The functional-semantic type of speech is considered as a universal typological unit of the text, distinguished on the basis of various features (communicative-pragmatic, logical-semantic, structural-semantic). AT scientific literature such semantic types are distinguished as description, narration, definition of a concept, reasoning, proof, message (E. I. Motina); description, narration, reasoning, explanation (A. A. Weise);

description, narration, reasoning, proof and generalization - formulation (M. N. Kozhina); description, narration, reasoning (O. A. Nechaeva). In addition, in other works one can find a refutation, conclusion, comparison, explanation (see, for example, T. P. Malchevskaya, E. S. Troyanskaya) . Such a variety of types is explained primarily by the fact that when they are distinguished, the authors operate with material that is different in stylistic and genre terms and use different grounds for classification: communicative intention, nature of the denotation, nature of the logical relations between sentences or larger parts of the text, types of predications. According to R. S. Alikaev, the question of universal text units should be decided “depending on functional style, typological textual paradigm of a certain style; from the hierarchy of speech types in various stylistic systems".

R. S. Alikaev, following V. V. Odintsov, proposes a multidimensional classification. At the first level, texts are divided into descriptive and argumentative, depending on the communicative goal, intention (or type of basic intention). Descriptive texts according to the type of basic intention are reporting, informing, they contain information about the object, its properties, features, character, structure and are distinguished by existential modality. Argumentative texts are, first of all, persuasive, proving, explaining texts. They are characterized by various types of objective modality. At the next level, descriptive and argumentative texts are divided according to functional and structural features.

Particular varieties of descriptive texts are definition, description-definition, actual description, explanation. The most frequent in the scientific style is definition, the purpose of which is to characterize a scientific concept by pointing to its most significant features and properties. The syntax of definitions is characterized by constructions with a common syntactic meaning "subject (carrier of a sign, properties) - property (attribute)". This structure is often complicated by participles, participle turns and phrases with a verbal noun. In the communicative and semantic relation, the text-definition is a theme-rhematic structure of the "bush" type, when the theme (the main subject) is preserved throughout the entire segment of the text and is characterized by various rhemes. For example:

The basic principles of modern international law are fundamental, imperative, universal norms of international law that meet the laws of development of international relations, ensure the main interests of mankind, states, other subjects of international law and, therefore, are protected by the most stringent measures of coercion. The basic principles are obligatory for all states without exception. They enjoy primacy over all other norms of the system of international law. The principles are retroactive.

Closest to the definition definition. Its difference from the definition lies in the fact that the definition lists only the differential features of the object that distinguish it through identification with another genus-species concept. The definition in the simplest case "can be reduced to a logical formula: A is B (which is characterized by features X and Y)" . In definitions, as a rule, there is no full-valued predicate; identity relations are established in it. For syntax, constructions are typical that form the meanings “name of a species concept - sign of a relation - name of a generic concept”. For example:

Civil law - one of the main branches of law in the Russian Federation, is a system of norms regulating, on the basis of equality of participants in relations, inviolability of property, freedom to conclude contracts, a set of property, as well as related personal non-property relations.

Actually description in the communicative and semantic sense, it coincides with the definition and the definition, differing at the structural-semantic level. If definitions and definitions are based on fairly rigid construction schemes, then the description itself is built according to free rules, while maintaining the main communicative goal - to characterize an object, concept, phenomenon with varying degrees of accuracy and detail. Definition and definition may be included in the description as its components. The communicative and semantic structure of the description itself, as a rule, is represented by a theme-rhematic progression with a hypertheme or a linear progression with elements of a "bush" type.

The subject of civil law, like any other branch, is public relations, i.e. connections between members of society. The specificity of civil law is that it regulates relations associated with any property.

Civil law regulates all the most important parties and types of property relations, including: 1) the legal status of the participants in these relations; 2) grounds for the emergence and procedure for exercising the right of ownership and other property rights; 3) contractual and other obligations related to the alienation by the owner of property and its transfer to another person: a citizen or a legal entity.

A special type of civil law relations are relations arising from the inheritance of the property of the deceased.

Explanation as a kind of descriptive text stands out on a functional basis. Its purpose is to supplement the characteristics of the object, to introduce minor details that clarify and illustrate information about the properties and features of the object. The time plan of all the listed types of texts is the plan of the present irrelevant, the present permanent. For example:

Civil law regulates all the most important parties and types of property relations, including:

1) the legal status of the participants in these relations.(Explanation) Here the concept of the legal capacity of citizens, the conditions for the emergence of legal capacity are revealed, the procedure for recognizing citizens as incompetent, establishing guardianship and guardianship over them is fixed. Civil law gives the concept of a legal entity, various types of economic organizations: partnerships and societies, business and consumer cooperatives, state and municipal enterprises, non-profit organizations;

Descriptive texts include message, which is considered by a number of authors as a transformed narrative. This is explained by the fact that for a scientific text, a simple statement of a subject or object at certain intervals of time without indicating its features, causes and consequences of its transition to another state is absolutely irrelevant. The purpose of the message is to inform about any objects, events, stages of their change and signs accompanying them. At the same time, “the goal is not set to create a detailed detailed representation of some material object through its many hallmarks... as it is done in the description; the message does not convey the sequential movement (course) of the individual phases of the process ... which is typical for the narrative. The message type is most often used when describing specific phenomena, when it is required to convey information about any circumstantial characteristics of events, processes, objects (for example, about spatial or temporal). Texts of the message type are not characterized by rigid construction schemes, their syntax is also more diverse, although they are based on constructions of a characterizing type. For example:

The end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century was marked by significant achievements in the field of international legal regulation. Important milestones in this direction were the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, convened at the initiative of Russia. The documents adopted at them codified the rules of warfare and peaceful settlement of disputes, and were a significant milestone in the formation of international humanitarian law. This period ends with the end of the First World War and the creation of the League of Nations.

Argumentative type texts include reasoning, proof, explanation, sometimes as separate types they consider inference, refutation, confirmation, justification, and some others. All texts of this type are united by a single goal - transmission, demonstration of thought processes, presentation of the process of logical inference, conviction in the truth of certain provisions of the theory, substantiation of a scientific point of view.

The communicative-semantic structure of the text is subordinated to the logical one - between the sentences of the text there are Various types causal, concessive, conditionally comparative relationships. Accordingly, the syntax of argumentative texts is characterized by complex subordinate clauses expressing various logical relations. At the same time, it should be noted that causal relationships or another type of logical connection are not always explicitly indicated in the text. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, there are predetermined, rigid text formatting schemes, for example, proofs in mathematics, when a verbal expression turns out to be redundant, or, on the other hand, the initial and subject to verification provisions are formulated so clearly and clearly that unambiguous awareness the nature of the relationship is not problematic.

The internal differentiation of argumentative texts is carried out on the basis of a particular communicative goal setting, analysis of the structure of the text and the nature of the logical connections between the statements of the text. As already noted, argumentative texts are divided into at least two parts, between which relations of cause, effect, concessions, conditions, logical conclusion, generalizations are established, which in some cases have different semantic shades. basic structure proof of as a separate functional-semantic type form the thesis and arguments. The thesis contains the main proposition, the truth of which must be proved. Arguments contain information that proves and verifies the thesis. Since there is no single method of evidence for all cases, the structure of evidence texts can differ significantly from each other. Accordingly, the syntactic constructions used for these purposes will also be different. The most rigid structure of evidence is in natural and scientific and technical texts. Considering the structures of evidence in the texts of these sciences, E. I. Motina notes, in addition to the thesis and arguments, the presence of two more mandatory components: the method of proof and conclusion.

In humanitarian texts, the method of proof, as a rule, manifests itself in the selection and sequence of arguments and is not drawn up separately; the inference, final judgment is also optional.

reasoning differs from the proof in that, firstly, “by means of reasoning, the process of obtaining new knowledge about the object through the operations of logical inference is transmitted”, and the truth is not proved. Secondly, the basic structure includes premises (private and / or general) and a conclusion, a conclusion. Parts of the reasoning are connected, as a rule, by causal relationships and conditional relationships, and in form the reasoning is one or more conclusions, united formally and meaningfully. And, thirdly, the conclusion to which the author leads is not always strictly verifiable, since it depends on the initial assumptions, which can be both true and false. It is possible to compare two fragments of the text of reasoning and proof.

Reasoning:

• (package) Values ​​distort the perception of nature, society and man, and in order for a person not to be deceived in his perception, he must constantly be aware of the presence of values, must understand what effect they have on his perception, and, armed with this understanding, make the necessary adjustments . ( posting explanation)(Speaking of "distortion", I mean the imposition of the personal aspect of perception on the really existing aspects of the reality cognized by man.)
• (consequence, conclusion) The study of values, needs, desires, prejudices, fears, interests, and neuroses must precede any scientific inquiry.

Proof:

(thesis) Normativity, being a consequence of the natural-historical development of society, is not a specific property of law, (argument 1) It is possessed by religion, and morality, and aesthetics, and even literature, (argument 2) Some social norms simultaneously belong to several normative systems, (illustration of argument 2) For example, the gospel prohibitions “Thou shalt not kill,” “Thou shalt not steal” are both moral and legal rules. (conclusion) Therefore, in order to distinguish law from other social phenomena, some other signs are needed. One of them is generality. This is the second property of law after normativity.

In the reasoning text, from the premise “values ​​distort the phenomena under study”, it is concluded that “in order to obtain true knowledge, it is necessary to first study values”. The original premise of distortion must be taken on faith by the reader. The proof text is structured differently. The thesis that normativity is not a specific property of law is confirmed (proved) by an indication that normativity is a property of other spheres of human life. Based on this, a conclusion is made about the validity of the thesis.

Like a separate independent type sometimes considered explanation. In terms of its logical structure, an explanation resembles a proof, however, the arguments do not perform the function of a strict and logically consistent proof, but provide concrete examples, empirical facts, Additional information that allow you to understand and accept the thesis put forward.

Argumentative texts, as well as descriptive ones, are very diverse, which is manifested in the number of arguments, the nature of their logical and semantic connection, in the type of relationship between the main parts. The features of the structure are most clearly manifested in the proof texts presented in technical sciences and theoretical works. Great variability and fuzziness are characteristic of the texts of the humanities fields of knowledge.

Thus, the functional-semantic type is a typological unit of the text, and its structure is determined in small segments. Depending on the communicative goal, descriptive and argumentative types of texts are distinguished, which, in turn, are divided into description, definition, definition, explanation, message (descriptive types) and reasoning, proof, explanation (argumentative types). In texts of a large volume of different genres, functional-semantic types are in different relationships, which determines the general communicative dominant of the text - argumentative or descriptive (see, for example, texts 2, 7, 9 of the Appendix, which are of an argumentative nature, and other texts, in which description, information, definition dominate reasoning, substantiation, proof). At the same time, connections are established not only between individual sentences, but also larger fragments of the text (paragraphs, superphrasal units, etc.), which, respectively, perform the functions of theses, arguments, premises, conclusions, etc.

Nechaeva OA Functional-semantic types of speech. Ulan-Ude, 1974. According to the book: Syrykh V. M. Fundamentals of jurisprudence. M., 1996. S. 110.

Motina E. I. Language and specialty. S. 49.

Motina E. I. Language and specialty. S. 43.

Spiridonov L. I. Theory of State and Law. S. 93.

Oratory is heterogeneous in its composition, since in the process of thinking a person tends to reflect various, objectively existing connections between objects, events, individual judgments, which in turn finds expression in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning (thinking ). Monological types of speech are built on the basis of reflecting mental diachronic, synchronic, cause-and-effect processes. Oratorical speech in this regard is a monologue narrative - information about developing actions, a monologue description - information about the simultaneous features of an object, monologue reasoning - cause-and-effect relationships. Semantic types are present in speech depending on its type, purpose and the speaker's conceptual intent, which determines the inclusion or non-inclusion of one or another semantic type in the general fabric of oratory speech; the change of these types is caused by the speaker's desire to more fully express his thought, reflect his position, help listeners perceive the speech and most effectively influence the audience, and also give the speech a dynamic character. At the same time, in various types oratorical speech will have a different ratio of these types, because in reality they all mix, interact, and their isolation is very conditional.

Narration is a dynamic functional and semantic type of speech that expresses a message about actions or states developing in a temporal sequence and has specific language tools. Narrative conveys changing actions or states that unfold over time. This type of speech, in contrast to the description, is dynamic; therefore, temporary plans can constantly change in it.

This type is resorted to if it is necessary to confirm the positions expressed by the speaker with specific examples or when analyzing some situations. The speaker's task is to depict the sequence of events, to convey this sequence with the necessary accuracy. Thus, meaningful and factual information is transmitted, and it is clothed in different forms. Firstly, the speaker can speak as a participant in the events, secondly, state the events from the words of a third person, and thirdly, model the series of events without indicating the source of information. The speaker conveys events that take place as if before the eyes of the listeners, or introduces memories of events developing in the past.

It is possible to single out specific, generalized and informational narration. Concrete is a narrative about dismembered, chronologically sequential concrete actions of one or more actors, for example, in a judicial speech; generalized - about specific actions, but characteristic of many situations, typical for a certain situation, for example, in a scientific presentation; informational - a message about any actions or states without their specification and detailed, chronological sequence; it most often takes the form of a retelling of the actions of the subject or the form of indirect speech.

The narration in speeches can be built according to the scheme of the traditional three-hour articulation, i.e. it has its own plot, introducing into the essence of the matter and predetermining the movement of the plot, the deployment of the action and the denouement, containing an explicit or hidden emotional evaluation events by the speaker.

Usually, there is a distinction between extended and non-extended narration. An extended narrative is a speech that reflects successive, sometimes simultaneous, but developing actions or states. A non-expanded narration is either expressed by a separate remark in a dialogue, or, when used in a micro-thematic context, serves as an introduction to a description or reasoning.

Description - this is a stating part, as a rule, giving a static picture, an idea of ​​the nature, composition, structure, properties, qualities of an object by listing both its essential and non-essential features at the moment.

Description can be of two types: static and dynamic. The first gives the object in statics, the signs of the object indicated in speech can mean its temporary or permanent properties, qualities and states. For example, a description of a place, an action in a court speech, or a description of an object in a political speech. The description of the second type is less common; Thus, any experience in scientific speech usually appears in development, dynamics.

Descriptions are very diverse both in content and form. They can be, for example, figurative. The speaker, trying to inform the listeners of the necessary amount of information, gives not only a detailed description of the object, but also its characteristics, assessment, recreating a certain picture, which brings the speech closer to the description in fiction.

The center of the description is nouns with objective meaning, which give rise to a specific image in the minds of listeners, and informatively it can be very rich, since nouns with objective meaning cause a number of associations.

In the description, as a rule, the forms of the present, past and future tenses are used. For judicial speech, the use of the past tense is most typical, for academic speech - the present.

Descriptions are more or less homogeneous in their syntactic structure. As can be seen from the previous examples, it usually represents an enumeration of key words or words denoting the features of the describing object, in a direct or figurative sense, which causes an enumerative intonation, resulting in a complete image of the object.

In a dynamic event description, relatively equal, complete actions or facts are depicted in the form of changing parts, which gives the statement an enumerative character. This type of description has a designated start and end.

The description can be expanded, detailed and concise, brief; objectified, for example, a description of an experience in an academic speech or a crime scene in a judicial speech, and subjective, in which the speaker expresses his attitude to the object, for example, a description of a situation in a political speech. Most often, of course, the speaker does not hide his attitude to the object, giving him a hidden or explicit assessment.

Reasoning (or reflection) is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are examined, their internal features are revealed, certain provisions are proved. Reasoning is characterized by special logical relations between its constituent judgments, which form inferences or a chain of inferences on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. This type of speech has a specific linguistic structure, depending on the logical basis of reasoning and on the meaning of the statement, and is characterized by cause-and-effect relationships. It is associated with the transfer of content-conceptual information.

N.I. Kondakov’s “Logical Dictionary” gives the following definition: “Reasoning is a chain of conclusions on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments relating to a question, which follow one another, in such a way that others necessarily follow or follow from previous judgments, and as a result, an answer to the question is obtained. When reasoning, the speaker comes to a new judgment.

Reasoning allows you to involve listeners in the process of speech, which leads to the activation of their attention, causing interest in what is being reported.

It is possible to single out the actual reasoning - a chain of conclusions on any topic, presented in a logically consistent form, its goal is to derive a new meaning (most often, the commenting part comes first, then the key, or main part); proof, the purpose of which is to substantiate the truth or falsity of the statements made (the key part usually precedes the commentary); an explanation, the purpose of which is to reveal, specify the stated content, establish the reliability of judgments regarding some obscure case (as a rule, the key part also comes first, then commenting). Let us give an example of the actual reasoning from the words of V.S. Solovyov, said at the grave of F.M. Dostoevsky: “We all came together here for the sake of our common love for Dostoevsky. But if Dostoevsky is so dear to all of us, it means that we all love what he himself loved most of all, what was dearest to him; so we believe in what he believed and what he preached. And why would we come here to honor his death, if we were alien to what he lived and acted for? But Dostoevsky loved, first of all, the living human soul in everything and everywhere, and he believed that we are all the race of God, he believed in the divine infinite power of the human soul, triumphant over all external violence and over any internal fall. This reasoning begins with a commentary part: the reasons that led everyone to the grave are revealed; then comes the main (key) part: what was Dostoevsky like, what did he believe in, and, consequently, what prompted him to come to say goodbye to him.

A special case of reasoning are common places - abstract reasoning, inspired by the topic, speeches that are not fixed for a specific situation, which reinforce the argumentation of the main presentation, are used to emotionally strengthen arguments and provisions. These are discussions on general topics, for example, about honesty and decency, justice and humanity, about treating people, etc.

A well-chosen general idea serves as one of the main elements of the composition and a support for a particular material; the connection of common places with specific material increases the content orientation of speech. Thus, commonplaces are a kind of reasoning.

So, the functional and semantic types of speech in a speech usually alternate, one way or another replacing each other, which creates a special compositional and stylistic dynamics. For example, reasoning can prevail in an academic lecture, while description and narration occupy a large place in a legal speech.

As we can see, description, narration and reasoning have constructive-stylistic and semantic differences that determine the use of these types in speech.

In a functional sense oratory regulated and systematized; the choice of one or another functional-semantic type depends on the object of speech and the purpose of the statement.

Oratorical speech is polemical in nature, because it reflects the contradictions of modern life and the conflicts of communication.

Two types of polemic can be distinguished: implicit (or hidden, internal) and explicit (or open, external). The first type of polemicalness is manifested in almost all speeches, since the speaker has to convince the audience that he is right, without naming possible dissenting listeners or opponents who may be in this audience or outside it.

Explicit polemicism is associated with open defense of one's views and refutation of opponents. One can speak of an unreal opponent when the speaker, in an effort to express his views, refutes the existing ones, fights with an imaginary opponent. About the real - if the opponent is personified, meanings are formulated on his behalf that are subject to refutation.

Since explicit polemic is directed at a specific, real person, a controversy may arise between the speaker and this person if the latter publicly defends his views. Controversy is a bilateral (multilateral) public communication of speakers, an exchange of views, a dispute in the process of discussing an issue at a meeting, conference, as well as in the press for the purpose of best solution the problems under consideration.

The polemical form of speech involves a thorough analysis of the original factual material, statistical data, scientific problems, the opinions of various people, etc., a rigorous argumentation based on this, as well as an emotional impact on the listener, which is necessary in the process of persuasion.

Functional-semantic types of speech

Since ancient times, such important components of speech as description, narration, reasoning have been distinguished. In linguistics, they are usually called functional-semantic types of speech. Their selection goes back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose composition. The list of functional and semantic types of speech can be expanded by adding to description, narration, reasoning definition(explanation) characteristic as a kind of description and message as a storytelling option.

Description - enumeration of signs of an object or phenomenon. Allocate a static description that interrupts the development of the action, and dynamic description- usually small in volume, which is included in the event: the landscape is given through the perception of the character in the course of his movement ("Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov). Description as a type of speech depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, the author's belonging to a particular literary movement.

Description as a type of speech is closely connected with the person, with the place, with the conditions in which the action takes place. Descriptions are portrait, landscape, event, etc.

In journalism, the function of description is a documentary, accurate reproduction of the situation. This goal is served by an abundance of specific details. A kind of description in non-fiction prose is a characteristic, a special case of which is a technical description.

Narration - an image of events or phenomena that do not occur simultaneously, but follow one after another or determine each other: Caesar's story: "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Veni, vidi, vici).

This is the main part of the author's monologue speech. It is closely related to space and time. Designations of place, action, names of persons and the actions themselves are the language means by which the narration is conducted. The narrative can be more or less objectified, neutral or, on the contrary, subjective. The last type of narration is typical for journalism.

Type of storytelling message, which, as a kind of narration, is found in newspaper speech. It is distinguished by conciseness of presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.

reasoning is a chain of consecutive conclusions on a topic. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments on any issue, which follow one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow from previous judgments.

The main area of ​​​​use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. Reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose.

Varieties of reasoning - definition and explanation. Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech, it is distributed mainly in the scientific literature. The defined concept is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while the features that are special for this concept (species difference) are given. The definition is revealed in explanation. They can also appear separately: the definition is more common in scientific texts, the explanation - in popular science, in the language of mass communication.

Functional-semantic types of speech are rarely found in their pure form. Much more common is the combination of narration and description, narration and reasoning.

I. Introduction

Primary requirements

1. Establish contact with listeners.

2. Attract attention, emphasize the importance of the topic.

3. Clearly formulate the topic and main idea, outline the speech plan

tricks

. "Hooking Start"

Reception of paradoxical quotation.

quote, proverb,

Sayings, aphorisms

Question to the audience

Examples of speech formulas:

Can you read? This question usually causes bewilderment - how, we are all literate people! But the great Goethe claimed that he learned to read all his life, but even now he cannot be sure that he can do it.

II. Main part

Primary requirements

1. reveal 5-7 main provisions.

2. Divide the selected information into semantic parts.

3. Use the most convincing examples, quotes, figures

tricks

Analogy.

Contrasting.

Comparisons.

Evaluative vocabulary

Examples of speech formulas:

Transitions:

. but;

. not only but;

. on the other side;

. now consider;

. another characteristic feature(dash);

. no less important reason;

. to other advantages (disadvantages);

. against;

. still to be considered;

. Let's name some others...

III. Conclusion

Primary requirements

"General assault" of the audience:

Allow the audience to remember the main points

Activate the audience.

tricks

Formulation of the main idea and general theses.

Aphorisms.

Round off speech, i.e. be able to connect the beginning of a speech with its end.

Examples of speech formulas:

. summing up all of the above;

. thus;

. hence;

. follows from what has been said;

. summarizing what has been said;

. allows to conclude

Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTR) - communicative-conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include description, narration and reasoning . In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics and stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term "functional-semantic type of speech" was introduced into scientific circulation by prof. O.A. Nechaeva (1974).

The development of functional stylistics, the special appeal of scientists to the problem of FSTR, the involvement as an object of study of the entire variety of socially significant functional varieties of speech led to the isolation of subtypes within the FSTR, the allocation of new types of speech (the main ones should include prescription and statement- types of speech, characteristic primarily for official business texts). The specificity of the functional varieties of the language determines the variability in the manifestation of the same FSTR in different texts - up to their functional and semantic transformation.

Consider the main FSTR, characterizing each of them. The main ones include types of speech that make up the dominant of one or more functional styles.

Description - FSTR, the essence of which is to express the fact of the coexistence of objects, their signs at the same time. The description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, appearance.

In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is borne by nouns and adjectives. Nouns refer to specific vocabulary (river, village, window, etc.). Words with a spatial meaning are widely used - the circumstances of the place (on the river, on both sides, between the pines, in the clearing, behind the house, etc.). The verbal predicates are either weakened in semantic terms, erased (the estate stands on the river; the window overlooks the river; the road went to the right), or they have a qualitative-figurative meaning (the grass was white with strawberry flowers; it bloomed thickly). The verb form of the present tense is often used, expressing the long-term state of the object or the "timeless" state (standing, connecting, propping up). Verbs not perfect look past tense indicate the state of the described phenomena at the time of observation of them (turned white, bloomed). Even perfective verbs in descriptive contexts convey a property, a characteristic of an object, and not an active action (a barely noticeable path branched off from it, winded between the pines and died in a clearing).

The description is characterized by the uniformity of the forms of the predicate, which is an indicator of the static character of the depicted. The most frequent are descriptions with a single plan of the present tense or with a single plan of the past tense. The degree of staticness in descriptions with a past tense plan is lower than in descriptions with a present tense plan. The structure of sentences in the description is often characterized by syntactic parallelism.

The description may include a sequence of nominative and elliptical constructions, which creates a kind of nominative style, most clearly represented in the remarks of dramatic works, film scripts, and diary entries. In such descriptions, objects seem to be captured by a video camera. Offers are equal relative to each other, they can be grouped differently, it all depends on the "starting point".

A special kind of description is characteristic- type of speech used to depict the qualities of a person or object. In the characteristic, as in any description, there may be elements of reasoning. A literary text is characterized by a contamination of description with narration. Elements of descriptiveness are present in almost any narrative text.

Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they talk about "dynamic description"- the type of speech is transitional, bordering on the narrative. The dynamic description conveys the flow of actions at small time intervals in confined space. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of a very detailed description of an action with great accuracy in rendering details - "second style"). In addition, a dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the hero's internal state.

Narration - FSTR, designed to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another.

In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of the action, in the movement of the plot. An important role is played by the temporal correlation of predicates, which can manifest itself both as their temporal uniformity and as temporal diversity. The main semantic load is usually performed by perfective verbs, prefixed and non-prefixed (settled, imagined, talked, went, dined, walked, decided, etc.; came, blossomed, blossomed, turned blue, gilded, etc.), which denote limiting actions changing. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary (doctor, patients, horses, city, garden; forest, snowdrops, cat, mustache, paws). The course of events is accentuated by means of the circumstances of the time (just now, somehow in winter, in spring, on a holiday, after receiving the sick, later).

In terms of the use of syntactic constructions and types of connection of sentences, the narrative is opposed to the description, which is manifested, in particular, in the following:

1) in the difference in the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of forms of the imperfective aspect, the narrative is perfect;

2) in the predominance of a chain connection of sentences in the narrative - a parallel connection is more characteristic of the description;

3) in the use of one-component sentences - nominative sentences, impersonal sentences, widely presented in descriptive contexts, are not typical for the narrative.

reasoning - FSTR, corresponding to the form of abstract thinking - inference, performing a special communicative task - to give a reasoned character to speech (come in a logical way to a new judgment or argue what was said earlier) and formalized with the help of lexical and grammatical means of cause-and-effect semantics. The main area of ​​use of reasoning is scientific, actualizing the logical, rational type of thinking.

Reasoning functions in texts in the form of several communicative and compositional options, the typology of which is a field structure.

The central variety is reasoning(reasoning in the narrow sense of the word) - a type of speech that most consistently expresses the causal relationship between judgments: from cause to effect, and not from consequence (thesis) to cause (foundation). The central place of reasoning itself in the system of argumentative subtypes of speech is also due to its role in the communicative-cognitive process. It is this type of speech that formalizes the derivation of new knowledge, demonstrates the course of the author's thought, the way to solve the problem. Structurally, reasoning itself is a chain of sentences connected by relations of logical consequence.

The region adjacent to the center, the region of the near periphery, is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character: proof(communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis), refutation(a kind of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis), the confirmation(or empirical evidence, the function is to establish the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts), justification(establishment of the expediency of an action, motivation; in contrast to the evidence, which corresponds to the question "Is it really so?", the justification gives an answer to the question "Is it really necessary, expedient?"). These subtypes of reasoning are united among themselves on the basis of structural similarity: they all include a thesis, which forms a key part of the construction, and arguments - a commentary part, which is designed to remove doubts (in whole or in part) about the position put forward as a thesis.

Proof, as a rule, ends with a variant repetition of the thesis - a conclusion, that is, a judgment already known to the reader, the new moment of which is that its truth has been proven. Between the initial and final sentences, a distant lexical-semantic connection is established, which is a signal of the beginning and end of the statement, performs a special compositional role, organizing the text. The proof is characterized by the use of a typical set of tools. The stereotypical ways of its design include the designation of a sequence of operations using 1st person verbs plural: find, multiply, equate, define, etc. The result of these operations is introduced by the words will, we will have, we will get, where it comes from, it follows from here, then, etc. Unions and allied analogues of the corresponding semantics are used to express causal relationships: so as, so, because, therefore, therefore, thus, so. In the proof, carried out with the help of additional assumptions, the particle let, conditional constructions, is used.

In the region of the far periphery of the field structure of reasoning is explanation. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, the explanation serves primarily not to confirm the validity of the thesis (or establish its falsity), but to reveal the causes of real phenomena.

Strictly logical detailed reasoning is not typical for artistic, journalistic, official business texts. In journalistic texts, reasoning itself performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments logically arising from one another, but factual information followed by a conclusion. For journalism focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not through the actual proof, that is, not through strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, confirmation of their facts is used. In this regard, a large activity of the argumentative subtype of speech "confirmation" is found here.

Explanation and justification are common not only in scientific, but also in journalistic texts, where they serve the task of increasing the reader's understanding of the analyzed problems, the importance of the decisions made, the actions taken. The explanation is also in works of art, however, like other types of reasoning, it is distinguished here by a special "aura", it arises as a result of a creative dialogue between the author and the reader in the process of clarifying the artistic meaning of the text. An open explanation of the events described, the states of the characters, which increases the degree of plausibility of the depicted, is combined with hidden forms of explanation, deliberate understatement, which encourages the reader to think, look for answers to the numerous “why?” in the general context and in the subtext of the work, and thereby helps the reader to get closer to understanding the deep ideological and aesthetic content of the work.

In the construction of text and speech in general, a lot depends on what task the speaker (writer) sets for himself, on the purpose of speech. It is quite natural that the author will build his text differently when he talks about an event, describes the nature or explains the causes of any phenomena.

Over the centuries, functional-semantic types of speech were gradually formed, that is, methods, schemes, verbal structures that are used depending on the purpose of speech and its meaning.

The most common functional and semantic types of speech are description, narration and reasoning. Each of these types is distinguished in accordance with the purpose and content of speech. This also defines some of the most typical grammatical means of text design.

The purpose of the text	Content and form of the text	Typical grammatical design aids
Text type: Description
1) Enumeration of signs, properties, elements of the subject of speech. 2) Indication of its belonging to the class of objects. 3) Indication of the purpose of the subject, methods and areas of its functioning.	1) The idea of ​​the subject as a whole is given at the beginning or at the end. 2) The detailing of the main thing is carried out taking into account the semantic significance of the details. 3) The structure of individual parts of the text (description elements) is similar to the structure of the text as a whole. 4) Methods of comparison, analogy, opposition are used. 5) The text is easily folded.	a) with direct word order; b) compound nominal predicate; c) with verbal forms of simultaneous action; d) with present tense verbs in a timeless meaning; e) with defining characteristics.
Text Type: Narrative
A story about an event showing its course in development, highlighting the main (nodal) facts and showing their relationship.	1) Complied logical sequence. 2) Dynamism, change of events is emphasized. 3) The composition is chronologized.	Simple and complex sentences: a) with a verbal predicate of the perfect form; b) with species-temporal forms that emphasize the nature and change of events; c) with the expression of causal and temporal conditioning.
Text type: Reasoning
Study of the essential properties of objects and phenomena, substantiation of their relationship.	1) There is a thesis (a position that is being proved), arguments (judgments that justify the correctness of the thesis) and a demonstration (method of proof). 2) Reflections, conclusions, explanations are used. 3) The semantic parts of the statement are given in a logical sequence. 4) Everything not related to the proof is omitted.	Simple widespread and complex sentences: a) with participial and participle turnovers; b) with circumstances or adverbial clauses of cause, effect, purpose; c) with verbs of different aspectual forms.

We will demonstrate the structure and design of various functional semantic types texts in the following examples.

As an example description text an excerpt from the story of A.S. Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter" with a description of the appearance of Emelyan Pugachev:

His appearance seemed remarkable to me: he was about forty, medium height, thin and broad-shouldered. Gray hair appeared in his black beard; living large eyes and ran. His face had an expression rather pleasant, but roguish. The hair was cut in a circle; he was wearing a tattered coat and Tatar trousers.

Describing the appearance of a person so far unknown to him, Pyotr Grinev first of all conveys his impression of this appearance, highlighting those details that seemed to him the most remarkable. So, a general idea of ​​​​a stranger is given at the beginning of the description: His appearance seemed to me wonderful. This is followed by a characterization of the hero: age, physique, face, hair and elements of clothing. The author seeks not only to give an idea of ​​Pugachev's appearance, but also to show how these details can be used to form an opinion about his lifestyle, character, and behavior. For example, a strong physique clearly indicates an active lifestyle. Hairstyle and clothes are about the social status of a stranger: this is a poor Yaik Cossack. But the author focuses on the expression of the eyes. It is from this detail that the reader can understand that Pugachev has a lively mind. This is not a villain, on the contrary, his appearance is conducive to himself, but at the same time, Grinev's counselor is clearly hiding something (cf .: shifty eyes and picaresque expression).

If we turn to the grammatical means of text design, we can state the following. The description is dominated by simple sentences or chains of complex non-union sentences with direct word order. In addition, compound nominal predicates attract attention: seemed wonderful; was about forty, medium height, thin and broad-shouldered; were shorn. Verbs (mostly imperfective) indicate the simultaneity of the action. The use of the forms of the past, and not the present tense in a timeless sense, is due to the fact that the narrator tells about a meeting that took place in the past ( was about forty; the eyes kept running; the face had an expression; hair was cut; he had an army coat on). Finally, in almost every sentence you can find members with various kinds of defining characteristics: remarkable; thin, broad-shouldered, black beard; big lively eyes etc.

In the same story, A.S. Pushkin meet and microtexts-narratives, For example:

I actually saw a white cloud at the edge of the sky, which I took at first for a distant mound. The coachman explained to me that the cloud foreshadowed a blizzard.
I heard about the blizzards there, that entire carts were covered by them. Savelich, in accordance with the coachman's opinion, advised him to turn back. But the wind seemed to me not strong; I hoped to get to the next station in advance and ordered to go faster.
The coachman galloped; but kept looking to the east. The horses ran together. The wind meanwhile grew stronger by the hour. The cloud turned into a white cloud, which rose heavily, grew and gradually enveloped the sky. A fine snow began to fall - and suddenly it fell in flakes. The wind howled; there was a blizzard. In an instant, the dark sky mingled with the snowy sea. Everything is gone. “Well, sir,” shouted the coachman, “trouble: a snowstorm!” ...
I looked out of the wagon: everything was dark and whirlwind. The wind howled with such fierce expressiveness that it seemed animated; the snow covered me and Savelich; the horses walked at a pace - and soon they stopped.

This microtext tells about the snowstorm that Grinev got into while traveling to his duty station. The description of the snowstorm in this case is given precisely as a narrative, since the logical sequence of events is clearly observed, and the whole composition is chronologized: a white cloud appears in the sky; Grinev, despite the hesitation of the coachman and Savelich, decides to continue the journey; the coachman lets the horses run; the wind is picking up; a blizzard begins; a blizzard turns into a snowstorm; exhausted horses stop. The change of events in time is expressed using perfective verbs: I saw a cloud; I ordered to go faster; the coachman galloped; the cloud turned into a white cloud; it's snowing etc. The same events that are included in the same time period are described using sentences with imperfective verbs (cf .: I heard; Savelich advised etc.). Sentences with perfective verbs are indicators of key facts, they signal the change of one event by another, and each new event is thought in relation to the previous one (in this case, this connection is chronological).

specifics reasoning text can be demonstrated by the example of Grinev’s road thoughts after losing a hundred rubles to Zurin and a quarrel with Savelich:

My travel thoughts were not very pleasant. My loss, at the then prices, was important. I could not help admitting in my heart that my behavior in the Simbirsk tavern was stupid, and I felt guilty before Savelitch. All this tormented me.

The reasoning begins with the statement of the thesis: My travel thoughts were not very pleasant. And although further we do not find subordinate reasons, the very arrangement of subsequent conclusions is perceived as an explanation of the reasons for Grinev's dissatisfaction with himself. The arguments are the amount of the loss, "stupid" behavior and guilt towards the old servant. In conclusion, a conclusion is made about the internal state of the narrator, which is perceived as a consequence of "woeful conclusions": All this tormented me.

In general, the most striking examples of reasoning can be found in scientific texts (see the excerpt from Yu.M. Lotman's book cited in exercise 123).

Of course, the text may contain different functional and semantic types of speech. So, very often the narrative is combined with the description (this can also be seen in the example of the above passages). Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. Wed a combination of these types of speech in an excerpt from the story of I.S. Turgenev "Bezhin meadow":

I went right through the bushes[narration]. Meanwhile the night drew near and grew like a thundercloud; it seemed that, together with the evening vapors, darkness rose from everywhere and even poured from above[description]. I came across some non-torn, overgrown path; I went along it, carefully looking ahead[narration]. Everything around grew black and subsided, some quails occasionally screamed[description]. A small night bird, inaudibly and low rushing on its soft wings, almost bumped into me and timidly dived to the side. I went out to the edge of the bushes and wandered along the field boundary[narration]. Already with difficulty I distinguished distant objects; the field was vaguely white all around; behind it, with every moment advancing in huge clubs, gloomy darkness rose up. My footsteps reverberated through the freezing air. The pale sky began to turn blue again - but that was already the blue of the night. The stars flashed, moved on it[description].