Functional types of speech description narrative reasoning. Functional-semantic type of speech: description, narration, reasoning

All texts are divided into three semantic types: description, narration, reasoning.

Description- the semantic type of the text, which describes the signs of objects, phenomena, animals, humans:

Autumn has come. The small foliage has almost completely flown from the coastal vines, and the branches show through in the turquoise sky. The water under the vines became clear, icy and as if heavy. And the black sky is drawn with fiery stripes by shooting stars (I. Bunin).

Purpose of description- show the reader or listener the subject of the description so that he visually represents it in his mind.

Description composition elements: general idea of ​​the subject, individual features of the subject, author's assessment, conclusion, conclusion.

A description of nature is called a landscape, a description of a person is called a portrait.

Descriptive tex t can be in the form of any style.

Narration– a semantic type of text that describes events in a certain sequence:

But then the shooting began to subside and then completely stopped. Black shadows rushed to the side, ran into our fire and disappeared behind the trees. The enemy has left! This most difficult and terrible night fight in the forest is over. (M. Fortus)

Narrative text comes in the form of artistic and colloquial styles.

The literary narrative text has a certain structure - composition(from lat. compposito - composition, compilation, connection). It is customary to single out: exposure(situation prior to the start of the action), eyeballs(what the action begins with), the development of the action, climax (highest point action development) interchange(end of event).

Events can develop in chronological order and in reverse, when we first learn about the denouement, and then about the development of the action.

The narration can be in the third person, this is the author's narration, or in the first person.

reasoning- the semantic type of the text, which affirms or denies any phenomenon, fact, concept.

The reasoning is built as follows: thesis, arguments proving it, conclusion. The thesis must be clearly formulated and provable, the arguments must be convincing. It is important that a logical, semantic and grammatical connection be established between the thesis and arguments (introductory words are often used: first, so, therefore):

Russian language is one of the greatest languages ​​in the world.

Firstly, it is distinguished by the richness of vocabulary, secondly, by the extraordinary flexibility and plasticity of linguistic forms, and thirdly, by the variety of stylistic means.

So, A.S. was right. Pushkin, arguing that our language is not only not inferior to European languages, but has superiority over them.

(A. Dudnikov)

Reasoning differs from description and narration by a more complex construction of sentences (with participial and adverbial phrases, various types of allied and allied connection), vocabulary (words denoting abstract concepts: good, true).

Reasoning can appear in different genre forms: letters, articles, reports, political speeches.

The purpose of monologue speech is different. Allocate three main functional-semantic types.

Description - this is most often a feature. Such a text describes the place, circumstance, participants in the events, appearance, the state of the person or the environment in which the events take place. The most typical example of description is the description of nature in fiction. Description is impossible without information about the features of the described object. Therefore, the descriptions are saturated with adjectives expressing the features of the subject, participial phrases expressing the feature of the subject by action. They often use nominative and impersonal sentences. Descriptions are characterized by the use of epithets, comparisons, metaphors and other expressive means.

Narration - this is a message about the sequence of actions, about what happened at the beginning, and what then, how events developed. In many narratives, the stages of the development of events are distinguished, including the beginning, development, climax, denouement. In such texts there can be many adverbs that call the sign of action, participles and participle turns expressing additional actions, as well as verbs, especially verbs CB in the past tense. An example would be brief retelling plot of a movie or book.

reasoning- This is a type of text that represents reflection, explanation, proof of the speaker's point of view. Reasoning is characterized by the following content components: thesis, argumentation, conclusion. Reasoning contains introductory words that convey the connection and sequence of thoughts, such as: firstly, secondly, on the one hand, on the other hand, so, therefore, consequently and others like it. Reasoning is used to present and justify a point of view, especially when expressing an attitude towards something. Imagine that you are facing a problem. Thinking about the situation, analyzing all the pros and cons, making a decision and will be expressed in the form of reasoning.

In many texts, one can find not only samples of these types in their pure form, but also their various combinations.

Since the topic turned out to be difficult for users, I want to supplement the above characteristics with examples.

Description:

The wide valley of Rybnaya turned blue and slightly foggy under the sun, the passing breeze swept in frisky, not strong gusts. Nutcrackers yelled not far below. The weather was the most hunting. (V. Remizov "Free will")

Description:

Godkov the captain was thirty-nine, he lived in a hostel on the second floor in the largest corner room, where there used to be a common room with a TV. A bunk, three chairs, a table and a pink Japanese refrigerator in Vaskin's height. Sometimes there was rich music with lots of speakers, a half-wall plasma panel, or something equally exotic, wildly expensive and specially ordered in Japan. (V. Remizov. "Free will")

Description:

Masha lived in her house. Typical for the village, a long one-story house, divided in half by two owners. Inside, too, everyone had the same, artless, unpretentious layout: doors in the center, windows in the middle. Masha had everything thought out, simple and convenient. There were few things in the apartment, and it seemed spacious. (V. Remizov, "Free will")

Narration:

Ilya Zhebrovsky traveled for three days to the site. The last forty kilometers to the winter hut had not been cleaned for several years, and in some places the road was heavily littered with fallen trees. They sawed in two saws, pulled apart, laid out logs. Some very healthy Urals pulled, drove for a short time and sawed again. (V. Remizov "Free will")

Narration:

He went almost to the very top, took off his backpack, untied it and put on a cloth. Karam left. Stepan turned around, looked down, listened through the noise of the wind, whether he was yelling somewhere, but he heard the rumble of a helicopter. HE hoisted his untied pack on himself and hurried back down to the nearest rocks. The turntable came from the side of his site, it was not visible, only the rumble grew, knocked down by gusts of wind. Stepan was in a hurry, the stones crawled under his feet, he beat his knees, cut his hands. He was already a few meters from the rock when an orange car broke out over the snow-white trough of the pass. Stepan sat down and froze. The pinwheel passed so close that he thought he could smell exhaust. (V. Remizov "Free will")

Narration:

Uncle Sasha cursed and climbed out of the cab.
Uncle Sasha was waiting for this disaster, he had a spare bridge in the back ... He began to dial Mishka Milyutin on the phone. Then he called Cook.

By lunchtime, it became clear that today there was no way to leave, there was no end in sight. Along with the bridge, something else had to be changed. The cook called the homies in search of the necessary seals and levers. Zhebrovsky at first tried to delve into it, then he simply sat next to him on a box, bored and smoking. Uncle Sasha also did not particularly climb, the work was silently managed by a tall and thin Mishka. (V. Remizov "Free will")

Reasoning:

By his nature, he would have spit on this matter, hushed up and left, but they already knew in the region, and the person had to be introduced. Alive, and preferably dead - for resisting. “It’s necessary to make blood from the nose, don’t you understand! ..” the deputy for operational yelled from the region, who, apparently, got a great deal from the plane.

Alexander Mikhailovich, and so everything was clear his place because of the runaway Kobyak fell in price and could only be given to someone local. Interestingly, Semihvatsky and Gnidyuk were offered? Or maybe both for competition, thought Alexander Mikhalych ... (V. Remizov "Free Will")

Reasoning:

Zhebrovsky did not interfere. In Russia, power has always been a sacred cow. Even here, on its outskirts, where serfdom never existed and where completely independent peasants lived in harsh nature, people were outraged not by the bad structure of the government itself, but only by the justice or injustice of its actions. This is inexplicably stupid, Ilya thought and kept quiet. There was no point in these conversations. (V. Remizov "Free will")

I heard that three years ago, in the spring, Sasha's younger uncle, Sasha, was killed. On that day, Sasha returned from the army. It was a cafe where he never went. One pimply, a head shorter than Sasha, smoked rubbish and stabbed him with a knife. The whole village was buried. Sasha was handsome, sober and never offended anyone in his life. He was stabbed, but he only grimaced, smiled bewilderedly and guiltily, clutching the throbbing wound with his hand. (V. Remizov "Free will")

Narrative with elements of description:

Ilya set the pasta to boil, opened the stew because there was nothing to do, but rather, from a hunting itch in his hands, he brought a case with a new fitting. I remembered how I followed him to Austria, how I tried it at the shooting range there - a bullet went to the bullet. The work was piecework, he needed it by September, and the Austrians did everything on time and did not deviate anywhere from their quality. (V. Remizov "Free will").

Description with elements of reasoning:

Genka got up, dusting himself off, took the carbine on his shoulder and walked away. It was a strange thing. Over the years, he loved this life in the taiga more and more, but he lost his excitement. Not that excitement, but what it used to be. He knew this for sure. He was never reputed to be greedy, but when he managed to get more than others, and this happened often, he walked happy. Sometimes he boasted while drunk. (V. Remizov "Free will")

The work was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Foundation
(Grant No. 02-04-00414 a/T)

The system of functional-semantic types of speech
in modern Russian
(description - narration - reasoning - prescription - statement)

Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTR) are communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include description, narration and reasoning. In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics, stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term "functional-semantic type of speech" was introduced into the scientific circulation by prof. O.A. Nechaeva (1974). Publication of the monograph by O.A. Nechaeva, devoted to the study of description, narration and reasoning (mainly on the material of literary texts), marked the beginning of an active study of FSTR, functioning in the stylistic varieties of modern Russian literary language.

The development of functional stylistics, the special appeal of scientists to the problem of FSTR, the involvement of the entire variety of socially significant functional varieties of speech as an object of study led to the isolation of subtypes within the FSTR, the identification of new types of speech (the main ones should include prescription and ascertainment - types of speech that are primarily characteristic for official business texts), to significant refinements of the initial ideas of linguists about the FSTR system and its functioning in the Russian language. As a result of the fact that the goals and objectives of communication in different areas communications are different, the processes of evolution of types of speech in the Russian literary language also turn out to be unequal (Trosheva, 1999), and modern characteristics each FSTR. The specificity of the functional varieties of the language determines the variability in the manifestation of the same FSTR in different texts - up to their functional and semantic transformation. Extralinguistic factors also determine the originality of the language expression of reasoning, its structure, quantitative parameters of use in various functional styles. The current level of development of the science of language, the turn of linguistics from a structural to a functional paradigm does not allow ignoring the functional and stylistic specifics of textual phenomena, including when studying them at school.

The process of communicative development of a personality is impossible without the formation of a theoretically clear idea of ​​the functional and semantic typology of speech, without developing the ability to analyze a text in terms of its belonging to a certain type, the ability to create texts in accordance with communicative-functional, logical-semantic, compositional-structural, lexical -grammatical characteristics of one or another FSTR. In practice, mastering such a type of speech as reasoning turns out to be the most difficult, while information about this FSTR and its subtypes in textbooks for secondary school is incomplete, and often inaccurate and contradictory. As a result, a distorted idea of ​​the actual functioning of reasoning in texts of various styles is formed. For example, insufficient consideration of the specifics of a literary text, which causes the leveling of the argumentative function and the semantics of reasoning, the activation of its pictorial, aesthetic function, leads to an incorrect qualification of the FSTR, to an erroneous definition of the functional and semantic dominant of style.

Consider the main FSTR, characterizing each of them in detail. We classified the main types of speech that make up the dominant of one or more functional styles (as a result of the analysis of texts, we were convinced that reasoning and description prevail in scientific speech, prescription and statement in official business speech, narration and reasoning in journalistic speech, narration in fiction and description, colloquial - narrative).

Description- FSTR, the essence of which is to express the fact of the coexistence of objects, their signs at the same time. The description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, appearance. For example:

“Kochanovskaya estate stands on the river, opposite the village. The manor is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides the gate connects it with the outbuildings, in the left outbuilding there is a kitchen, in the right one there is a barn, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but you can’t see the river, the old hard raspberry tree props up the outbuilding ... "(K. Fedin. Shepherd);

“... The road, as if not wanting to be intrusive, went somewhere to the right. A barely noticeable path branched off from it, meandered between the pines and died in a clearing near the house. Despite the night twilight, the grass in the clearing was white with strawberry flowers. She, this berry of my childhood, bloomed especially thickly behind the house: I stood in one place, afraid to step over and trample on her white stars ”(V. Belov. Bobrishny Ugor).

In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is borne by nouns and adjectives. Nouns refer to specific vocabulary ( river, village, house, gate, outbuilding, window and etc.). Words with a spatial meaning are widely used - the circumstances of the place ( on the river, against the village, on both sides, between the pines, in the clearing, near the house, behind the house etc.). Verbal predicates in a semantic sense are either weakened, erased ( the estate stands on the river; the window overlooks the river; the road turned to the right), or have a qualitative-pictorial value ( the grass was white with strawberry flowers; she bloomed heavily). The verb form of the present tense is often used, expressing the long-term state of the subject or the "timeless" state ( stands, connects, supports). Imperfect past tense verbs indicate the state of the described phenomena at the time of observing them ( whitened, blossomed). Even perfective verbs in descriptive contexts convey a property, a characteristic of an object, and not an active action ( a barely noticeable path branched off from it, meandered between the pines and died in a clearing).

The description is characterized by the uniformity of the forms of the predicate, which is an indicator of the static character of the depicted. The most frequent are descriptions with a single plan of the present tense or with a single plan of the past tense. The degree of staticness in descriptions with a past tense plan is lower than in descriptions with a present tense plan. The structure of sentences in the description is often characterized by syntactic parallelism.

The description may include a sequence of nominative and elliptical constructions, which creates a kind of nominative style, most clearly represented in the remarks of dramatic works, film scripts, and diary entries. For example:

“Large room, corner of the house; Vassa has lived here for ten years and spends most of the day. A large work table, in front of it is a light armchair with a hard seat, a fireproof wardrobe, on the wall there is an extensive, brightly colored map of the upper and middle reaches of the Volga - from Rybinsk to Kazan; under the map - a wide ottoman covered with a carpet, on it a pile of pillows; in the middle of the room is a small oval table, chairs with high backs; double glass doors on the terrace to the garden, two windows - also to the garden. A large leather armchair, on the windowsills - geraniums, in the wall between the windows on the floor in a tub - a laurel tree. A small shelf, on it is a silver jug, the same gilded ladles. Near the ottoman there is a door to the bedroom, in front of the table there is a door to other rooms.(M. Gorky. Vassa Zheleznova).

In such descriptions, objects seem to be captured by a video camera. The sentences are equal relative to each other, autosemantic. They can be grouped in other ways, it all depends on the "reference point".

The enumerative meaning of descriptive text is often conveyed by a parallel connection of sentences. This is clearly demonstrated by the texts of the descriptive sciences (biology, geology, etc.), which include logical units in the form of whole paragraphs, which consist of sentences expressing parallel connected judgments with a single subject and different predicates. For example:

“The common one is already well distinguishable by its dark, almost black color ... Distributed in the European part of the country, in Siberia east to Transbaikalia and in some places in Central Asia. It keeps along the banks of swamps, rivers, ponds. It feeds on frogs, lizards, rodents, less often insects. Rarely eats fish(S.P. Naumov. Zoology of vertebrates).

A special kind of description is a characteristic - a type of speech used to depict the qualities of a person or object. For example, in a scientific text:

Let us give a brief description of the listed classes of particles. 1. Photons... participate in electromagnetic interactions, but do not have strong and weak interactions. 2. Leptons get their name from the Greek word "leptos", which means "light". These include particles that do not have a strong interaction: muons.., electrons.., electron neutrinos... and muon neutrinos... All leptons have a spin equal to 1/2, and therefore are fermions. All leptons have a weak interaction… 3. Mesons are strongly interacting unstable particles that do not carry the so-called baryon charge… These include… pions…, kaons… and this meson…”

In the characteristic, as in any description, there may be elements of reasoning. So, in the above fragment (item 2) there is a sentence (“All leptons have a spin equal to 1/2, and, therefore, are fermions”), which is a deductive reasoning with the missing first premise. However, its functioning in this text is subordinated to the main task - to describe the properties of leptons.

A literary text is characterized by a contamination of description with narration. Elements of descriptiveness are present in almost any narrative text.

Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they speak of a "dynamic description" - a type of transitional speech bordering on the narrative. The dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. The structural content of the description is reduced to the temporal relation of simple following. Due to the fact that all attention is focused on fixing the dynamics, on a number of moments of action, their “step-by-step” nature, such content determines the selection of sentences that have an independent character, auto-semantic. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of a very detailed description of an action with great accuracy in rendering details - “second style”). Besides, dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the internal state of the hero.

The dynamic description is also widely presented in scientific texts (along with the static description and reasoning), where it is used for a detailed, accurate depiction of actions performed during the experiment, experiment. The task of the author in this case is not to tell about the events unfolding at a certain time (which is typical for the narrative), but to describe the process, the stages of this process, usually regardless of the specific time. For example:

“They take a prism of Icelandic spar ... The prism is sawn perpendicular to the plane ... Then both halves are glued together with Canadian balsam ...”(A.G. Stoletov. Introduction to acoustics and optics).

Narration- FSTR, designed to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another. For example:

“And Dr. Startsev, Dmitry Ionych, when he had just been appointed zemstvo doctor and settled in Dyalizh, nine miles from S., was also told that he, as an intelligent person, needed to get acquainted with the Turkins. One winter in the street he was introduced to Ivan Petrovich; we talked about the weather, about the theater, about cholera, followed by an invitation. In the spring, on a holiday - it was the ascension - after receiving the sick, Startsev went to the city to have a little fun and, by the way, buy himself something. He walked slowly (he didn’t have his own horses yet), and sang all the time ... He dined in the city, took a walk in the garden, then somehow by itself Ivan Petrovich’s invitation came to his mind, and he decided to go to the Turkins to see what kind of people they are…”(A.P. Chekhov. Ionych);

“Spring came, coltsfoot and forget-me-nots bloomed, snowdrops appeared under the brown roots of the forest, and a cat suddenly blossomed in a neighboring house. Snowdrops turned blue cat whiskers, coltsfoot and bird cherry leaves gilded eyes, and white willow earrings appeared on paws and chest. Decorated, blooming, he lay down on the new grass, sat on the old fence, his eyes twinkled on the roof of the shed. I kept waiting for some kind of spring tulip, special, catlike, to appear on his tail, but the tulip did not appear ... "(Yu. Koval. Spring cat).

In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of the action, in the movement of the plot. An important role is played by the temporal correlation of predicates, which can manifest itself both as their temporal uniformity and as temporal heterogeneity. The main semantic load is usually performed by perfective verbs, prefixed and non-prefixed ( settled, introduced, talked, went, dined, walked, decided etc.; came, bloomed, blossomed, turned blue, gilded etc.), which denote actions that are limiting, changing. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary ( doctor, sick, horses, city, garden; forest, snowdrops, cat, mustache, paws). The course of events is accentuated by the circumstances of time ( just now, somehow in winter, in spring, on a holiday, after receiving patients, then).

In terms of the use of syntactic constructions and types of connection of sentences, the narrative is opposed to the description, which manifests itself, in particular, in the following: 1) in the difference in the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of imperfective forms, the narrative - perfect; 2) in the predominance of a chain connection of sentences in the narrative - a parallel connection is more characteristic of the description; 3) in use one-part sentences- nominative sentences, impersonal sentences, widely presented in descriptive contexts, are atypical for narration (for more details about the language means typical for description and narration, see: Nechaeva, 1999).

Narration is a type of speech that functions primarily in literary texts and forms a story about events, the system of which makes up the plot of a work. In artistic and graphic speech (fiction, texts of some genres of journalism - reportage, essay, informative and expressive notes, texts-stories in a colloquial style), elements of descriptiveness and narrative are organically combined. The description is included in the narrative for a visual-figurative representation of the characters, the place of action.

reasoning- FSTR, corresponding to the form of abstract thinking - inference, performing a special communicative task - to give a reasoned character to speech (come in a logical way to a new judgment or argue what was said earlier) and formalized with the help of lexical and grammatical means of cause-and-effect semantics. The main area of ​​use of reasoning is scientific, actualizing the logical, rational type of thinking.

Reasoning functions in texts in the form of several communicative and compositional options, the typology of which is a field structure.

The central variety is proper reasoning(reasoning in the narrow sense of the word) - a type of speech that most consistently expresses the causal relationship between judgments: from cause to effect, and not from consequence (thesis) to cause (foundation). The central place of reasoning itself in the system of argumentative subtypes of speech is also due to its role in the communicative-cognitive process. It is this type of speech that formalizes the derivation of new knowledge, demonstrates the course of the author's thought, the way to solve the problem. Structurally, reasoning itself is a chain of sentences connected by relations of logical consequence. For example:

“Under the action of an electromagnetic wave, an atom with equal probability can go both to a higher and a lower energy state ... In the first case, the wave will be weakened, in the second, it will be amplified. If the paramagnet is in thermal equilibrium, the atoms are distributed among the sublevels in accordance with Boltzmann's law ... Therefore, the number of atoms in a state with a lower energy exceeds the number of atoms in a state with a higher energy. Therefore, transitions occurring with an increase in the energy of atoms will prevail over transitions occurring with a decrease in energy. As a result, the intensity of the wave will decrease - the paramagnet absorbs electromagnetic radiation, as a result of which it heats up. It follows from the foregoing that electron paramagnetic resonance is a selective absorption of radio frequency field energy in paramagnetic substances in a constant magnetic field.(I.V. Savelyev. Course of General Physics).

The region adjacent to the center, the region of the near periphery, is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character: proof(communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis), refutation(a kind of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis), the confirmation(or empirical evidence, the function is to establish the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts), justification(establishing the expediency of an action, motivation; unlike evidence, which corresponds to the question “Is it really so?”, Justification gives an answer to the question “Is it really necessary, expedient?”). These subtypes of reasoning are united among themselves on the basis of structural similarity: they all include a thesis, which forms a key part of the construction, and arguments - a commentary part, which is designed to remove doubts (in whole or in part) about the position put forward as a thesis.

Here is an example proof: “The thermal motion of radiating atoms leads to the so-called Doppler broadening of the spectral lines. Let at the moment of emission of a photon, the atom has a momentum ... Therefore, the momentum of the atom changes ... Therefore, the energy of the translational motion of the atom also changes ... Let us replace ... Denote ... The value of this frequency is obtained from the condition ... As a result, we obtain that ... From the formulas ... it follows that ... Substituting the expression here ..., we come to the formula ... Therefore, the expression ... gives the Doppler width of the spectral line "(I.V. Savelyev. Course of General Physics).

The proof, as a rule, ends with a variant repetition of the thesis - a conclusion, that is, a judgment already known to the reader, the new point of which is that its truth has been proven. Between the initial and final sentences, a distant lexical-semantic connection is established, which is a signal of the beginning and end of the statement, performs a special compositional role, organizing the text. The proof is characterized by the use of a typical set of tools. The stereotypical ways of its design include the designation of a sequence of operations using verbs of the 1st person plural: find, multiply, equate, determine etc. The result of these operations is entered in the words will, we will have, we will receive, where it comes from, it follows from here, then etc. To express causal relationships, unions and union analogues of the corresponding semantics are used: because, therefore, because, therefore, therefore, thus, so. The proof, carried out with the help of additional assumptions, uses the particle let, performatives suppose, suppose, conditional constructions.

In the area of ​​the far periphery of the field structure of reasoning is an explanation. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, the explanation serves primarily not to confirm the validity of the thesis (or establish its falsity), but to reveal the causes of real phenomena. For example:

“It is interesting to note that the sharp edges of the shaped profiles of the holes become smoothed in the fiber, and if the size of the details of the profiled hole is not very large, then the fiber turns out to be of a circular cross section, i.e., the same as with a round hole. This happens because surface tension forces act on the liquid jet ... "(S.P. Papkov. Polymeric fibrous materials).

Reasoning as a textual phenomenon was formed in scientific speech. It is thanks to the scientific style that the Russian literary language in the process of its development was enriched by reasoning in its most “pure” form, in all its main varieties. In the texts of other styles, an adaptation of the reasoning to the specifics of the style is found.

Strictly logical detailed reasoning is not typical for artistic, journalistic, official business texts. The subtype "actual reasoning" in literary texts appears in the form of its emotional variant - free thinking, in which the causal connection between judgments as a whole can be traced, but does not unite them with a rigid logical core. The laxity of the form of speech, the ease of reflection help to create an atmosphere of intimate communication between the author and the reader, which is characteristic of the artistic sphere. In journalistic texts, reasoning itself performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments logically arising from one another, but factual information followed by a conclusion.

Literary texts do not use evidence. Logical verification of the truth of the proposed thesis with the help of a complex system of inferential judgments is relevant primarily for the scientific sphere of activity, and in addition - the criminal law sphere. For journalism focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not through the actual proof, that is, not through strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, confirmation of their facts is used. In this regard, a large activity of the argumentative subtype of speech "confirmation" is found here. In works of art, confirmation as an argumentative construction, which includes a hypothetical statement of the author and a statement of facts that support this statement, which have not actually a causal, as in the explanation, but a causal-arguing value, is rarely used. Confirmation of the author's statements by arguments in the field of artistic creativity is not as important as in the field of science or journalism. In addition, confirmation, functioning in literary texts, performs a task different from the task of confirmation in scientific speech. If in the latter it helps to make a scientific guess more reliable, then in a work of art it performs a purely communicative function - it makes the depicted more visual, psychologically more reliable, helps the reader to feel the inner state of the hero. For example: “He stood with his hands on the back of the seat, and, obviously, was very worried: his face was red, and a muscle quivered on his cheek ...”(L.N. Tolstoy. The Kreutzer Sonata).

Explanation and justification are common not only in scientific, but also in journalistic texts, where they serve the task of increasing the reader's understanding of the analyzed problems, the importance of decisions made, actions taken. Explanation is also present in works of art, however, like other types of reasoning, it is distinguished here by a special “aura”, it arises as a result of a creative dialogue between the author and the reader in the process of clarifying the artistic meaning of the text. An open explanation of the events described, the states of the characters, which increases the degree of plausibility of the depicted, is combined with hidden forms of explanation, deliberate understatement, which encourages the reader to think, look for answers to the numerous “why?” in the general context and in the subtext of the work, and thereby helps the reader to get closer to understanding the deep ideological and aesthetic content of the work.

In official business texts, in general, the frequency of the use of reasoning is insignificant. Due to the specifics of this style, its extralinguistic basis - the appointment in society, regulating functions (in connection with which the prescription occupies a dominant position in the texts), reasoning cannot be a systemic constructive feature of official business speech. Some genres present certain types of reasoning (for example, statements and claims are characterized by substantiation, explanation), but there is not a single subtype of reasoning that would be used in business texts of all genres (at least genres within one substyle). In addition, subtypes of reasoning function here specifically, reflecting the peculiarities of the style. For example, the actual reasoning in the texts of the legal sphere is close to the representing type of speech - the statement (see below).

Functional and stylistic variants of reasoning differ in the means of designing compositional parts. In journalistic and especially literary texts, there is a high degree of implicit reasoning, not only at the level of means of communication between structural components, but also in relation to the links of reasoning themselves, which may be in the subtext (see: Trosheva, Kaigorodova, 2002). The syntactic means of reasoning convey its expressiveness in these styles. Exclamatory and interrogative sentences, parceling are widely used. The incompleteness and fragmentation of the argument is emphasized by means of ellipsis. The means of communication of the compositional parts of reasoning in fiction and journalistic works are stylistically more diverse than in scientific and business ones (from bookish, archaic lexical and grammatical units such as union so that, adverbs therefore to colloquial because, once, after all, they say etc.).

prescription- FSTR used to express directives, recommendations. It functions primarily in official business and scientific and technical texts (laws, resolutions, decrees, orders, various kinds of instructions) - texts whose communicative task is to convey instructions that are mandatory for execution or equip the reader with a method of action under certain conditions, knowledge of technological processes .

In official business speech, the main stylistic feature of which is imperative, due to the regulatory, regulating function of law, the prescription is the leading FSTR, expressing the typical communicative will of the creators of the legal norm. The prescription is realized in three main subtypes: obligation, permission and prohibition. For example:

“Everyone is obliged to take care of the preservation of the historical and cultural heritage, protect monuments of history and culture”; “Every person arrested, taken into custody, accused of committing a crime has the right to be assisted by a lawyer…”; "Not allowed economic activity aimed at monopolization and unfair competition”(from the Constitution).

For the design of the structural parts of the prescription in documents, rubrication is typically used. For example:

“It was decided: 1. The dissertation ... to be accepted for defense as the corresponding specialty 10.02.01 - Russian. 2. The degree of reflection of the dissertation materials in published works is considered sufficient ... 3. As official opponents ... appoint ... 4. As the leading organization of the dissertation ... approve ... "(from protocol).

In scientific and technical texts, the prescription also refers to the most frequent FSTR (along with one more representing type - description). Technical sciences are a specific system of knowledge that reflects the process of purposeful transformation of natural material objects into technological processes and artificial material devices. In scientific and technical activity, there is an accumulation of reproductive operations, which the researcher groups, and then develops prescriptions for performing stereotypical procedures. The type of speech "prescription" and serves to express prescription knowledge, is used in instructions designed to present technological recipes that prescribe certain actions to addressees. For example:

“Cutting forces on a sharp cutter when removing large-section chips are usually calculated by the expression [formula] ... The value of tangential forces in relation to the operation of tunneling machines is established by empirical expressions such as [formula] ...”(V.V. Rzhevsky. Physical and technical parameters of rocks);

“When developing a cement slurry, the choice of the optimal formulation must be carried out in strict accordance with specific mountain and hydrogeological conditions. Consideration must be given to the chemical composition groundwater…» (E.Ya. Kipko et al. Integrated grouting method in the construction of mines).

Prescriptions were widely used in the scientific speech of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century. (the so-called recipe style) - in manual texts, which is associated with a general didactic nature scientific literature that time. Among the original scientific works, the works that combined the features of educational and scientific-business works prevailed. In our time, prescriptions are also characteristic of educational and didactic literature (see, for example, educational programs, textbooks, guidelines, instructions).

Performing the functions of a regulator of activity, the prescription can act in various modifications - with shades of strict directives, recommendations, guidelines, wishes. In this regard, the degree of expression of imperativeness may be different. For a well-defined expression of imperativeness, the following language means are used:

1) incentive sentences with verb forms imperative mood or infinitive, often a chain of these forms, for example: “Combine the first workouts on the ice with the usual “land” ones. Also, alternate 5-10 minutes of slow-paced ice skating with a short indoor rest. Ride on slightly bent legs ... Tilt your body forward while running. Do not lower your head and shoulders ... "(from the recommendation for beginner skaters);

2) modal words with the meaning of obligation ( should to report, obliged pay, necessary consider);

There is also a somewhat veiled form of prescription - usually using verbs in the present tense (the so-called present prescription) as part of indefinitely personal sentences (such constructions are typical, for example, for culinary recipes: “The seeds are removed from the pepper, the cottage cheese is wiped, mixed with cheese, semolina and sour cream, then added white sauce, beaten eggs, salt and everything is mixed ... "), two-part constructions (the tenant is responsible for the damage caused to the rented property ... - that is, he must answer), and in this case the whole context is prescriptive.

Statement- FSTR, which implements a typical communicative task of certifying one or another fact of reality up to the establishment of this fact in the status of a law. The statement forms, as a rule, secondary, i.e., already processed primary information and is widely used in official business style texts. The very name "statement" speaks of the nature of its constituent elements - this is a message in the form of sentences containing statements, statements. For example:

“The Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan, hereinafter referred to as the High Contracting Parties, relying on the historically established strong ties between the two states, the traditions of good communication, .. reaffirming their commitment to the norms of international law, .. have agreed on the following ...”(from the contract);

“When accepting the goods according to the invoice dated May 5, 1990, No. 810, a shortage of ... goods was certified, which is certified by the attached act of May 6, 1990, No. 945, ... as well as an act of opening the container of packing places”(from the claim);

"This Certificate is issued in accordance with the provisions of Part One tax code Russian Federation... and confirms the setting individual registered on March 20, 1997 with the State Tax Inspectorate…”(from testimonial).

In the statement, two types of logical connection are synthesized: spatial juxtaposition and temporal sequence. The ascertaining nature of the statement, the lack of dynamics in it, the pronounced completeness of thought weakens the temporal sequence in favor of juxtaposition in the transfer of facts. The fact that events are presented in a productive aspect, as facts, allows us to qualify the type of business speech with external signs of narration as a statement. In the statement, “one feels not so much the sequential-temporal nature of the connection as the sequential-enumerative” (Brandes, 1983, p. 64). With an enumerative connection, the logical coherence of the text often does not find linguistic expression in the form of conjunctions, allied words or pronominal adverbs, as a result of which the communicative load of each sentence increases, the boundaries of sentences are clearly delineated. For example:

“We listened: the report of a graduate student ... about the content of the dissertation work ... After the speech ... 12 questions were asked. All questions were answered convincingly by the graduate student. Performed…”(from protocol).

Ascertaining is typically characterized by the functioning of verb forms of the past tense in the meaning of the so-called past of the underlined statement; For example: "We, the undersigned, examined, measured.., compared drawings and accepted single-family panel house» (from act). Perfective verbs are used in texts of specific content (act, conclusion, minutes of the meeting, etc.). Verbs of the imperfective form, as more abstract in meaning, prevail in the genres of business speech of a more general nature (Constitution, code, charter, etc.); For example: “The rights and freedoms of man and citizen are directly applicable. They determine the meaning, content and application of laws, the activities of the legislative and executive authorities, local self-government and are provided with justice.(from the Constitution).

Not only the traditional representing types of speech (narration and description) are transformed, realizing the communicative tasks of business texts, into types specific for this style (stating and prescription), but reasoning usually acquires a stating character here. So, in some genres (charters, instructions, contracts, etc.), conditional constructions are active, but their large number does not indicate the widespread use of reasoning in official business speech. The structure of the reasoning serves to fix the conditions from which the need for certain actions follows, for example: “If the proposal to revise Chapters 1, 2 and 9 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation is supported by three-fifths of the total number of members of the Federation Council and deputies of the State Duma, then in accordance with the federal constitutional law, the Constitutional Assembly is convened”(from the Constitution); “If the condition of the returned property after the end of the contract is worse than that provided for in the contract, the tenant shall compensate the lessor for the damage caused, based on the valuation of the property at the time of the conclusion of the contract”(from the contract). Arguments of this kind (close in function to a statement) have been known since the time of Russkaya Pravda, a code of laws of the 11th century, i.e., they are a sign of a business text starting from Old Russian period in the history of the language.

Thus, the functioning of speech types in the stylistic varieties of the modern Russian literary language reflects the originality of communication tasks in the relevant areas and the specifics of functional styles.

Bibliographic list

Brandes M.P. Stylistics of the German language. M., 1983.
Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language. 3rd ed. M., 1993.
Loseva L.M. How the text is built. M., 1980.
Nechaeva O.A. Essays on syntactic semantics and stylistics of functional-semantic types of speech. Ulan-Ude, 1999.
Nechaeva O.A. Functional-semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning). Ulan-Ude, 1974.
Trosheva T.B. Formation of reasoning in the process of development of the scientific style of the Russian literary language of the 18th - 20th centuries. (compared to other functional varieties). Perm, 1999.
Trosheva T.B., Kaigorodova V.E. Reasoning in the system of poetics // Stylistyka. Opole, 2002, No. 11.

Chapter 2 discussed various meanings of the term "speech", one of which is synonymous with the term "text". Thus, the text is a product of speech activity, it is the space of utterance, within which the speech strategy is formed. In the 70-80s of the XX century. Linguistic studies of the text clearly revealed two directions: functional typology, which was based on the social functions and purposes of using texts, and structural typology, which addresses the internal organization of texts.

A functional approach to the typology of texts brings types of speech closer to genres: narration, description, reasoning.

The type of speech is understood as a text (or a fragment of a text) with a certain generalized meaning (an object and its attribute; an object and its action; an assessment of an event, a phenomenon; causal relationships, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.

Functional type of speech - type of speech, depending on the goals and meaning of the monologue statement.

Forming the concept of functional types of speech, take into account the totality of essential features: ( 1 ) function (hence - functional type of speech); (2) meaning (hence semantic type of speech); ( 3) structure and language means.

By functions texts (types of speech) are divided into: (a) texts that reflect reality; (b) texts - human thoughts about reality.

By meaning texts (types of speech) are divided into description, narration, reasoning.

The first two types of speech involve a relationship with the world of objects (in the broadest sense), the last - with the world of concepts, judgments.

Description - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, in which an image of a phenomenon is given by listing its characteristic features.

Compositional model of this type of speech: description object - its signs - general picture, image.From the point of view of the object of description, the following types are distinguished: portrait, interior, landscape, household, scientific and technical, description of the state of affairs. The description involves the enumeration of features (constant or homogeneous), therefore it differsstatic.In descriptive texts, the signs of an object are thatnewthe information for which the statement is being made. The starting point is the object itself or part of it. The development of thought occurs due to the fact that each next sentence adds new features to what has been said, therefore the connection of sentences in descriptions is usually parallel. Verbs are used in the imperfect form. The basis of the description is subject vocabulary. Descriptions are stylistically heterogeneous. This difference is especially evident between artistic and scientific-business descriptions.

In some cases, they talk about dynamic description. It is usually small in scope, included in the event, and does not pause actions. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the subject in the course of his movement (“Steppe” by A.P. Chekhov).

Narration - This is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is an image of actions and events in time. Composition model: plot - once whirl of action - climax - denouement.

In the narrative, individual sentences are connected by a chain link. The sequence of actions, events is conveyed with the help of perfective verbs, which, replacing each other, show the development of the narrative. Predicate verbs usually come after the subject. Narrative texts, as well as descriptive ones, are stylistically different, which is especially evident in the opposition of artistic narrative (story, short story) and scientific and business narrative (report, receipt, etc.).

reasoning - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is a verbal presentation, clarification and confirmation of any thought. Composition model: thesis - proof - conclusion. It is desirable to draw up the conclusion briefly and clearly, in one sentence, which would be distantly associated with the thesis, confirming or refuting it, depending on the task at hand.

This type of speech is characterized by a large number of complex sentences, mostly complex sentences with subordinate clauses, goals, causes, conditions, consequences, etc. Predicates are usually expressed by verbs in the present tense. Lot introductory words. Abstract vocabulary is widely used. So, depending on the goals of the monologue statement, the presence of certain semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, three main communicative types of speech are distinguished: description, narration, reasoning.

(cm.). In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics, and stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term F.-s. t. r. introduced into scientific circulation by O.A. Nechaeva (1974).

Each F.-s. t. r. characterized by a certain pragmatic function, a certain type of logical content and a type of structure. Description implements the task of the author to present objects in their qualitative certainty, by listing their features, narration - to present a sequence of events (these types of speech are combined into a group of representing, according to the classification of V.V. Odintsov), - to convince the reader of the existence of causal relationships between phenomena (argumentative type of speech). With general meaning synchronicity in description, diachronism in narration, causality in reasoning, the structural and compositional characteristics of F.-s. t. r.

When combining sentences into representing F.-s. t. r. an essential, structure-forming role is played by the aspect-temporal ratio of verbs in the text. The meaning of synchronicity is usually expressed by the verbs nes. type (most often present or past tense), due to their "non-limiting" a certain duration of actions is created, which allows the latter to be simultaneous. Owl verbs. species express the meaning of non-duration, changeability of actions, which corresponds to the narrative. Often, movement in time is expressed by changing the tense forms of the verb, past and present. The enumerative meaning of a descriptive text is usually conveyed by a parallel connection of sentences; in a narrative, successively occurring events are expressed using a chain connection.

Reasoning consists of a chain of interdependent judgments. An indicator of a close - causative - connection is a pronounced synsemancy of independent sentences, a high frequency of logical markers - introductory words therefore, so, thus, adverbs with the meaning of consequence, conclusion therefore, therefore, hence, then, subordinating conjunctions because, since, because, so that and etc.

F.-s. t. r. have various modifications. By structure, they can be "classical" (close to the type), mixed, variational; undergo changes depending on the subject-thematic content of the work, funkts. style, genre, individual style of the author.

The traditional classification of types of speech arose within the framework of ancient rhetoric and includes the most general varieties of speech that clearly differ in their essential features. In the 70s–90s. 20th century a special appeal of linguists to the problem of F.-s. tr., attracting as an object of study texts of various functional and stylistic varieties of lit. language led both to the allocation of new types of speech, for example. statements(media instructions(see), characteristic primarily for office-cases. spheres of communication, and to isolating subtypes within each F.-s. t. r.

Within the whole text, there are various options alternation and interaction F.-s. t. river, including contaminated types of speech, possessing simultaneously signs of two (or more) F.-s. t. r. (without obvious dominance of one over the other) as a result of combining two (or more) communicative tasks. An example of a mixed F.-s. t.r: "At the time the theory was created, the Ξ-hyperons and the Ω-particle were not yet known. Resonances Ξ ... were discovered in 1962. The top of the pyramid remained unfilled. Gell-Mann predicted that the particle corresponding to it should have a spin equal to 3/2, a hypercharge Y \u003d -2 and a mass of about 1675 MeV ... Almost immediately, a systematic search began for this particle, called the Ω-hyperon. At the Brookhaven Laboratory, a 33 GeV accelerator and a two-meter bubble chamber containing 900 liters of liquid hydrogen were used for this purpose. It was done about 300,000 images before one of them recorded the creation and decay of an Ω particle in January 1964. Its properties, in particular its mass, exactly coincided with those predicted by theory.Thus, the discovery of the Ω hyperon was a triumph of the theory unitary symmetry"(I.V. Savelyev. Course of General Physics). The first communicative function of this text is to tell about the discovery of the Ω-hyperon. The second is to evaluate this discovery, to draw a conclusion about its role in confirming the correctness of the theory of unitary symmetry. As a result there is mixed F. - pages. t. r. (representing and arguing the content) with a common communicative task - to tell about the discovery, preparing the reader for a certain conclusion about this discovery, for its correct assessment. The story is a synthesis of the narrative (a striking sign of it are references to dates and adverbs with the meaning of time, for example: almost immediately) and descriptions (the course and results of research, device design). The argumentative component of this microtext - conclusion - contains an indicator of logical connection thus.

F.'s identification - page. t. r. is most effectively carried out in the context of the whole work. This allows us to see the change in types of speech, their functioning either in pure or contaminated form, to isolate the "elementary" F.-s. t. r. and larger structures absorbing them, up to the global logical structure, which is the framework of the entire work and is associated with the expression and confirmation of the main hypothesis of the scientist, the idea of ​​the artist.

F.'s functioning - page. t. r. in one style or another, lit. language is largely due to the tasks of communication in the relevant field of communication.

In the artist texts are dominated by narration, shaping the story of events, the system of which makes up the plot of the work; the description is widely presented (landscape, portrait, etc.). Reasoning functions in the form of subjective reflections and differs significantly in structural and functional characteristics from scientific reasoning. For scientific works are typically logical reasoning with a clear, stereotyped structure, which serves to derive new knowledge. In the artist In the work, a freer form, individualized, emotional reasoning functions, leading, preparing the reader for the perception of judgment, which is important for expressing the author's aesthetic assessment of the depicted.

In scientific texts by leading F.-s. t. r. are description (static and dynamic) and reasoning (reasoning proper, etc.). The first serves to depict the external features of the object of study, i.e. for direct reflection of objective reality, which refers to the embodiment of the results of empirical research; the second is used to reflect hidden connections and patterns of development of objects of study, i.e. expresses the results of theoretical knowledge. With the development of science and theoretical thinking, the share of reasoning in scientific. texts is increasing.

The implementation of the traditional communicative tasks of journalism - informing and persuading influence - predetermines the predominant functioning in the texts of F.-s. t. r. narrative and reasoning, the latter - primarily in the form of evidence, but different from scientific evidence, carried out with the help of strict logical procedures. In public In the text, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, factual and value arguments are used. Communicatively determined in public. the text - the text, the essential feature of which is dialogism, the calculation for a quick and obligatory reaction of the addressee, for the maximum degree of his understanding of the analyzed problems - is also the dedication of the reader to the causes of the phenomena under consideration () and the goals, motives (justification) of certain decisions, actions .

In the office. speech, the precept occupies a dominant position, which is associated with the implementation in the text of the main style trait- the directiveness of the presentation, due to the regulatory, regulating function of law.

Lit.: Vinogradov V.V. About the language of the artist. literature. - M., 1959; Nechaeva O.A. Functional-semantic types of speech ( , ). - Ulan-Ude, 1974; Her: Essays on syntactic semantics and stylistics of functional-semantic types of speech. - Ulan-Ude, 1999; Loseva L.M. How the text is built. - M., 1980; Mets N.A., Mitrofanova O.D., Odintsova T.B. The structure of scientific text and teaching monologue speech. - M., 1981; Grishina O.N. The ratio of narration, description and reasoning in art. text (based on English and American prose of the 20th century): Abstract dis.… cand. philol. Sciences. - M., 1982; Kozhin A.N., Krylova O.A., Odintsov V.V. Funkts. Russian types. speech. - M., 1982; Brandes M.P. Stylistics of the German language. - M., 1983; Kozhina M.N., Kyrkunova L.G. On the relationship of functional-semantic types of speech with the specifics of funkts. styles // Word in various fields speech. - Volgograd, 1988; Ismailova Zh.A. Semantic interaction of aspect-temporal forms of the verb with text types (on the material of V. Rasputin's story "Farewell to Mother"): Abstract dis.… cand. philol. Sciences. - L., 1990; Protopopova O.V., Trosheva T.B. Functional-semantic types of speech as a criterion for stylistic differentiation of scientific and technical texts // Essays on the history of scientific. Russian style. lit. language of the 18th–20th centuries. - Perm, 1998. Vol. 2. Part 2; Trosheva T.B. Formation of reasoning in the process of scientific development. Russian style. lit. language of the 18th–20th centuries. (compared with other functional varieties). - Perm, 1999.

T.B. Trosheva

Stylistic encyclopedic Dictionary Russian language. - M:. "Flint", "Science". Edited by M.N. Kozhina. 2003 .