Disadvantages of the scientific school of management. School of Scientific Management

For the first time, the idea of ​​management as a special specialization, a special profession, was apparently expressed in 1866 by the American businessman G. Town. Town spoke at a meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with a report in which he spoke about the need to train managerial specialists.

Time period							Nowadays
Schools of Management
School of Scientific Management
Administrative (classical) school
School of Human Relations
School of Behavioral Sciences
School of Management Science (Quantitative School)
Management approaches
Process approach to management
System approach to management
Situational approach to management

School of Scientific Management (the school of scientific management) proceeded from the assumption that the optimal organization of production can be created on the basis of accurate knowledge of how people act. Supporters of this direction believed that with the help of logic, observations, analysis and calculations, it is possible to organize production in such a way that it will be as efficient as possible. In addition, associated with the school of scientific management is the notion that management is a special function that is separate from the actual performance of work.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) is considered to be the founder of the school of scientific management, an American engineer who is known for developing the first holistic concept of management, which is called "Taylorism" in his honor. Taylor attended the meeting during which Town read his report. Towne's idea inspired Taylor to create his own concept of management. He formulated his ideas in the books Workshop Management (1903) and Principles and Methods of Scientific Management (1911).

Taylor was educated as a mechanical engineer and worked for a steel company that embodied the basic ideas of Taylorism. It should be noted that in Taylor's time, monopoly capitalism experienced its heyday. Enterprises grew very quickly, and this required the unification and standardization of production, more efficient use of material resources, time and labor.

Therefore, Taylor saw the main goal of management in increasing labor productivity. To achieve this goal, from Taylor's point of view, it was possible only through the development of numerous rules by which operations are carried out and which should replace the judgment of the worker. In fact, this means that Taylor assigned the main role in the management of production to instructions in accordance with which workers must act. Instructions were developed in the process of studying the operations that workers should perform. This was the shortcoming of Taylor's concept: it did not sufficiently take into account the personality of the worker.

According to Taylor, there are four main principles of the scientific organization of work:

1) the administration of the enterprise should strive to introduce scientific and technological achievements into the production process, replacing traditional and purely practical methods;

2) the administration should take on the role of selecting workers and training them in their specialty (before Taylor, this was not done and the worker independently chose a profession and trained himself);

3) the administration must harmonize the scientific principles of production with the principles in force in the field of production from the very beginning;

4) responsibility for the results of labor is distributed evenly between the workers and the administration.

Among Taylor's followers are Henry Gant, as well as the spouses Frank and Lillian Gilbert. Just like Taylor, they sought to improve the work process by developing clear instructions that were based on logical analysis. Gant, for example, developed methods for scheduling the activities of an enterprise, and also formulated the basics of operational management. By the way, it was the supporters of scientific management who were the first to use cameras and movie cameras in their research.

Not everyone knows that Henry Ford, who is best known as the founder of the American automobile industry, is also a major figure in the history of scientific management. The success he achieved in business largely depended on his theory, which was called "Fordism". In his opinion, the task of industry cannot be seen only in meeting the needs of the market (although no industry can exist without this): it is necessary to organize the production process in such a way that, firstly, it is possible to reduce product prices, and secondly, to increase wages. workers' labor.

Ford believed that the correct organization of production involves

1) replacement manual labor machine,

2) care for employees, which consists in creating favorable working conditions (cleanliness in workshops, comfort), as well as

3) product quality improvement

4) development of the service maintenance network.

In his practice, Ford sought to divide the production process into the smallest operations, as a result of which the movement of products from one worker to another depended only on the speed with which the operation was performed. This is what allowed him to reduce the cost of production.

The disadvantage of scientific management is that it puts at the forefront the technical means by which it is supposedly possible to solve any problems.

Administrative School of Management . Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is another prominent representative of management in the first quarter of the 20th century, who developed the foundations of the administrative approach to management. He, like his like-minded people (L. Urwick, J. Mooney), had experience as a leader top management in a large enterprise. It was this experience that allowed Fayol to formulate the foundations of the science of management based on the general characteristics of the organization and the laws that it obeys. The administrative school is also called the classical school.

From Fayol's point of view, the efficiency of production can be increased not only by improving the devices of work and the operations that the worker must perform, but also by properly organizing the work of the whole enterprise. Consequently, the role of the administration from the point of view of Fayol's concept increased noticeably. By effective administrative management, Fayol understood such management of an enterprise that allows you to extract the maximum possible from the resources at your disposal.

The administrative function was considered by Fayol as one of the management functions (along with the production, commercial, financial, credit and accounting functions). In addition, Fayol showed that the administrative function is implemented at all levels of the organization.

Fayol identified 14 principles of management:

1) the division of labor, thanks to which it is possible to increase its productivity;

2) balance between authority and responsibility; 3) discipline;

4) unity of command, in which the employee is subordinate to only one leader;

5) the unity of the direction of movement of all departments of the organization;

6) the primacy of common interests over personal ones;

7) worthy remuneration as a condition for the loyalty of employees;

8) balance between centralization and decentralization;

9) hierarchy of the organization;

10) order in everything;

11) justice, which is a combination of kindness and justice;

12) staff stability and inadmissibility of staff turnover;

13) initiative in the construction and implementation of the plan;

14) corporate spirit - feeling like a member of a team.

Representatives of this school identified three main functions of business: finance, production and marketing. They believed that this separation could form the basis for the optimal division of the organization into divisions.

The concept of scientific bureaucracy. Another scientific school of the classical direction of management was developed by the German scientist Max Weber (1864-1920), it involved the analysis of the company as a bureaucratic organization. Management, according to Weber, should be built on an impersonal, purely rational basis. He defined this form as bureaucracy. Such a concept implied a clear definition of job duties and responsibilities of employees, formal reporting, separation of ownership and management.

Bureaucratic rules and procedures are a standard way of interaction: the same requirements are imposed on each of the employees, they are all guided by the same rules. It was the bureaucracy that allowed many organizations to achieve high performance, and did not carry a negative meaning in Weber's approach.

In his main work, The Theory of Socio-Economic Organization, Weber formulated the principles for building an "ideal" organization. Bureaucratic models of building an organization became widespread in the 1930s and 1940s. XX century. In the future, the passion for this approach (“the organization works like a machine”) led to an increase in the cumbersomeness of managerial structures and began to impede the flexibility and efficiency of entrepreneurial activity.

In general, the period of dominance of the classical direction of management was fruitful - the science of management appeared, a new fundamental concept, efficiency increased.

School of Human Relations . The classical school of management did not adequately take into account the human factor as a fundamental element of the effectiveness of the organization. Therefore, in the 30-50s. 20th century the neoclassical school became widespread, and in its composition - the school of human relations, which transferred the center of gravity in management from the performance of production tasks to relations between people.

The emergence of this school is directly related to the name of the German psychologist Hugo Munspgerberger (1863-1916), who moved to the United States. He actually created the world's first school of industrial psychologists, was one of the founders of psychotechnics (selection, testing, compatibility, etc.). In his work "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency", which received wide popularity, he formulated the principle of selecting people for leadership positions.

A special merit in the creation of the theory and practice of human relations belongs to the psychologist Elton Mayo (1880-1949), who conducted the "Hattorn experiments" in the town of Hatthorn near Chicago at the enterprises of the Western Electric company. They continued from 1927 to 1933. and have no analogues in scale and duration.

Experiments have shown that it is possible to influence people's attitudes towards work through the creation of informal groups. The art of communicating with people was to be the main criterion for the selection of administrators, starting with the master. The works of Mayo and his associates laid the foundation for numerous studies of relationships in organizations, identifying motivations for work, and the role of small groups. This determined the development of management theory and practice for a quarter of a century ahead.

Supporters of the psychological approach believed that the main focus in management should be shifted to the person and human relationships. They proceeded from the indisputable fact that human activity is controlled not by economic forces, but by various needs, and money is by no means always able to satisfy these needs.

Of course, this approach is extreme, since the management process combines a variety of aspects. However, this extreme was legitimate: it was a response to the excessive interest in technology inherent in scientific management.

Representatives of the school of human relations explored management processes using methods developed in sociology and psychology. In particular, they were the first to use tests and special forms of job interviews.

As a result of the research, E. Mayo came to the conclusion that such factors as logical labor operations and high wages, highly valued by supporters of scientific management, do not always affect the increase in labor productivity. He found that labor productivity is no less dependent on relationships with other workers. For this reason, representatives of the school of human relations argued that management can only be effective if leaders are sufficiently aware of the personal characteristics of their subordinates, their strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case, the leader can fully and effectively use their capabilities.

The essence of the concept, which develops in the mainstream of human relations, is the development of work tasks in accordance with the principle of motivation, when employees are given the opportunity to reach their full potential and thereby satisfy their highest needs.

The most famous representatives include Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). A psychoanalyst and theoretical scientist, he came to the conclusion that there is a hierarchy of needs, the basis of which is formed by physiological needs, on which the needs for security, belonging, self-esteem, and, finally, self-actualization are based. Based on this theory, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y. Classical management is based on the first of them, and the second is more realistic and complete.

The assumptions of Theory Y boil down to the fact that there is no innate dislike for work, external control and sanctions are not the only and not the most effective method control (motivation), most workers are able to show ingenuity and that, finally, the potential of the intellect of the "average" individual is far from being fully used. Their research contributed to the emergence in the 60s of a special managerial function "personnel management". Maslow's theory has been used as the basis of many models of labor motivation, including behavioral approaches (behaviorism).

The merits of the supporters of the school of human relations are very great. Before them, psychology had practically no data on how the human psyche is connected with his work activity. It was within the framework of this school that studies were carried out that significantly enriched our understanding of mental activity.

behavioral school . The traditions of the school of human relations were continued within the framework of the school of behavioral sciences (R. Likert, D. McGregor, K. Argyris, F. Herzberg), whose ideas later formed the basis of such a section of management as personnel management. This concept was based on the ideas of behaviorism - a psychological trend that considered human behavior as a reaction to stimuli from the outside world. Proponents of this approach believed that production efficiency can only be achieved by influencing each individual person with the help of various incentives.

The views of the representatives of this school were based on the idea that an indispensable condition for the effectiveness of the work of an individual worker is his awareness of his own capabilities. A number of methods have been developed to help achieve this goal. For example, in order to increase the efficiency of work, it was proposed to change its content or involve an employee in the management of the enterprise. Scientists believed that with the help of such methods it is possible to achieve the disclosure of the capabilities of the employee.

However, the ideas of the school of behavioral sciences proved to be limited. This does not mean that the developed methods are completely unsuitable. The fact is that they act only in some cases: for example, involving an employee in the management of an enterprise does not always affect the quality of his work, since everything depends primarily on the psychological characteristics of a person.

and their interaction with various forms of human participation in production.

School of Management Science. This school was formed in the 1950s. 20th century and exists, improving, to the present. It has led to a deeper understanding of complex managerial problems through the development and application of models. Quantitative methods are widely used to help managers make decisions in difficult situations.

The most famous representatives of this school are R. Ackoff, S. Beer, A. Goldberger, R. Luce, L. Klein and others.

In the school of management science, two main directions are distinguished: production is considered as a "social system", firstly, and system and situational analysis is used using mathematical methods and computers ("RS"), secondly.

The school has developed a large number of principles, rules, approaches, etc. Scientists believe that the introduction of new management methods reflects the desire of companies to achieve high results in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the strengthening of social principles, the growth of post-industrial elements of the life of firms - information, waste-free, space, biological technologies, the expansion and complication of the legal framework, new forms of competition, types of after-sales service, etc.

To name just a few new effective approaches: decision tree, brainstorming, management by objectives, diversification (conglomerates), theory Z, budgeting (zero base), quality circles, portfolio management, intrapreneurship.

In addition to the process approach (developed in the 50s, but originated in the classical school of management), systemic (late 60s - 70s) and situational (80s - 90s) approaches began to be widely used.

The system approach considers processes and phenomena in the form of aggregate integral elements, structures that move them. Systems have a hierarchical structure, horizontal and vertical connections, certain functions, centripetal and centrifugal tendencies, feedbacks (in addition to direct ones), exogenous and endogenous factors of development are inherent in systems.

Systems are divided into closed, functioning in isolation (independently) from the external environment, and open - associated with the metasystem, external influence. Simple and complex systems are distinguished by a tree of goals.

System approach in the 60-70s. becomes a universal ideology of management, and system analysis - a generally recognized toolkit. The application of systems theory to management made it easier for managers to see the organization (firm) in the unity of its constituent parts and their multi-temporal dynamics. The systematic methodology helped to integrate the contributions of all schools, in different time dominated in the theory and practice of management, not opposing, but supplementing and supplementing the well-known management innovations.

The situational or case approach (case situation) is both a way of thinking and a set of specific actions. Developed at the Harvard Business School (USA), this approach is aimed at developing situational thinking and the direct use of the theoretical knowledge gained, leading to the analysis of real situations and the adoption of typological decisions. The situational approach, in contrast to the process and even system approach, is more often used in non-standard cases, in situations of uncertainty, unexpected non-standard environmental response. An approach of this kind brings up special qualities in managers: flexibility, foresight, the ability to make programmed decisions in non-standard situations, to be original in achieving goals. This is anti-crisis type management, mass disturbances of the typical course of the process, cataclysms, etc.

Consideration of the situation as an important phenomenon was anticipated by Mary P. Follet in the 1920s. However, only much later did it enter the "life of management".

Accounting for situations is also very important when comparing styles of managerial culture in different countries.

During the described period, there were noticeable differences in national (country) approaches. This is most clearly seen when comparing the American, Japanese and European traditions.

At the end of the century, at the turn of the 90s, the following trends were observed in the development of management:

1. In connection with the strengthening of the influence of scientific and technological progress on the achievement of the goals of the organization, the role of product quality in competition and the increasing complexity of the place and role of supply (suppliers) in the economy, there has been, as it were, a return (at a new historical level) to the problems of production, awareness of the importance material and technical base of modern production.

2. Increasing attention to various forms of democratization of managerial functions, participation of ordinary workers in management, in profits 3. Increasing influence of international external conditions, internationalization of management. There is a problem of "docking" local (national) and international types of management, the limits of the universality of management methods, taking into account the irremovable national styles of management.

Topic questions

SCIENTIFIC AND CLASSICAL SCHOOLSCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT.

2.1. School of Scientific Management

2.2. classical school

Chronologically, the various schools of management thought can be listed in the following order: School of Scientific Management, School of Administration, School of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences, School of Management Science (or Quantitative School). Adherents of each of these directions believed that they managed to find a way to most effectively achieve the goals of the organization. Subsequent research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the theoretical discoveries of schools in practice have proved only partially correct many answers to questions of management in organizational situations. However, each of these schools has made significant contributions to management .

Schools intersect in matters of theory and practice. At the same time, the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within the framework of these schools. However, techniques that have been successful in some situations and at specific times are not always successful in others.

The School of Scientific Management was formed in 1885-1920. based on the work of American managers Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henry Lawrence Gantt, Henry Ford, Harrington Emerson and others.

Time and conditions of development: 1885-1920

Industrial and economic conditions contributed to the development of the school's ideas. The rapid pace of development of production, which made high demands on the results of the labor of the worker. This period is characterized by industrial growth, the beginning of the concentration of production, the division and specialization of labor, technological operations. General situation at the end XIX early XX centuries demanded the blind fulfillment of their duties and unconditional submission to the administration, so the relationship between workers and managers was seen as antagonistic .

School development history. Spasmodic interest in management occurred in 1911 after the publication by an American engineer Frederick W. Taylor in his book Principles of Scientific Management. Since that time, it is traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of management science and an independent field of study.

In that historical period there was boundless faith in the rational methods of cognition that have developed over the past three centuries. The successes of science and new technologies only confirmed this. Scientific and rational at that time meant the best. The scientific was understood as unambiguous, computable, decomposable into elements. It was seen that the application is strictly scientific principles to the questions of building an effective organization will allow you to find the only correct answers to them.

FW Taylor was born into a well-known and wealthy Philadelphia family in Germentaun, Pennsylvania (USA). He received his secondary education in Europe. The busy business life of Philadelphia, the numerous acquaintances of the Taylor family - businessmen, industrialists, politicians, the color of the intelligentsia - undoubtedly influenced the formation of the personality of the one who glorified America so much in the future. FW Taylor graduated from the Stevens Institution in 1878 with a degree in mechanical engineering. In the same year, he entered the machine shop of the Midwell Steel Company (one of the largest metallurgical plants in Bethlehem), where he went through all the steps in the administrative apparatus: from foreman to chief engineer.

While working in the factory, F.W. Taylor began to conduct the first experiments in the field of high-speed metalworking methods, which later brought him fame. He devoted 26 years to his main invention; together with Bart, he designed a special ruler. With its help it was possible to operate with fourteen independent variables. After being appointed chief engineer, F. W. Taylor set about introducing speed methods into production, and here he faced the problem of opposition from workers.

In an effort to break this resistance, he used the methods of coercion traditional for that time, up to dismissal or lowering the level of wages, hiring new workers to replace those laid off, etc. Some workers, fearing punishment, increased the intensity of their work, which angered others. There was such pressure on the workers that they were forced to either reduce their production rates or leave the factory. F. W. Taylor was also threatened. Apparently, this confrontation between the workers and the administration was, among others, one of the reasons for thinking about the need to restructure the management system in such a way that the interests of the workers and the administration become identical.

From the very beginning of his career, engineer Taylor was most interested in the possibilities of introducing scientific methods of organizing work in production. Observing the unloading of coal by workers at a steel plant, he noticed that the volume of output of workers depended on how the shape of the shovel corresponded to the characteristics of the incoming coal. He suggested that the workers use shovels of various shapes. The results of this improvement in simple labor operations shocked him: the productivity of workers increased several times. A completely new area of ​​application of creative efforts has opened up - the technology of labor operations. The previously invisible organizational aspect of work became the object of close attention for Taylor.

Since labor productivity has increased, it has become possible to select people who are most capable of working with a given productivity and dismiss those who are less capable, and use the released financial resources for additional material incentives. Outlines have been outlined new system production management and work with personnel, through closer attention on the part of managers to the organization of work of subordinates. And the analysis of production tasks made it possible to invent new mechanisms for managing people.

All of the above was reflected in F. Taylor's approach to the problems of managing people, his basic principles and methods, which received the general name as the Taylor system.

The essence of the proposed system is based on the following four provisions:

1. Development of evidence-based knowledge about labor activity. Taylor notes that, in practice, managers usually do not know how much work a worker can do under optimal conditions. On the other hand, the workers themselves have a vague idea of ​​what is actually expected of them. It is possible to achieve a correspondence between the requirements of managers and the expectations of employees through a scientific study of the elements of the labor process. If an employee performs a scientifically justified amount of work, he has the right to receive higher material compensation for his work.

2. Selection and training of workers. To make sure that the employee complies with their professional qualities science-based norms need to select workers with the help of criteria developed for this. Taylor believed that such selection would allow workers to become first-class in certain jobs and thus increase their own income without reducing the income of others.

3. Combination of knowledge about labor activity with increased labor opportunities of selected workers. The process of interaction between a leader and a subordinate employee, which is mediated by scientific methods of management, Taylor considered as a kind of "revolution in the minds", a new vision of the context of work activity. The two parties involved in the labor process need not be dividing the limited size of the pie into parts, but to focus on increasing the overall size of the pie.

4. Specialization of types of labor and organizational activities in the form of distribution of responsibility between managers and employees. The organization must have a strict distribution of personal responsibility. Managers are obliged to give employees a scientifically substantiated labor task and to continuously monitor its implementation. Employees are required to perform the assigned task using only scientifically based work methods. In such a system of distribution of responsibility, non-fulfillment of a labor task is excluded. For cases of overfulfillment, additional material remuneration is provided. If the distribution of responsibility between the manager and the employee is correct, the possibility of a labor conflict is completely excluded.

UGH. Taylor came up with the idea that enterprise management should be a system. Management must be carried out using developed and tested methods. The management system and organization of work can be designed. He developed functional structure management of the organization, according to which not one leader should control the progress of work and give instructions, but several - each according to his function. UGH. Taylor showed that every manager must select, train and place workers in those places where they can bring the greatest benefit, set tasks for them, allocate material resources and ensure rational spending, motivate high productivity of workers, monitor their actions in a timely manner and encourage the achieved results.

Key points Taylor systems made it possible to formulate a number of general principles of labor organization.

They include:

The study of the labor process in order to design the most rational methods and actions;

Selection and training of people in rational methods of work in order to select a reference worker;

Defining a job task in order to develop proposals for economic incentives for employees.

It can be seen that the whole Taylor system is aimed at increasing the efficiency of production. Workers should work, Taylor believed, and managers should think. On their own, this important goals that contribute to the effectiveness of the organization, but the requirements for achieving these goals, through a rigid order, a clearly defined structure and externally set standards, can lead to the inability of employees and managers of the organization to flexibly adapt to changing external conditions.

UGH. Taylor for the first time divided the operation into its constituent elements - complexes of techniques, techniques, movements, and also conducted studies on the costs of living labor and its productivity when using various tools.

As the main UGH. Taylor formulated five managerial tasks. To determine the best (rational) way to perform a specific task, it is necessary:

Use scientific methods based on the study of the time of repetitive work operations and their elements, typification and standardization of working tools;

To carry out the selection of workers with not only physical qualities, but also mental abilities;

To carry out training, education and development of the abilities of the worker, allowing him to accurately follow the developed standard techniques and movements;

Develop economic methods of stimulating labor, which are designed to guarantee the quality and timing of the assignment;

Carry out planning and organization of work, the responsibility for which lies with managers, not workers.

The last task is explained by the fact that in the pre-factory phase of development industrial production workers independently organized their work, determined the time and duration of work, methods and intensity of performing specific tasks.

Therefore, F.U. Taylor identified as priority such functions, as the organization of labor, planning, accounting and control, and as a priority management methods- organizational-administrative and economic. The areas of managerial activity subject to improvement included production, labor resources (workers and managers), stocks, flows of resources and products in the internal environment (at the factory).

He considered control as the main function of management and believed that dividing the work task into elements allows eliminating unnecessary, irrational ones, changing the sequence of their implementation and strengthening control over the entire labor process.

The principles formulated by Taylor for analyzing labor activity, defining a labor task as a goal of activity, selecting and training employees, and economic incentives for labor have retained their relevance to this day. They are still important in such sections as the analysis of the mechanisms of motivation for labor activity and purposeful behavior, work with the personnel of the organization.

Among the followers of F. W. Taylor, the most prominent are Frank Gilbreth and his wife Lillian. They dealt with the issues of rationalization of workers' labor, the study of physical movements in the production process and the study of the possibilities of increasing output through increased labor productivity. The works of F. and L. Gilbreth significantly influenced the development of the organization and technical regulation of labor. In our country, their best-known books are "The ABC of the Scientific Organization of Labor and Enterprises" and "The Study of Movements" (1911), "Psychology of Management" (1916).

While still a bricklayer's apprentice, F. Gilbreth noticed that the people who taught him how to lay bricks used three basic combinations of movements. He pondered which of these movements was the most effective; so he methodically studied these movements as well as the instruments used. The result was an improved method that reduced the number of strokes required to lay one brick from 18 to 4.5, thereby increasing productivity by 50%.

At the beginning of the XX century. Frank and his wife Lillian began to study work operations using a movie camera in combination with a microchronometer. Microchronometer - a watch invented by Frank that could record intervals up to 1/2000 of a second. With the help of freeze-frames, F. and L. Gilbreth were able to identify and describe the 17 basic movements of the hand. They called these movements terbligs. This name comes from the surname Gilbreth, if it is read backwards.

A significant contribution to the development of the F. W. Taylor system was made by an American scientist Garrinton Emerson. His work "The Twelve Principles of Productivity" was widely known. In it, he outlined his views on the rationalization of production. “The ideal of the 12 principles of productivity,” G. Emerson noted, “is the elimination of losses. And it is for this purpose that they are formed. In what particular case to eliminate losses - this is of fundamental importance.

G. Emerson paid much attention to the study of the staff principle in management. G. Emerson was educated in Europe. In his sights big influence rendered the ideas of the Prussian general von Moltke, who developed the concept of the general staff, on the basis of which the Prussian army turned into a monstrous military machine of the second half of the 19th century.

G. Ford continued the ideas of F. W. Taylor in the field of organization of production. He formulated the basic principles of the organization of production, for the first time separated the main work from its maintenance. In G. Ford's system, the role and importance of production operational planning and quality control are increasing. According to the basic concept of G. Ford, the enterprise should develop as an integrated one. In social terms, he continued to develop the basic position of the F. W. Taylor system in harmony with the interests of the entrepreneur and the worker.

G. Ford was born in the family of a Michigan farmer, an immigrant from Ireland. Two major events childhood made a deep impression on him. At the age of 12, he first saw a moving locomobile on the road, and in the same year he was presented with a watch. From childhood, he was a "born technician". The loco-bille he saw determined his future fate.

At the age of 15, G. Ford left school and decided on a student in a mechanical workshop in Detroit. In his younger years he had over 300 hours. At one time he even wanted to make watches, but came to the conclusion that not all people would buy them. He also wanted to establish the production of some products for the mass consumer. And he turned to the means of transportation. In 1891, he developed the design of a gasoline cart and worked on improving its engine for several years. For the first time, G. Ford managed to drive it in 1893.

On the basis of this gasoline truck, the Ford Model T car was subsequently created, which already had four cylinders, an automatic starting device and was simpler than its predecessor, with an increase in convenience and practicality in use.

Since 1903, G. Ford creates the Ford Signer Company, a controlling stake in which (51%) he acquires in 1916. In 1919, his son acquires the remaining 41% of the shares. Thanks to the creation of the “T” car model, G. Ford “broke” all the previous concepts that existed in the automotive industry. This model enjoyed unlimited popularity among buyers and for the period 1908-1927. over 15 million units have been sold. cars of this model.

G. L. Gantt in his research he paid special attention to the issues of labor stimulation, production planning. He made a significant contribution to the development of leadership theory. He proposed the method of the bonus system, and maps were drawn up for the convenience of planning. G. Gantt considered the human factor as the main engine for increasing production efficiency.

The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research.

Through the efforts of representatives of this school, the scientific foundations of production and labor management were created. In the 20s. this scientific direction singled out such independent sciences as the scientific organization of labor (NOT), the theory of organization of production (including in-line methods), etc.

The initiator of the creation of a scientific organization of labor in Russia, the Russian economist A.K. Gastev noted: “Taylor developed a certain organizational mechanics. Ford, with unusual technical revolutionism, resolved the question of Taylorism in such a way that he put pure technology in place of people. Ford replaced laborers-transport workers, all sorts of unsettled lower labor with machines. The Ford plant is the highest type of administrative machine. So Ford is the most the last word Taylorism, Ford is Taylor who literally replaced human organization with steel.

The creators of the school of scientific management believed that using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved with more efficient performance. They own the idea of ​​determining the duration of tasks by elements of operations based on timing data and photographs of working time, methods of organization and planning used in modern production practice.

A significant contribution to the development of management science was made by G. Ford through the system of labor intensification and higher organization and management of production. Conveyor production was introduced for the first time at G. Ford's enterprises.

Main achievements of the School of Scientific Management:

Management of people is recognized as a science, an independent field of study;

The most important task of this science is to increase the efficiency of labor in the sphere of production;

The work of managing people requires special qualities from a person - the ability to think and take responsibility for organizing the work of subordinates;

A scientific study of each individual type of labor activity is necessary;

Using scientific analysis to determine the best ways to accomplish a task;

Separation of planning and thinking into a separate process;

Approval of management as an independent form of activity, science, formation of its functions;

Rational management of the enterprise "from below";

Selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their professional selection and professional training;

Specialization of functions in production, the performance of each employee only those functions for which he is most suitable;

The system of material incentives for workers to increase their productivity (money, social innovations, etc.);

Accounting and control over the work carried out;

Separation of administrative and executive work; the introduction of the institution of masters leading workers;

Cooperation between the administration and workers in matters of practical implementation of innovations;

Equal distribution of responsibility between employees and managers;

Development of a number of methods for the scientific organization of labor, based on the study of the movements of the worker with the help of timing, standardization of methods and tools.

Disadvantages of the school of scientific management:

The main drawback of Taylor's system is that it was oriented towards the economic man model, i.e. a person whose main incentive to work is monetary reward; those. the reduction of stimulating moments to the satisfaction of the utilitarian needs of people;

Mechanical approach to management;

The organization was considered as something consisting of independent elements isolated from each other;

Ignoring the real unity of the internal processes of the organization and the need for holistic management of them.

The School of Scientific Management (1885-1920) laid the foundation for the emergence of management science and the emergence of management in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The emergence of the school is associated with the works of Frederick Taylor, Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. In 1911, F. Taylor, summarizing the practice of managing industrial enterprises, published the book "Principles of Scientific Management". Since that time, the theory and practice of management has developed under the influence of ongoing changes in the world economic system, the constant improvement of the rationality of production and the need to take into account changing socio-economic factors.

The School of Scientific Management was a major turning point, thanks to which management began to be recognized as an independent field of activity and scientific research. For the first time, it has been proven that management can significantly improve the efficiency of an organization.

Representatives of this school:

research was carried out on the content of the work and its main elements;

measurements of the time spent on the implementation of labor methods (timekeeping) were carried out;

labor movements were studied, unproductive ones were identified;

rational methods of labor were developed; proposals for improving the organization of production;

a system of labor incentives was proposed in order to interest workers in increasing labor productivity and production volume;

the need to provide workers with rest and inevitable breaks in work was substantiated;

production standards were set, for the excess of which additional payment was offered;

recognized the importance of selecting people to do the job and the need for training;

managerial functions were allocated to a separate area of ​​professional activity.

To disadvantages This school should be attributed to the underestimation of the human factor. In addition, this school did not explore the social aspects of human behavior. Motivation and stimulation of labor, although they were considered as a factor in the effectiveness of management, however, the idea of ​​​​them was primitive and was reduced only to satisfying the utilitarian needs of workers (i.e., physiological)

The School of Scientific Management advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work.

8. Administrative school in management.

French manager Henri Fayol is considered the founder of this school.

Fayol considered management (in his terminology - administration) as a set of principles, rules, techniques aimed at carrying out entrepreneurial activities most efficiently, using the resources and capabilities of the company optimally.

The goal of the school was to create universal principles of management which will undoubtedly lead the organization to success. These principles were related to two aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system. Defining the main functions of a business as finance, production and marketing, the "classics" were sure that they could determine The best way division of the organization into divisions or groups.

Fayol reduced the functioning of any organization to the following main activities:

Technical, i.e., the implementation of the production process;

Commercial (purchase of everything necessary for the creation of goods and services and marketing of finished products);

Financial (attraction, preservation and effective use of funds);

Accounting (statistical observations, inventory, balance sheets);

Administrative (influencing employees);

Functions to protect the life, person and property of people.

A. Fayol formulated 14 principles of management :

division of labor. The purpose of division is to produce work that is larger in volume and better in quality for the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts must be directed;

powers and responsibilities. Authority gives the right to give an order, responsibility is its opposite;

discipline. Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the organization and its employees. Discipline provides for the fair application of sanctions;

unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate supervisor;

unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader;

subordination of personal interests to common ones. The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the company;

staff remuneration. In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair salary;

centralization. It is necessary to ensure the most correct balance between centralization and decentralization, depending on specific conditions;

a scalar chain, that is, a series of people in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position, down to the bottom manager. One should not abandon the hierarchical system unnecessarily, but maintaining a hierarchy is harmful when it is detrimental to business;

order. A place for everything, and everything in its place;

justice - a combination of kindness and justice;

job stability for staff. High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization;

initiative. Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation;

corporate spirit. Union is strength, and it is the result of staff harmony.

The efforts of the founders of the scientific management school were aimed at creating universal management principles based on personal observations and aimed at rationalizing production, while ignoring social relations in the production process and not given due attention to the human factor.

School of Scientific Management (1885 - 1920). The founder of management science is an American engineer and researcher Frederick Taylor. 1911 - F.Taylor's book "Principles of Scientific Management". The essence of the approach: “Management must have its own laws, methods, formulas, principles. It should be based on measurements, rationalization, systematic accounting.” Taylor and his contemporaries recognized that management work was a specialty. There are 4 groups of managerial functions: choice of purpose, choice of means, preparation of means and control of results. Taylor developed methods for rationalizing the work of workers. Henry Ford (mechanic, entrepreneur, organizer of mass production of automobiles in the United States). The organization of management is based on the following principles: maximum division of labor; specialization, widespread use of high-performance equipment and tooling, arrangement of equipment along the way technological process; mechanization of transport operations, regulated rhythm of production. Harrington Emerson - developed an integrated systems approach to organizing management. 1912 - main job"The Twelve Principles of Productivity".

The main provisions of the school of scientific management:

1. Using scientific analysis to determine the best way to accomplish a task.

2. Selecting workers best suited to the task and providing them with training.

3. Providing workers with the resources required for effective implementation tasks.

4. Systematic and correct stimulation to increase labor productivity.

5. Separation of planning and thinking from the work itself.

Questions for consolidation:

1. What is the essence of the school of scientific management?

2. What is the merit of F. Taylor in the development of management as a science?

3. What is the merit of G. Ford in the development of management as a science?

4. What is the merit of G. Emerson in the development of management as a science?

1. What were the efforts of the founders of the scientific management school aimed at?

A) creation of universal principles of management

B) social relations

B) the human factor

D) rationalization of production

2. Who is the founder of management as a management science?

A) E. Mayo;

B) G. Ford;

C) G. Emerson

D) F. Taylor

3. In what years did the school of scientific management exist?

A) 1880 - 1885

B) 1885 - 1920

C) 1920 - 1930

A) Harrington Emerson

B) Elton Mayo

B) Frederick Taylor

D) Henry Ford

5. What are the four managerial functions identified by F. Taylor?

A) choice of goal, choice of means, preparation of means, control of results

B) planning, organization, motivation, control

C) choosing a goal, developing a mission, completing tasks, monitoring results

D) planning, choice of means, motivation, control

More on the topic 2. School of scientific management, its main provisions and principles. The development of management in the works of F. Taylor, G. Ford, G. Emerson.:

1. 3. Classical administrative school of management, its main provisions and principles. Henri Fayol's contribution to the development of the classical school of management
2. 4. Neoclassical school of management, its main provisions
3. School of Scientific Management. The main characteristics of the views of its founders
4. 14. Organization as the main function of management. Principles of building the organizational structure of management. Types of organizational management structures

Management thought has developed very inconsistently. There were several approaches, which sometimes coincided, and sometimes differed significantly from each other. The objects of management are people and technology, so success in management largely depended on success in other areas. As society evolved, management professionals learned more and more about the factors influencing the success of an organization.

In addition, the world was becoming the scene of rapid change driven by scientific and technological progress, and governments in many countries were becoming more determined in their attitude to business. These factors have caused management researchers to become aware of the existence of external forces influencing organizational performance. As a result, new approaches have been developed. There are four main approaches that have made a significant contribution to the development of management science.

First of all, an approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management. It includes, in turn, five different schools in which management is considered from different points of view: scientific management, administrative management, human relations, behavioral science, and management science, or the quantitative method.

School of Scientific Management. The formation and development of this school, which became widely known throughout the world under the name "scientific organization of labor", coincided with the beginning of the 20th century. F. Taylor (1856-1915), an American practical engineer and manager, was at the origins of this school. In his daily work, he solved the problems of rationalizing production and labor in order to increase productivity and efficiency. His teaching has become the main theoretical source of modern management concepts.

F. Taylor wrote books that glorified his name throughout the world: "Deal System" (1895), "Shop Management" (1903) and "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). In his writings, he tried to combine the interests of capital and labor, to implement the "philosophy of cooperation" in capitalist enterprises. The method he developed, which ensures the intensification of labor, aroused great interest among managers from different countries.

F. Taylor sought to prove that the methods of scientific organization of labor developed by him and the principles of "scientific management" formulated on their basis could replace outdated authoritarian methods of management.

F. Taylor advocated the transformation of scientific management into a branch of industrial labor similar to engineering. His system consisted in the consistent implementation of the principle of division of labor into performing labor and managerial labor, in the specialization of work. V production system working as a well-coordinated mechanism, each employee must be responsible for his functions. At the same time, one should strive to achieve a correspondence between the types of workers and the types of work. In addition, strict regulation of activities is required. This orients each employee towards the performance of a partial function, but does not require him to understand the overall design.

F. Taylor pointed out the tasks that the administration must perform and due to which the subjectivism and arbitrariness of the old methods of management are replaced by the "scientific logic" of rules, laws and formulas.

F. Taylor considered scientific management as an effective means of bringing together the interests of all employees due to the growth of their well-being and the establishment of close cooperation with the owners and administration to achieve the production and economic goals of the organization. He believed that if the scientific management system is fully accepted, this will resolve all disputes and disagreements between the parties.

Some Russian scientists, first of all, A. A. Bogdanov and A. K. Gastev, should also be attributed to the representatives of the school of scientific management.

This school also has the following features:
using scientific analysis to determine the best way to solve business problems;
purposeful selection of workers best suited to perform tasks, their training;
uniform and fair distribution of duties (responsibility) between workers and managers;
providing employees with resources;
the use of financial incentives;
cooperation between the administration and the workers in the practical implementation of the NOT.

The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management began to be recognized as an independent field of scientific research. A new science was born, identifying methods and approaches that could be effectively used by practitioners to achieve the goals of the organization.

Classical, or administrative, school of government. The greatest contribution to its development was made by the French scientist A. Fayol. Representatives of this school tried to determine General characteristics and patterns of organizations, approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

The purpose of administrative management was to create universal principles of management. This can be recognized as the first independent result of the science of administration. These principles covered two main aspects:
determining the best way to divide the organization into divisions (they considered finance, production, marketing to be such divisions) in order to identify the main management functions;
proposal of principles for building the structure of the organization and managing employees (these are, first of all, the principles of unity of command, authority and responsibility, stability of the workplace, etc.). Many of them are still useful and used in practice.

It should be noted that the representatives of the administrative school did not care about the social aspects of management. They viewed the organization from a broader perspective. The main contribution of A. Fayol to the theory of management was that he considered management to be a universal process, consisting of interrelated functions of planning and organization.

School of human relations in management. Its greatest authorities are M. Follett (England), E. Mayo (USA). Representatives of this school believed that if management increases concern for its employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will inevitably lead to an increase in productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective action by immediate supervisors, consultation with workers, and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.

According to the modern management doctrine, 3 significant factors matter in the management system: people, finances and technology, and the first place is occupied by the "people" factor. Among the dominant goals of management (relationships between people and the fulfillment of tasks), the human factor prevails. It is this management system, where the focus is on the human factor, that is the most optimal in the market.

Management is a psychologically rich management system, the main functions of which are directly related to psychology. Therefore, for the effective implementation of these functions, a manager needs to master the psychological components of managerial skills: to be able to interact with people, speak to an audience, convince, etc.

In the harsh conditions of market competition, only the ability to communicate with people ensures success in business. Well-known Japanese, European and American managers achieve enviable success in the production of goods precisely because of the careful attitude to the staff.

The school of behavioral sciences has departed significantly from the school of human relations. According to this approach, the worker should be assisted to a greater extent in understanding his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the management of organizations. The main goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by improving the efficiency of the use of human resources, creating all necessary conditions to realize the creative abilities of each employee, to realize their own importance in the management of the organization.

The main postulate of the school: the correct application of the science of behavior should always increase the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.

It is of great importance for managers to study the various behavioral approaches that general management recommends and to explore the possibility of their application in the process of analyzing the organization. It must be remembered that man is the most important element in the control system. A well-chosen team of like-minded people and partners who are able to understand and implement the ideas of their leader is the most important condition for economic success.

The school of management science, or the quantitative method, is based on the use of data in the hard sciences - mathematics, statistics, engineering sciences - and involves the widespread use of the results of operations research and situation models. In addition, the use of quantitative measurements in decision making. However, before the Second World War, quantitative methods were not used enough in management.

A very strong impetus to the application of these methods in management was the development of computer technology and information systems management. This made it possible to design mathematical models increasing complexity, which are closest to reality and therefore more accurate.

situational approach. The development of this approach has made a great contribution to the theory of management, since it became possible to directly apply science to specific situations and conditions. The main point of the situational approach is the situation, i.e. specific circumstances that have a significant impact on the organization at this particular time. Since there are many such factors both within the organization itself and in environment, then there is no single "best" way to manage the activities of the organization. The most effective method of management is the one that best suits the current situation.

M. Follett back in the 20s. spoke of the "law of the situation." However, this approach was developed properly only in the late 1960s.

The situational approach is not a simple set of prescribed recommendations, but rather a way of thinking about organizational problems and their solutions. Using it, managers can better understand which techniques are most conducive to achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation.

The situational approach retains the concept of the management process applicable to all organizations. However, according to this approach, the specific techniques that managers must use to effectively achieve the goals of the organization can vary significantly. Therefore, it is necessary to link specific techniques and concepts to specific situations in order to most effectively achieve the goals of the organization.

The situational approach focuses on situational differences between and within organizations. In this regard, it is necessary to determine the significant variables of the situation and their impact on the performance of the organization.

Systems approach. Application of systems theory in management in the late 50s. was the most important contribution to the management of the school of management science and, in particular, the American scientist J. Paul Getty. A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Because this approach is relatively recent, it is currently impossible to fully appreciate the true impact of this school on management theory and practice. Nevertheless, its influence is already great and will continue to grow in the future. On a systematic basis, it will probably be possible to synthesize new knowledge and theories that will be developed in the future.

The definition of variables and their impact on the effectiveness of the organization is the main contribution to the management of the systems approach, which is a logical continuation of systems theory.

The system approach allows a comprehensive assessment of the activities of any management system at the level of specific characteristics. This helps to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of input, process and output problems. The application of a systematic approach allows the best way organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.

Managers need to know organization variables as systems in order to apply systems theory to the management process. They must view the organization as a set of interdependent elements such as people, structure, tasks and technology that are oriented towards achieving different goals in a changing environment.

Process approach. This approach is widely used today. It was first proposed by representatives of the school of administrative management, who tried to describe the functions of a manager. The initial development of this concept is attributed to A. Fayol.

The process approach to management reflects the desire of management theorists and practitioners to integrate all types of activities to solve management problems into a single chain, broken as a result of "excessive enthusiasm" for the functional approach, in which each of the functions is considered out of touch with others.

According to this approach, management is considered as a process of continuous interrelated actions (functions), each of which, in turn, also consists of several interrelated actions. They are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. At the same time, management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity. It involves the possibility of influencing employees in such a way that they work towards achieving goals.

From a brief overview of the approaches, it can be seen that management thought has been constantly evolving, which contributed to the emergence of new ideas about the effective management of the organization.

Representatives of each approach or school believed that they managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. However, later studies and management practice have shown that these studies concerned only certain aspects of the management process, and the results obtained were true only for certain situations. In addition, the practice of management has always turned out to be more complex, deeper and more diverse than the corresponding theoretical thought. From time to time, researchers discovered new, previously unknown aspects of the management process and overthrew the truths that seemed unshakable from the pedestal. Despite this, it should be recognized that representatives of each approach or school have made their own, invaluable contribution to the development of management science.

It should also be noted that the presence of a significant number of scientific schools and approaches, each of which offers its own principles and models, is an important feature of management, its difference from other sciences.