the Celestial Empire, not differing from them either in clothing or way of life - only in their profession. This profession eventually turned into a hereditary craft, so that to master it there was no need for special training on the side - it was only necessary to testify to one's professional level and receive a certificate from the authorities for the right to do one's business.

Taoists in medieval China also served many temples and shrines, created in honor of the numerous gods and heroes, spirits and immortals of the ever-growing Taoist pantheon. They took part in everyday rituals, in particular in the funeral ceremony. In early medieval China, Taoism turned from a persecuted sect into a recognized and even necessary religion for the country. This religion has taken a fairly strong position in Chinese society also because it never tried to compete with Confucianism and modestly filled those voids in the culture and way of life of the people that remained to its lot. Moreover, in their way of life, the Taoists who merged with the people were themselves the same Confucians, and with their activities they even strengthened the ideological structure of the country.

The relationship between the Taoists and the Buddhists, who penetrated China at the beginning of our era and actively collaborated with the Taoists, was more complicated. Helping Buddhism to gain a foothold on Chinese soil, supplying it with terms and knowledge, Taoism just as generously drew information from Buddhists and enriched itself at the expense of Indo-Buddhist culture. Taoism borrowed ideas from Buddhists (the concept of hell and heaven), institutions (monasticism); through Buddhism, he got acquainted with the practice of yogis, etc. But as Buddhism gained independence in China, its ideologists were increasingly irritated by unceremonious borrowings from the Taoists. Forced to defend its face, Taoism went to the trick, inventing a legend about how Lao Tzu, having gone west, reached India and impregnated the sleeping mother of the Buddha. This legend, framed in the form of a special sutra "Lao-tzu hua-hu-jing" (Lao-tzu converts the barbarians), turned out to be very insidious: if we take into account its end, then all the borrowings of the Taoists from Buddhism looked quite natural. Thus, Taoism managed to save its face.

Upper and lower layers of Taoism.

Over the centuries, Taoism has experienced ups and downs, support and persecution, and sometimes, albeit for a short time, has become the official ideology of a dynasty. Taoism was needed both by the educated upper classes and the ignorant lower classes of Chinese society, although this manifested itself in different ways.
Educated elites turned most often to the philosophical theories of Taoism, to its ancient cult of simplicity and naturalness, merging with nature and freedom of expression. Experts have repeatedly noted that every Chinese intellectual, being socially a Confucian, in his soul, subconsciously, has always been a bit of a Taoist. This was especially true for those whose individuality was more pronounced and whose spiritual needs went beyond official norms. The opportunities opened up by Taoism in the sphere of self-expression of thoughts and feelings attracted many Chinese poets, artists, and thinkers. But this was not an outflow from Confucianism - just Taoist ideas and principles were layered on the Confucian basis and thereby enriched it, opening up new opportunities for creativity.

The uneducated lower classes were looking for something else in Taoism. They were seduced by social utopias with an egalitarian distribution of property with the most severe regulation of the life order. These theories played their part as a banner during the medieval peasant uprisings, which took place under Taoist-Buddhist slogans. In addition, Taoism was associated with the masses of the people through rituals, the practice of divination - and healing, superstitions and amulets, belief in spirits, the cult of deities and patrons, magic and lubok-mythological iconography. People went to a Taoist fortuneteller and a monk for help, advice, a recipe, and he did everything that was expected of him, that was in his power. It was on this lowest level of "folk" Taoism that the gigantic pantheon that has always distinguished the religion of the Taoists was formed.

Pantheon of Taoism.

Incorporating over time all ancient cults and superstitions, beliefs and rituals, all deities and spirits, heroes and immortals, eclectic and promiscuous Taoism easily satisfied the most diverse needs of the population. Along with the heads of religious doctrines (Laozi, Confucius, Buddha), his pantheon included many deities and heroes, up to people who accidentally manifested themselves after death (appeared to someone in a dream, etc.). Deification did not require any special councils or official decisions. Any outstanding historical figure, even just a virtuous official who left a good memory behind him, could be deified after death and accepted by Taoism into his pantheon. Taoists have never been able to take into account all their deities, spirits and heroes and did not strive to do so. They highlighted several of the most important of them, among which were the legendary founder of the Chinese, the ancient Chinese emperor Huangdi, the goddess of the West Xiwangmu, the first man Pangu, deities-categories such as Taichu (Great Beginning) or Taiji (Great Limit). Their Taoists and all the Chinese revered especially.

In honor of deities and great heroes (generals, masters of their craft, patrons of crafts, etc.), the Taoists created numerous temples, where appropriate idols were placed and offerings were collected. Such temples, including temples in honor of local gods and spirits, patron patrons, have always been served by Taoist monks, who usually performed part-time, especially in villages, the functions of magicians, fortune-tellers, soothsayers and healers.

A specific category of Taoist deities were the immortals. Among them were the famous Zhang Dao-day (the founder of the Taoist religion, the supreme head of evil spirits and responsible for their behavior), the alchemist Wei Bo-yang and many others. But the most famous in China has always been the eight immortals, ba-xian, stories about which are extremely popular among the people and whose figurines (made of wood, bone, lacquer), as well as images on scrolls, are familiar to everyone from childhood. Curious stories and legends are associated with each of the eight.
Zhongli Quan is the oldest of the eight. A successful commander of the Han time, he was defeated only because of the intervention of the heavenly forces, who knew about the fate prepared for him. After the defeat, Zhongli went to the mountains, became a hermit, learned the secrets of metal transmutation, distributed gold to the poor, became immortal.
Zhang Kuo-lao had a magic mule that could walk ten thousand li in a day, and during the stay it folded up as if it were made of paper and put it into a special tube. You need a mule - they pull it out, turn it around, sprinkle it with water - and it is alive again and ready to go. Zhang lived for a very long time, died more than once, but each time resurrected, so his immortality is beyond doubt.
Lü Dong-bin was smart as a child, "memorized ten thousand hieroglyphs a day." He grew up, received the highest degree, but under the influence of Zhongli Quan, he became interested in Taoism, learned its secrets and became immortal. His magic sword allowed him to always overcome the enemy.
Li Te-guai, once going to meet Lao Tzu, left his body on the ground under the supervision of a student. The student learned about his mother's illness and immediately left, and burned the patron's body. Lee returned - his body is gone. He had to move into the body of a lame beggar who had just died, and so he became lame (Lee - "Iron Leg").
Han Xianzi, the nephew of the famous Tang Confucian Han Yu, became famous for being able to predict the future. He did this so precisely that he constantly surprised his rationalistic uncle, who recognized the talent of his nephew.
Cao Guo-jiu, the brother of one of the empresses, became a hermit and impressed everyone with his knowledge of the secrets of Taoism, the ability to penetrate the essence of things.
Lan Cai-he is a Chinese fool. He sang songs, collected alms, did good deeds, distributed money to the poor.
The eighth, He Xian-gu, was strange since childhood, refused to get married, went without food for long days and went to the mountains, becoming immortal.
Folk fantasy endowed all ba-hsien with magical and human features, which made them both people and deities. They travel, intervene in human affairs, protect a just cause and justice. All these immortals, as well as other spirits, gods and heroes, well known in China, in their totality reflected various aspects of the beliefs, ideas, desires and aspirations of the Chinese people.

Taoism in China, like Buddhism, occupied a modest place in the system of official religious and ideological values. The leadership of Confucianism was never seriously challenged by him. However, during periods of crisis and great upheavals, when the centralized state administration fell into decay and Confucianism ceased to be effective, the picture often changed. During these periods, Taoism and Buddhism sometimes came to the fore, manifesting themselves in emotional outbursts of the people, in the egalitarian utopian ideals of the rebels. And although even in these cases, Taoist-Buddhist ideas never became an absolute force, but, on the contrary, as the crisis resolved, they gradually gave way to the leading positions of Confucianism, the importance of rebellious-egalitarian traditions in the history of China should not be underestimated. Especially if we take into account that within the framework of Taoist or Taoist-Buddhist sects and secret societies, these ideas and moods were tenacious, preserved for centuries, passing from generation to generation, and thus left their mark on the entire history of China. As you know, they played a certain role in the revolutionary explosions of the 20th century.

Taoism
Philosophy of Taoism

Vasiliev Leonid Sergeevich. History of the Religions of the East. 1983
(c) Publishing House "Higher School" 1983

Taoism (Chinese: 道教, pinyin: dàojiào) is the doctrine of the Tao or the "way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching that includes elements of religion and philosophy. Taoism is usually distinguished as a certain style of philosophical criticism (dao chia) and taoism as a set of spiritual practices (dao chiao), but this division is rather arbitrary. Tao jia is predominantly pre-Qin Taoism associated with texts attributed to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu.

History[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of Taoism

Formation of Taoism[edit | edit source]

Taoism in a stable religious organization was formed only in the 2nd century, but numerous evidence suggests that Taoism arose much earlier, at least in the 5th - 3rd centuries BC. e. there was already a developed tradition that prepared the elements of the doctrine that were actively used in the Middle Ages.

The main sources of Taoism were the mystical and shamanic cults of the Chu kingdom and other "barbarian" states in southern China, the doctrine of immortality and magical practices that developed in the kingdom of Qi, and the philosophical tradition of northern China.

Philosophical writings relating to Taoism begin with the era of the Conflicting Kingdoms (Zhanguo) in the 5th century BC. e., almost simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius. Tradition considers the legendary Yellow Emperor Huangdi to be the founder of Taoism. A somewhat more reliable founder of Taoism is the ancient Chinese sage Lao Tzu. Taoist tradition ascribes to him the authorship of one of the main books of Taoism - "Tao Te Ching". This treatise was the core around which the teachings of Taoism began to take shape. Another famous text of early Taoism is Zhuangzi, authored by Zhuang Zhou (369-286 BC), known as Chuangzi, after whom his work is named.

At the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. e. the figure of Lao Tzu is deified, a complex hierarchy of deities and demons is developed, a cult arises in which divination and rites that “cast out” evil spirits take a central place. The pantheon of Taoism was headed by Jasper Lord (Shan-di), who was revered as the god of heaven, the highest deity and the father of emperors (“sons of heaven”). He was followed by Lao-tzu and the creator of the world - Pan-gu.

The first Taoist schools[edit | edit source]

Religious Taoism took shape during the late Han Dynasty: Zhang Daoling (34 - 156) founded the Five Ladles of Rice (later Heavenly Masters 天师) school in Sichuan and became its first patriarch. In the second half of the 2nd century, the prerequisite for the popularity of Taoism was the Yellow Turban Rebellion 184-204: the Third Heavenly Mentor Zhang Lu was able to control the territory of Hanzhong (Shaanxi province), adjacent to the mountains of Sichuan province, which became the first Taoist theocratic state. The Taoist state was defeated by Cao Cao in 215 and ceased to exist, nevertheless, Cao Cao granted privileges to the mentor and attracted him to the court, which made the school spread over a wide territory, including in northern China. During the era of the Six Dynasties, the school became known as the School of Heavenly Guides.

Later, other Taoist schools appeared. An important role in the development of Taoism was played by the Maoshan (aka Shangqing) and Lingbao schools.

Literature (including Chinese) often discusses the possibility of borrowing the provisions of Taoism from Indian philosophy, or vice versa, transferring Taoism to India and founding Buddhism there. The similarity with the Chinese philosophy of the Indian concept of the faceless Absolute is also indicated, the emanation of which created the visible phenomenal world and to merge with which (to get away from the phenomenal world) was the goal of the Brahmins. This question has been repeatedly raised in various Taoist schools. However, a detailed study rejects the hypothesis of direct borrowing.

Lao Tzu could not bring to India a philosophy that had been known there for at least five hundred years before he was born. In its concrete practical activity, Taoism in China bore little resemblance to the practice of Brahmanism. On Chinese soil, rationalism overcame any mysticism, pushed it to the periphery of public consciousness, where it could only be preserved. This is what happened with Taoism. Although the Taoist treatise Zhuangzi (4th-3rd centuries BC) says that life and death are relative concepts, the emphasis is on life and how it should be organized.

The mystical ideals in this treatise, expressed, in particular, in references to fantastic longevity (800, 1200 years) and immortality, which can be achieved by righteous hermits who approach the Tao, played an important role in the transformation of philosophical Taoism into religious Taoism. This is its main divergence from most religions: the desire for immortality among the Taoists replaces the desire for paradise among followers of other faiths.

Formation of the canon[edit | edit source]

By the 5th century A.D. e. the Taoist canon Dao Zang (Treasury of Tao) was formed, which already included more than 250 Taoist texts modeled on the Buddhist canon. Dao Zang finally took shape in 1607, when the last group of 56 compositions was added to it. In its modern form, Tao Zang is a collection of 1488 works.

Development of Taoism[edit | edit source]

Taoism has almost never been official religion- rather, it was a movement of the masses, lonely practitioners and hermits. But in the depths of Taoism, new ideas were regularly born that inspired scientists, politicians, and writers. Peasant riots in China and uprisings with the overthrow of dynasties also originated in the depths of Taoism. [source not specified 1021 days]

Taoism further divided into two currents: the schools of Sun Jian and Yin Wen, on the one hand, and the Zhuang Zhou school, on the other.

During the Six Dynasties era, the School of Heavenly Guides spread throughout China, but other schools gained popularity and the influence of the Heavenly Guides waned. The school was split, and the Northern Heavenly Guides also appeared, and then the Southern Heavenly Guides. At the same time, the Shangqing school (emphasizing visualization and contact with the celestials) and Lingbao (paying attention to meditation, influenced by Buddhism) were gaining strength.

Later, in the Tang era, the School of Heavenly Guides was recreated as the School of the True One (Zhengyi), having received special imperial privileges, in the Song era, the Zhengyi school received imperial privileges and its supremacy over Shangqing and Lingbao was recognized, and in 1304 the Mongol authorities confirmed the status of the school , and the noticeably weakened Shangqing and Lingbao were absorbed and ceased to exist independently.

Wang Chongyang (XII century) and his students founded the Quanzhen school of monastic Taoism, which spread mainly in northern China. Thus, in the post-Mongol era, Taoism began to appear as two main schools - the School of the True One in the south and Quanzhen in the north.

The decline of Taoism in the Qing era[edit | edit source]

It is known that Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) was skeptical of all kinds of superstitions and mystical practices. This is not surprising, since he was a Manchu and treated Chinese philosophy with indifference. So, during one of his travels in southern China, a local resident presented him with a treatise on achieving immortality through alchemy. Kangxi responded by ordering the book to be thrown back to him. Taoists of even the highest rank were also not among the emperor's favorites.

Taoism at present[edit | edit source]

On the territory of the Taoist temple Chan Chun (Eternal Spring) in Wuhan

Under the Qing, the Taoists were once again accused by Chinese zealots of strict classics of undermining traditional values, which allegedly resulted in the conquest of the country by the "barbarians". These scholars called for rejecting Taoism and Buddhism as false teachings that had finally compromised themselves and returning to their own philosophical origins, which ultimately resulted in a literary and social movement that received the name han xue, that is, “han science”, which in this case meant classical Confucianism. During the Taiping Rebellion (1850), Taoist monasteries are devastated, which the leaders of the rebels explain by the need to "combat superstitions." Taoist literature is expelled from library collections with such zeal that by the beginning of the 20th century. "Tao Zang" remains almost in a single copy. Until the Xinhai Revolution (1911), and even later, traditionalist scholars never tire of subjecting Taoist philosophy to severe criticism as excessively “contemplative”, paralyzing the will to fight, undermining public morality and the moral foundations of the state. Epochs of a tolerant and even benevolent attitude of the authorities towards Taoist speculation were replaced by periods of persecution right up to modern times. In the 1960s the practice of persecuting supporters of Taoism was revived by the leaders of the "cultural revolution". By the end of the 1970s. excesses against cultural heritage basically stopped, although the relative rehabilitation of Taoism and Taoist philosophy (along with Confucianism and Buddhism) began only after the official proclamation of the course of reforms (1978) by Deng Xiaoping. In Taiwan, Taoism has retained its influence and traditional institutions to the present day. In the People's Republic of China, at present, the Baiyunsi Monastery in Beijing remains the most famous modern center of Taoism. Philosophizing in the Taoist style in modern China continues, according to tradition, mainly in essayistic literature and poetry of the philosophical genre.

All China Association of Taoism

Elements of teaching[edit | edit source]

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The foundations of Taoism, the philosophy of Lao Tzu are set forth in the treatise "Tao Te Ching" (4th-3rd centuries BC). At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is ambiguous, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, space, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created it, but everything comes from it, in order to then, having completed the circuit, return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao.

Each person, in order to become happy, must embark on this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the human microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe-macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit separates from the person and dissolves into the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of the Tao.

The Way of Tao has the power of Te. It is through the power of Wu-wei that the Tao manifests itself in every person. This force cannot be interpreted as an effort, but, on the contrary, as a desire to avoid any effort. Wu-wei - means "non-action", the denial of purposeful activity that goes against the natural order. In the process of life, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of non-action - the principle of Wu-wei. This is not inaction. This is human activity, which is consistent with the natural course of the world order. Any action that is contrary to the Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and death. Thus, Taoism teaches a contemplative attitude towards life. Bliss is achieved not by one who seeks to win the favor of the Tao with good deeds, but by one who, in the process of meditation, immersion in his inner world, seeks to listen to himself, and through himself to listen and comprehend the rhythm of the universe. Thus, the purpose of life was comprehended in Taoism as a return to the eternal, a return to one's roots.

moral ideal Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires, immerse himself in communication with the divine Tao.

Tao manifests itself through everyday life and is embodied in the actions of trained people, although few of them fully “walk the Way”. Moreover, the very practice of Taoism is built on a complex system of symbolism of interrelationships and unity of the general, cosmic, and internal, human world. Everything, for example, is permeated with a single qi energy. A child is born from the mixing of the original qi (yuan qi) of the father and mother; a person lives only by continuing to saturate the body with some external qi (wai qi), transferring it to an internal state with the help of a system of breathing exercises and proper nutrition. Everything truly “great” is connected with the beyond, Tao, which at the same time manifests itself in things, phenomena, and actions every moment. The cosmic here is constantly projected onto the human and emerges in a special vital "energeticism", the energy potential of both the Tao itself and the people who were able to fully comprehend it. The path of Tao itself is perceived as an energy, inspiring beginning, for example, in Zhuang Tzu it is said: “He spiritualized deities and kings, gave birth to Heaven and Earth.”

Tao (道) - literally "the way", in Taoism - being and changing the Universe in the most general sense. Impersonal force, the will of the universe, which corresponds to the order of all things in the world.

Te (德) - literally "virtue" or "morality". Virtue, given from above (from Tao), does not have the characteristics of a physical, forceful impact, in contrast to the Greek “arete”. Grace, a huge spiritual power that Heaven endowed the ruler of China and which he could transfer to his subjects

Wu-wei (無為) - literally "non-action" - understanding when to act and when to do nothing

Pu - literally "an unprocessed piece of wood" personifies the energy of objects untouched by nature, if it is simpler, then the simplicity of the soul, the soul of pu.

Components of Taoism[edit | edit source]

Taoist philosophy

Three Treasures (Taoism)

The Book of Changes, especially revered in Confucianism and Taoism

Taoist doctrine of immortality, external alchemy, internal alchemy

Taoist meditation

Taoist pantheon

Huantingjing - "Canon of the Yellow Court"

Shangqing - "School of the Highest Purity"

Prominent figures in Taoism[edit | edit source]

Huang Di - the legendary ruler of China and a mythical character, is considered the founder of Taoism

Lao Tzu is an ancient Chinese philosopher of the 6th-5th centuries BC. e., one of the founders of Taoism

Zhang Daoling - founder of the first sustainable Taoist organization (Five Buckets of Rice) in the Han era

Ge Xuan - the legendary Taoist whose writings are the basis of the Lingbao tradition

Ge Hong - Chinese Taoist scholar and alchemist, great-nephew of Ge Xuan, who wrote the encyclopedic work Baopu-zi on external alchemy

Ge Chaofu - great-nephew of Ge Hong, founder of the Lingbao school

Kou Qianzhi - the reformer of the School of Heavenly Guides, who for the first time achieved the proclamation of Taoism as the state religion

Yang Xi - Taoist, founder of the Shangqing School

Tao Hongqing - Taoist encyclopedist who strengthened the Shangqing school

Lü Dongbin - legendary patriarch, one of the Eight Immortals

Chen Tuan - the famous Taoist from Wudang Mountain, who influenced social thought in China

Wang Chongyang - founder of the Quanzhen school

Zhang Sanfeng - Taoist from Wudang Mountain who is considered the founder of several gymnastics systems, including Taijiquan

Taoism had a huge influence here - we want to talk about it today.

In the article below, we will describe in detail what history lies in it, who was its founder, what basic terms and ideas this line of thought contains, and how true Taoists practice. You will also learn interesting facts that reveal the essence of this Chinese teaching.

What it is

Taoism is a doctrine that has spread in China. It is considered one of the oldest in the world - the period of occurrence dates back to about the 5th century BC.

Taoism is called a religious and philosophical view, because it has absorbed the features of both concepts:

philosophy with its inherent study of being, knowledge, the universe, philosophical treatises - tao jia;
religion, which is based on faith in higher powers and involves a certain dogmatism, as well as indispensable spiritual practices - dao jiao.

However, such a division is hardly noticeable - as a rule, Taoism is considered as a combination of religious and philosophical aspects.

At the same time, there is no God as such - the concept of "tao" is the basis. It is ambiguous and implies the beginning, the way to comprehend the world order, the nature of the Universe and its laws. The main goal is to merge with the Tao, to become one.

There is an opinion that Taoist philosophy is in opposition to Confucian philosophy, and it is not without foundation. In both currents there is the concept of "dao", but it is interpreted somewhat differently.

Confucianism sees Tao as the observance of moral principles, the rules of humanism. It involves the constant self-improvement of a person as a part of society - teaching writing, exact sciences, music, sportsmanship. In other words, Confucius looked at Tao in the context of social life.

In contrast, Taoism considers Tao as the nature of all things, the origin of being. A person must live according to the laws of nature, be a part of it, forgetting about his own "I" and not interfering with the measured course of life. Simple and natural - these are the main characteristics of the Taoist life.

Founders

Taoism as we know it finally took shape in the 2nd century AD. However, there is evidence that already in the 5-3 centuries BC there was a doctrine based on the Tao.

It is believed that initially mystical beliefs formed the basis of thought:

shamanism of the Chu region in South China territory with its rites and practices;
rituals associated with magic and belief in immortal existence, which existed in the Chinese region of Qi;
philosophy of the Chinese north.

There are legends that are called the founder of Huang Di, better known as the "Yellow Emperor". His identity is shrouded in mystery. So, for example, they say that his tomb has been preserved, but only the clothes of the emperor are contained there, while he himself gained immortal life.

However, more confirmed and reliable sources claim that the founder was a famous sage named , who lived in the 5th-4th century BC.

Lao Tzu combined the main provisions of the teaching into single system, outlining the dogmatic, ritual foundations - this is how the book "Tao Te Ching" was born, which means "Treatise on the law of Tao and its manifestations in the Universe." It became the basis for the further development of Taoism, being the same age as Confucian texts.

Very little is known about the scientist himself, and all the information is overgrown with legends. One legend says that the mother of Lao Tzu was touched by moon and sun rays, another says that she accidentally swallowed a piece of rock crystal and thus conceived a son.

A woman carried a child in her womb for decades, so he was born already an old man. From here came his name, which translates as "Old Baby".

There is evidence that Lao Tzu was familiar with the philosophy of Confucius and even met him live in 517 BC. Then Lao Tzu worked in the archive at the palace of the Zhou dynasty. He criticized Confucius for preaching too active a social life - this was fundamentally contrary to the view of Tao and non-interference with the forces of nature.

Then he formed his own ideas as opposed to Confucian ones, began to bring the doctrine of Tao to the world and became a great scientist. Disillusioned with statehood, he became a hermit, changed names for those around him, and in the end decided to leave the Middle Kingdom.

The creation of the book also has its own history. During the journey, Lao Tzu met with a border guard who asked him to share his views. The wanderer wrote down the main ideas in eighty-one verses, which later became the work of the Tao Te Ching.

There are legends about the further fate of Lao Tzu: he went either to Tibet, or to India, where he got acquainted with Buddhist teachings, and perhaps he was in the territories where Russia was later formed.

By the 2nd century AD, the fame of Lao Tzu had spread throughout China, and followers began to worship the master and compare him to a deity. Together with him in the pantheon there were many spirits - divine and demonic, as well as rituals that are capable of expelling these demons.

Another significant name in the development of Taoism was Zhuang Zhou, who lived in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. He wrote the treatise Chuang Tzu, which supplemented the existing provisions on the Tao.

Idea development

Taoist schools began to take shape in the 1st-2nd centuries AD, changing over time, dividing or, conversely, merging with others.

The main ones were:

School of Celestial Guides

Initially known as the "Five Buckets of Rice", it appeared in the 1st-2nd century and developed during the so-called Six Dynasties era. It later split into northern and southern schools. In the Tang era, in the 12th century, they revived again in the form of the School of the True One - Zhenyi, widespread in the south.

Quanzhen

The so-called "monastic Taoism". It was formed in the post-Mongolian period and found recognition in the south of the country.

Maoshan

Also known as Shangqing. The main practices were visualization and contact with higher powers. In the early 14th century it fell into disrepair.

Lingbao

Closely associated with Buddhist thought, she made a bias towards meditative practices. It was also absorbed, and then completely ceased to exist in the XIV century.

Existing next to Buddhism and Brahmanism, which later took shape in Hinduism, Taoist thought had some common features with them, for example, the idea of the Absolute, as well as the idea of the relativity of life and death.

Hinduism

In the 5th century, the number of Taoists grew, hermits joined them, dreaming of a surprisingly long (8-12 centuries) or immortal life, which Taoism speaks of. At this time it becomes more of a religion than just a philosophy. The main difference between the Taoist view is the desire for immortality, while representatives of other religions dream of paradise.

By the 5th century there were over two hundred and fifty treatises of Taoism, by the 17th century more fifty were added, and now there are almost one and a half thousand works.

Taoism has never been traditional religion. It was built on the principles of equality of people, so peasants, workers, and the lower strata joined it en masse. Often there were Taoist popular uprisings.

During the Tang and Sung empires, knowledge of the basic texts of Taoism was part of the imperial examination program.

In the Middle Ages, monasteries were built throughout the country, where hermit monks lived and comprehended the nature of Tao. They allowed only the initiates to their rites. Often, individual monks lived in alienation, cutting down stone cells.

During the reign of the Qing, starting from the 17th century, persecution of religion began, Taoist monasteries were destroyed, and sacred books were burned. The rulers referred to the fact that Taoism is a pseudoscience with its excessive contemplation and undermines the foundations of statehood. This situation continued until the middle of the 20th century, only occasionally followed by periods of relative recognition.

Chinese painting, 17th century

With the advent of the 60s and the Cultural Revolution, the teachings were rehabilitated, monasteries were built again, and philosophical thought began to move west. Modern Taoism is a religious and philosophical trend that contains unique monasteries, mystical rites that smell of esotericism, practices for training the mind, body and soul.

In modern times, Taoist teachings have mostly gained fame thanks to qigong breathing exercises, wushu martial techniques, and feng shui, which originated here. From here also originates the famoussymbolmale and female energy - yin-yang.

Basic provisions

What is Tao

This is a multi-valued concept that can be compared with the Absolute. Dao is:

something that gives birth to everything around, incomprehensible, permanent, nameless and formless;
general law;
fundamental principle of life;
beginning and end of being;
world order;
eternal way, constant movement.

Tao has no name and form, but gives them to everything that exists. Only it is permanent, and everything else is temporary. Here, opposite phenomena are combined, which become a single whole.

Tao is emptiness, but everything is created through it. Only by merging with the Tao, one can know happiness and immortality.

Lao Tzu compared emptiness to a room: after all, it is not the walls that are important in the room, but the space between them, that is, emptiness.

Main postulates

The main ideas of Taoism are that man is a microcosm, he exists indefinitely, just like the Universe is a macrocosm. Death in the physical plane means only that the soul will unite with the Tao.

In Taoism, there is no color, shape, personality, or self. There is emptiness, and the main task of a person is to contemplate and observe. Any action directed against the order of life wastes time, energy, and sometimes can lead to bad consequences.

The main goal of Taoism is to teach people to distinguish good from evil and to do only good deeds, to reveal the secret of the Universe through meditation and looking inward, to acquire harmonious relationships with the outside world.

To comprehend the Tao, you need to remember and observe three main rules:

1. Nourishing the soul

Divine and demonic beings live in man. Good deeds feed the good deities, while evil deeds feed the demons. The more virtue in a person, the closer he is to happiness.

2. Nutrition of the body

You need to eat without frills, observing a diet and fasting. The ideal food is its saliva and dew of herbs. The body must also be nourished by physical and breathing exercises, a sexual relations should be with a permanent partner.

The path of ascetic abstinence in food was difficult, so Taoist alchemists have long tried to find the elixir of immortality. The ruler of Qin Shi Huang Di even sent expeditions to look for him.

This concept means "non-doing". But not in the sense of being lazy and doing nothing. It would be more correct to say "non-intervention" - in the natural course of events, the laws of the universe. According to her, there is no need to purposefully do something, because the Universe arranges everything on its own, and people's self-activity can only get in the way.

According to the concept of Wu-wei, the best ruler is the one who does not interfere in the lives of his subjects, does not change anything, and only occasionally prevents uprisings.

To know the Tao, you need to forget about your "I" and associate yourself with the whole world around you. Even when you are doing some business, for example, cleaning the house, you should try to stop the flow of thoughts - the "I" absorbed in the business disappears. This practice is available at any time, even, for example, during normal walking.

eight pillars

There are 8 pillars - methods of Taoism, which are aimed at improving and harmonizing relations with the world:

Philosophy is the desire to know the essence of being, natural and social laws.
Update - meditations and practices for health.
Nutrition - no meat.
Forgotten food - "forgetting" food during fasting, dieting.
Healing - effective application of energy and distribution with the help of massage manipulations, acupuncture.
The Tao of Sexual Wisdom - Sexual relationships are seen here as a therapy and a way to strengthen feelings.
Excellence is continuous self-improvement.
Success - certain goals and plans for mastering knowledge.

three treasures

Lao Tzu named three human virtues that require protection and nourishment:

qi - the energy of life, love, mercy;
jian - the energy of rational economy, which also determines the appearance of people;
shen is a spirit endowed with intelligence.

Taoists in search of immortal life invented glass, porcelain, compass, gunpowder.

Conclusion

In conclusion, let us briefly say that Taoism is a unique philosophical and religious view that originated 25 centuries ago in China. Over the course of its long history, it has undergone significant changes, sometimes gaining thousands of followers, sometimes being subjected to severe persecution.

The fundamental concept is Tao, the beginning of beginnings, the law by which everything in the Universe lives. True Taoists strive to nourish the soul and body without interfering with the natural course of life.

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! We hope you have become a little closer to the amazing culture of China and better acquainted with one of its main teachings. If you liked the article, share new knowledge with your friends!

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The philosophy of Taoism was discovered by the Yellow Emperor Huang Di. The teaching takes its roots from shamanism. One of the main concepts in Taoism is the principle of balance and connection between the feminine and masculine yin-yang. Yin contains all passive and negative qualities, while Yang, on the contrary, contains all good qualities. One simply cannot exist without the other, because chaos will arise in life. Thanks to the Taoists, such popular movements as feng shui, qigong and many martial arts were created.

Ideas of Taoism

This teaching is based on the fact that everything around is subject to Tao - world harmony. To reunite with the Tao, one must merge with it. In a person's life, moral values and vices should be on the same level. This, according to the East, is the meaning and happiness of human life. Since Tao is not cognizable, what a person can talk about is called de. Thanks to this concept, Tao manifests its potential energy and action.

The basic ideas of Taoism indicate that the human mind is a component that does not coincide with its nature at all. This teaching is based on detachment from the mind, which will allow you to achieve complete indifference. In Taoism, consciousness personifies a way of individualizing a person, thanks to which one can cognize the inner world and get closer to the Tao. Moral and ethical ideas are also advised by Taoism to be completely avoided.

Eastern philosophers believe that it is not worth looking for what is the meaning of life and how to find its beginning and end. A person is born from non-existence, where he must go. Through the realization of this concept, one can achieve harmony between heaven and earth. To get into the world stream, a person must give up desires and passions. This doctrine denies the existence social institutions society, power, knowledge, culture and other components of life ordinary person. In general, everyone moves along a certain Way-dao. It first develops, and then plunges into non-existence, this is necessary in order to be reborn and start all over again. It is in this way, according to the Eastern philosophy of Taoism, that immortality can be achieved. For this you need:

Nourishing the Spirit. In every person there is a divine power that corresponds to the heavenly spirits. They are certain overseers who count the good and bad deeds done by a person and determine the length of his life. In general, feeding the spirit involves doing good deeds.
Body nutrition. This category includes several concepts at once. First, adherence to strict Ideally, a person should eat saliva and inhale only dew ether. Secondly, you need to exercise regularly. Thirdly, sex is important. The philosophy of ancient China of Taoism claims that the path to immortality is very long and difficult, and it is not accessible to everyone.

There are several forms of Taoism:

In the modern world, Taoism is widespread throughout China. This teaching is closely intertwined with various religions, and primarily with Buddhism and Confucianism.