Formation of the Russian language in the Old Russian period. How did the Russian language appear

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Vizingskaya secondary school

abstract

Subject: "Russian language"

On the topic: "Three periods in the history of the Russian language"

Completed by a student of 11 "m" class

Makarova Ekaterina

Teacher: Ulyasheva Irina Veniaminovna

With. Vizinga

1. Three periods of the formation of the Russian language

1.1 Old Russian period

1.2 Old Russian (Great Russian) period

1.3 Modern language period

Sources

1. Three periods of formation of the Russian language

There are three periods in the history of the Russian language:

1) VI - XIV centuries - the Old Russian period - the same as the source of all three modern East Slavic languages.

2) XIV - XVII centuries - Old Russian (Great Russian) period.

3) XVIII - XXI centuries. - a new, modern Russian language.

1.1 Old Russian period

The Old Russian language was formed on the basis of a number of East Slavic dialects of the Proto-Slavic language, whose speakers settled in the eastern part of the Late Proto-Slavic area in the 6th-7th centuries. n. e. In turn, the Proto-Slavic language is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European language, from which it began to separate presumably in the III millennium BC. e.

The Old Russian period was characterized by the cultural and linguistic situation of diglossia (a special variant of bilingualism), in which the written language (Church Slavonic), perceived by Russians as a supra-dialect standardized variety of their native language, coexisted with the language of everyday communication (Old Russian proper). Despite the fact that both idioms covered different areas of functioning in the Old Russian state, they actively interacted with each other - the features of the bookish language penetrated into the living Old Russian language. Church Slavonic ancient Russian literature, and the Church Slavonic language assimilated East Slavic language elements (which marked the beginning of the formation of its special variety - the “exodus”)

Unlike Church Slavonic, the Old Russian language is represented by a smaller number of monuments - mainly private letters on birch bark (from Novgorod, Smolensk, Zvenigorod of Galich and other cities), partly documents of a legal and business nature. In the oldest Church Slavonic literary monuments created in Russia - the Novgorod Codex (1st quarter of the 11th century), the Ostromir Gospel (1056/1057), the penetration of various elements of the Old Russian language is noted. Monuments of the Old Russian language are written in Cyrillic, created in the 9th century AD. e. Cyril and Methodius, texts in the Glagolitic alphabet have not been preserved

Throughout the Old Russian historical period, on the future Great Russian territory, the formation of linguistic features took place, moving the north and northeast of Russia away from the west and southwest. By the XIV century, the process of formation of linguistic differences intensified as a result of the isolation of the western and southwestern territories of Russia under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, and as a result of the unification of the northeastern territories under the rule of the Moscow principality. By the XIV-XV centuries, the Old Russian language broke up into three separate East Slavic languages.

1.2 Old Russian (Great Russian) period

The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time period from the 14th to the 17th century. During this period, phonetic and grammatical systems begin to form, close to the modern Russian language, such language changes occur as:

1) change e v O after soft consonants before hard ones: [n "eu] > [n" os];

2) the final formation of a system of oppositions of hard / soft and deaf / voiced consonants;

3) loss of the vocative case form ( slave, mister), replaced by the nominative form ( brother!, a son!), a special vocative form is preserved in Ukrainian and Belarusian: Ukrainian brother!, son!; Belarusian brother!;

4) the appearance of flexion -a nouns in the nominative case plural (cities, Houses, teachers instead of city etc.); there is no such inflection in Ukrainian and Belarusian: Ukrainian city, domi, teachers, Belarusian garadas, ladies, teachers;

5) consonant substitution c, h, With in inclination forms To, G, X (hands?, legs?, soh? instead of ruts?, nose?, SOS?) in Ukrainian and Belarusian such case alternations are preserved: Ukrainian on hand, on the nose, Belarusian. on the rutse, on naz;

6) change of adjective endings [-yi?], [-ii?] into [-oi?], [-ei?] ( simple, himself third change in simple, himself rubsthth);

7) appearance of forms imperative mood on the -ite instead of -?those (carry instead of carried those) and with To, G (help instead of help);

8) fixing one form of the past tense for verbs in live speech (former participle on -l, which was part of the perfect forms);

10) unification of types of declension, etc.

Among the dialects that developed on the future Great Russian territory in the second half of the 12th - the first half of the 13th centuries (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal and Akachi dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim), Rostov-Suzdal, primarily Moscow dialects of this dialect. From the second quarter of the 14th century, Moscow became the political and cultural center of the Great Russian lands, and in the 15th century, vast Russian lands included in the Grand Duchy of Moscow were united under the rule of Moscow. Based primarily on Moscow dialects, as well as some linguistic elements of other Russian dialects (Ryazan, Novgorod, etc.), by the 16th century, the norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, combining Northern Russian (consonant of explosive formation G, solid T in the endings of verbs of the 3rd person, singular and plural, etc.) and South Russian akanye, etc.) features. Moscow Koine becomes exemplary, spreads to other Russian cities and has a strong influence on the Old Russian written language. Many official documents and many works of the 15th-17th centuries were written in a language with a Moscow colloquial basis (Afanasy Nikitin’s Journey Beyond the Three Seas, the writings of Ivan IV the Terrible, The Tale of Peter and Fevronia, The Tale of the Pskov Capture, satirical literature etc.) 92.

In the XIV-XVII centuries, literary bilingualism gradually formed, replacing diglossia: the Church Slavonic language of the Russian version continues to coexist with the proper Russian literary language. Between these idioms, various transitional types arise. Since the end of the 14th century, the emergence of literature of various genres on a folk-speech basis, accessible to wide sections of Russian society, has been noted. At the same time, under the influence of the so-called second South Slavic influence, the archaization of the language of many works is intensifying, the formed book "weaving of words" is increasingly at odds with the folk speech of that time.

In the Old Russian period, the dialect division of the Russian language changes, by the 17th century two large dialect groups are formed - the North Russian and South Russian dialects, as well as the Central Russian dialects that are transitional between them.

1.3 Modern language period

From the middle of the 17th century, the Russian nation was formed and the Russian national language began to form on the basis of the Moscow Koine. Formation and development national language contributes to the wider dissemination of writing, education and science.

During this period, literary bilingualism is eliminated. From the second half of the 16th century, the sphere of use of the Church Slavonic language gradually narrowed, during the period of formation and development of the national language, Church Slavonic was preserved only as the language of the liturgy. Church Slavisms included in the Russian literary language, become stylistically neutral or are included in the general category of archaisms, and are no longer perceived as elements of a different language.

The norms of the national literary Russian language were developed in the 17th-18th centuries. By the middle of the 18th century, its oral-colloquial variety was formed. M. V. Lomonosov creates the first grammar that consolidates the norms of the Russian language (“Russian Grammar”). Stabilization of norms, improvement of stylistic means, replenishment of the vocabulary were manifested in the work of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin, I. A. Krylova, A. S. Griboyedov, A. S. Pushkin. In the environment of Russian society, the synthesis of Russian colloquial, foreign and Church Slavonic elements, characteristic of the literary works of A. S. Pushkin, received the greatest response and was entrenched in speech. It is in this form that the Russian language as a whole has been preserved to this day. The norms of the Russian language of the Pushkin era were further improved in the works of writers of the 19th - early 20th centuries - M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, I. A. Bu-nin and others, as well as in the works scientific and journalistic styles (since the second half of the 19th century).

During the period of the Russian national language, there is an active penetration of foreign borrowings into the Russian language and tracing according to their model. This process intensified most strongly in the era of Peter I. If in the 17th century the main source of borrowings was the Polish language (often borrowings from Western European languages ​​\u200b\u200bcame into Russian through the Polish language), then at the beginning of the 18th century German and Dutch languages ​​dominate, in the 19th century comes era French, and in the second half of the XX - the beginning of the XXI - the English language becomes the main source of borrowings. The enrichment of the lexical fund is facilitated by the active development of science and technology, significant changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language cause political transformations in Russian society in the 20th century (October Revolution, collapse of the USSR). language diglossia phonetic grammatical

During the period of the Russian national language, the processes of dialect fragmentation slow down, dialects become the “lower form” of the Russian language, in the 20th century the process of leveling territorial dialects sharply intensifies and they are replaced by the colloquial form of the literary language.

In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In 1918, a reform of Russian spelling was carried out, in 1956 less significant spelling changes were introduced.

The modern Russian language is fixed by strictly codified language norms and becomes a multifunctional means of communication applicable in all spheres of society.

Conclusion

Thus, the Russian language is undergoing significant changes at the present time. The national Russian language is formed as a result of mixing the Slavic-Russian language with Russian folk speech, with the Moscow state language and Western European languages.

Sources

http://antisochinenie.ru/

http://5fan.info/

http://www.slideboom.com/

en.wikipedia.org

http://ksana-k.narod.ru/

Hosted on Allbest.ru

...

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There are three periods in the history of the Russian language:

1) 6th-7th - 14th centuries;

2) 15th - 17th centuries;

3) 18 - 21 centuries.

1) The early period of the History of the Russian language begins after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the separation of the Common East Slavic language - the ancestor of the three East Slavic languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Common East Slavic language, which is also called Old Russian, existed until the 14th century, that is, before it began to be divided into three independent East Slavic languages. Since that time, one can speak of Russian proper, or of the Great Russian language, which differs not only from the languages ​​of the southern and western Slavs, but also from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​closest to it. The Great Russian language also went through a long path of development - from the language of the Great Russian people to the modern Russian national language - the language of the Russian nation. The history of the Russian language is the history of the Old Russian language, the language of the Great Russian people and the language of the Russian nation; The structure of the modern Russian language has developed from elements dating back to different eras of its development.

Borkowski identifies three periods in the history of language development:

1) the Old Russian period is the same as the source of all three modern East Slavic languages ​​(from ancient times to the 14th century);

2) the Old Russian period (15-17 centuries);

3) new, modern Russian language (since the 18th century).

The main boundary between different types of literary language is the pre-national and national period. For the Russian language, this is the border between the Middle Ages and modern times - the middle - the second half of the 17th century. A distinctive feature of the pre-national period is that another language can act as a literary language, in this case Church Slavonic, according to Shakhmatov, Tolstoy. During the national period, the literary language changes its base: it focuses on dialectal speech, and is formed on a national basis. During this period, the oral form of the literary language begins to form.

Vostokov, Karamzin distinguish three periods: ancient (10-13 centuries), middle (14-18 centuries), new (from the end of the 18th century). These frames coincide with the chronology of historical changes.

The separation of the Eastern Slavs from the common Slavic unity (approximately in the 6th-7th centuries) in linguistic terms was accompanied by the development of such features that were inherent in all Eastern Slavs and distinguished them from the southern and western Slavs. These include the following phonetic features: the presence of ch, zh in place of the ancient tj, dj: candle, boundary; full-vowel combinations oro, ere, olo in place of the ancient or, ol, er, el: beard, coast; the presence of o at the beginning of the word with je in other Slavic languages: lake, deer, autumn, one.

The Eastern Slavs in the 6th-9th centuries occupied vast territories on the great waterway "from the Varangians to the Greeks", i.e. territories from Lake Ilmen and the basin of the Western Dvina to the Dnieper, as well as to the east and west. In this territory, tribes or tribal unions were formed in the 6th century, all of them spoke closely related East Slavic dialects and were at different stages of economic and cultural development. On the basis of the linguistic community of the Eastern Slavs, the language of the Old Russian people was formed, which received its statehood in Kievan Rus. The language of the Old Russian people, which can be reconstructed from the data of the written monuments of the 11th century, was characterized by a number of specific features, mainly in morphology and phonetics.

Instead of a tribal dialect, dialect areas become a linguistic unit, economically and politically gravitating towards a certain urban center, which later becomes the center of a feudal principality. The Russian state centered in Kiev, which originally arose as the center of the territories of the Polyan tribe, was a weakly centralized state. The formation of a single state led to an increase in the stability of the dialects of certain territories in connection with the consolidation of certain groups of the population on them. The territorial consolidation of the population led to the formation of new territorial units - lands and principalities, headed by Kiev. Due to the fact that the borders of these lands and principalities did not always coincide with the former tribal borders, a redistribution of dialect features arose, a new dialect division of the language was formed. The language of the Old Russian people, being uniform in origin and character, received local coloring in different territories of its distribution, that is, it appeared in its own dialect varieties. This was facilitated by the weak economic and political connection between different areas.

In strengthening the unity of the Old Russian language, the development of the Kiev koine (common spoken language) played a role, it combined the features of the north (horse, veksha, istba) and native southern ones (for example, wol, brehati, lepy). In the Old Kievan Koine, sharp dialectal features are leveled, as a result of which it could become a language that satisfies the needs of Kiev in its relations with all of Russia, which strengthened the unity of the Russian people. The question of the development of the Old Russian language in the Kievan era is connected with the question of the origin of writing and the beginning of the development of the Russian literary language. 907 - an agreement between the Russians and the Greeks, preserved in later lists. Consequently, the writing of the Eastern Slavs originated long before the baptism of Russia and the ancient Russian letter was alphabetic.

During this period, the literary language also developed, reflected in the monuments of various genres. The first written monuments of the Old Russian language date back to the 11th century; The oldest inscription on a vessel found during excavations of the Gnezdovsky mounds near Smolensk dates back to the beginning of the 10th century.

In the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, church books written in Old Church Slavonic began to arrive in Russia from Bulgaria. This contributed to the spread of writing. The books were copied by Russian scribes, who mastered the features of the Old Slavonic language. But Art.-Cl. language absorbs local linguistic features. So in the 11-12 centuries, local varieties of the old-sl. language; the totality of these editions is called the Church Slavonic language. It was the common literary language of the Slavs throughout the medieval period. It was used to write texts on church topics, canonical and similar. During this period, secular genres of writing also existed - records and comments on real historical events, travel descriptions, texts of laws and private correspondence. The language of this writing is the Old Russian language, filled with words and forms of living East Slavic speech, it reflected the Koine.

The works of secular literature written in the Old Russian language are divided into two groups: 1) chronicle stories and artistic and narrative literature: the works of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - early 12th centuries), "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (1st quarter of the 13th century), etc. .; 2) monuments of a business nature and private correspondence (Birch bark letters).

The vast territory of Kievan Rus, with a diverse population in terms of economic, ethnic, and cultural characteristics, early began to show tendencies towards disintegration. By the middle of the 12th century, and especially in its second half, the process of weakening Kiev as a common center and the process of strengthening new, local centers led to the loss of Kiev's leading role. Life began to concentrate around other centers in the north, northeast and northwest (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc.). Feudal fragmentation is intensifying, which leads to a deepening of dialect differences in the Old Russian language. In the written monuments of the 12th - early 13th centuries. a number of dialects of the Old Russian language are reflected. This was a period when the Eastern Slavs experienced the process of loss of the reduced ones common to all Slavs, which entailed consequences that were different for the south and for the rest of the territory of the Old Russian language. According to the fate of the primordial e and o, which received lengthening in the position before the lost b and b and later diphthongization, according to the fate of combinations of smooth c b and b between consonants and other phenomena, the south and southwest of Ancient Russia turned out to be opposed to the north and northeast. However, there were also dialectal differences.

As a result of the processes of dialect development in the 2nd half of the 12th - 1st half of the 13th centuries. on the future Great Russian territory, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal dialects and the aka dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim developed.

Novgorod: okanye, r explosive, c - tooth-tooth, clatter, ê in place of e;

Pskov: okanye, g explosive, v - labial-labial, e in place of e, clatter, combinations of kl, ch are preserved, in place of s, s, w, zh lisping consonants were pronounced;

Smolensky: r explosive, c - lip-labial, okan, clatter, with e in place of e, but without ô;

Rostov-Suzdal: r-explosive, c - labial-tooth, ê in place of e, ô rounding.

The dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim: akanye, in - labial-labial, ê, ô, γ.

In addition to phonetic, these dialects differed morphologically, as well as in lexical features. Despite the existence of separate lands and principalities, in the 12-13 centuries. the unity of the ancient Russian people, which had developed as a result of a long development, was preserved.

2) The beginning of the second period is the collapse of the single East Slavic language and the emergence of the language of the Great Russian people.

Strengthening the feudal fragmentation of Russia, further separation of northeastern Russia from western and southwestern during the Mongol-Tatar yoke, as well as as a result of the processes of development of the western and southern lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and later Poland), economic growth and political strengthening northeastern Russia leads to the fact that in the 14-16 centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are formed.

North-Eastern (Suzdal) Russia becomes the center of the gathering of Russian lands and the struggle against the Golden Horde. From the 14th century, the rise of Moscow began, originally a small city of Suzdal Rus, which then turned into the political, economic and cultural center of the state. Under the rule of Prince M., the lands located to the north, south and west of Moscow are collected. Somewhat earlier in the west, the rise of the Principality of Lithuania begins. Lithuanian princes seized Western Russia in the 13th century, in the 13th-14th centuries. making forays into the southwest. In the 14th century, the Galicia-Volyn lands and Kiev were part of the Lithuanian principality. In the 14th-15th centuries. On the territory of the Lithuanian Principality, on the basis of Old Russian dialects, the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are formed. The formation here of two, and not one, language is explained by the comparative disunity of the various parts of this state formation, as well as by the fact that different lands at different times were part of it.

Evidence of the formation of the Great Russian nationality and its language was the emergence throughout the territory of the settlement of the nationality of linguistic neoplasms that were not characteristic of the languages ​​of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. A change in weak b and b in combination with the previous smooth one in o and e, the development of ûy, yy in oh, her. In the field of morphology, there is a loss of the vocative form, the replacement of whistling with posterior lingual in the forms of declension (legE instead of nozE), the development of plural forms. I.p. on –a (shores, forests), the formation of imperative mood forms in –ite instead of –Ete, the appearance of imperative mood forms with g, x, k in back language verbs (help instead of help).

Structurally, the language of the Great Russian people was already close to the s.r.ya. A system of hard-soft and voiced-deaf consonants was established, the old system of past tenses of the verb was lost, there was a unification of declension types, etc.

The core of this territory was dialectally unified, but the gradual expansion of the emerging state, the annexation of new territories was accompanied by an increase in dialect diversity, because. in the annexed territories there were both S.-E.-R. and S.-E.-R. dialects. Both become dialects of the Great Russian language, with the leading role played by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, which included the Moscow dialect. Moscow, which became a political and cultural center from the 2nd quarter of the 14th century, played a special role in the unification of the norms of the Russian language. Around the Moscow Principality is united whole line other principalities, and in the 15th century a vast state was created - Muscovite Russia. In the 16th century, the norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, which reflected the features of the northern and southern. The colloquial speech of Moscow was reflected in the business documents of the Moscow orders, and the language of these orders influenced the Old Russian literary language, which was reflected in the language of many works of the 15th-17th centuries. In the literary language of the Muscovite state, the book and written traditions of Kievan Rus continue to develop. At the same time, structural changes separating it from the written language are increasing in the Russian spoken language. The Great Russian language is influenced by extralinguistic factors. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo destroys the age-old yoke on Russian soil. The Ottoman Empire captures the capital of Byzantium in 1453 and establishes dominance in the Balkans. Figures of the South Slavic and Byzantine cultures come to Moscow Russia. By the 14th - early 15th centuries. editing of Slavic church books under the guidance of Metropolitan Cyprian is carried out to bring them into their original form, corresponding to the originals. This was the "second South Slavic influence". Russian writing approaches the Slavic.

In the Book Slavonic type of the literary language, archaic spellings based on the South Slavic spelling norm are becoming widespread. A special rhetorical manner of expression arises, saturated with metaphors - “weaving words.” This complex of phenomena is called the second South Slavic influence. The folk-literary type of language was not subjected to it. During this period, the functions of the business language are expanding. New genres of business writing are emerging: court records, article lists of Russian ambassadors, Domostroy, Stoglav, etc. The spelling practice and word usage of the business language influenced the formation of the norms of the literary language. In the second half of the 16th century, book printing began in the Muscovite state. The first printed book was The Apostle (1564). In 1566 The Clockworker was published. Church books of grammar, dictionaries, primers necessary for education and enlightenment are printed. The first printed educational books were Primer (1574), Slovenska Grammar by Lavrenty Zizaniy (1576), Slovene Grammar by Melety Smotrytsky (1618).

3) In the 17th century, the Russian nation was formed. During this period, the ratio of the national language and dialects changes. The development of new dialect features stops, the old ones remain stable. From the middle of the 17th century, a new period in the history of the Russian literary language begins - the national one. Dialects begin to level out.

The development of economic and political ties of Muscovite Rus, the growth of Moscow's authority, the spread of Moscow orders contributed to the growth of the influence of Moscow's oral speech on the territory of Russia, the dialect of Moscow formed the basis of the national language. The formation of a new literary language was facilitated by the widespread distribution of literature in the democratic strata of society, the language of which was formed on the basis of oral and business speech.

In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed, Cyrillic was used for confessional purposes. In the literary language of the late 17th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. closely intertwined and interact Book Slavonic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and turns of speech of a folk-colloquial and business nature and Western European borrowings. The vocabulary of the language becomes more diverse, but stylistically disordered. There is a need to normalize the literary language. The first attempts to describe the norms of the literary language were made by A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, V. E. Atoturov.

The leading role in the transformation of the Russian literary language in the description of its norms belongs to Lomonosov. He is the founder of the science of the Russian language, laid the foundation for the descriptive and comparative historical study of the Russian language, and characterized the subject of linguistics as a science. In "Letters on the Rules of Russian Poetry", "Rhetoric", "Russian Grammar", "Foreword on the Usefulness of Church Books and the Russian Language", he described the norms of the Russian literary language at all levels of the language system, showed the paths of historical development, created a doctrine of three styles .

He connected the theory of three styles with the national originality of the historical development of the Russian literary language, which consisted in the long-term interaction and mutual influence of two elements: book-Slavic and Russian folk. The stylistic theory based the norm on those words, turns of speech, grammatical forms that were stylistically neutral, limited the use of Slavicisms and borrowings, and allowed the use of vernacular in literary speech.

In the development of the language, the role of individual author's styles gradually increases and becomes decisive. The greatest influence on the process of development of the Russian literary language of this period was exerted by the work of G. R. Derzhavin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin. Their works are characterized by an orientation towards live speech use. Moreover, the use of colloquial elements was combined with the stylistically purposeful use of Slavism. A major role in the normalization of the Russian literary language of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. played an explanatory dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy."

In the early 90s. In the 18th century, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and Karamzin’s stories appear. They cultivated the language of description, which was called the Russian syllable. It was based on the principle of convergence of the literary language with the spoken language, the rejection of the abstract schematism of the literature of classicism, and interest in the inner world of man. Karamzin set a goal to form a language accessible to all: for books and for society, in order to write as they say and speak as they write. The downside was that he focused on the language of high society, included a large number of gallicisms that were absent in general use.

The writers of the early 19th century took a significant step towards bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, in updating the norms of the new literary language. By the 19th century, the genre and style of works of literature were no longer determined by the rigid attachment of words, grammatical forms and constructions. The role of a creative linguistic personality has increased, the concept of a true linguistic taste in an individual author's style has arisen.

The first third of the 19th century is the Pushkin period. In his work, the formation of the national Russian literary language is completed. In the language of his works, the main elements of Russian writing and oral speech came into balance. He found such ways of merging the three linguistic elements - Slavic, colloquial and Western European elements, which influenced the development of the norms of the national Russian literary language. This language has basically survived to this day. From this period begins the era of the new Russian literary language. In the work of Pushkin, uniform, national norms were developed and consolidated, which linked together the oral and written varieties of the Russian literary language. The creation of unified national norms concerned not only the lexical and grammatical structure, but also systemic and functional styles. Having completely destroyed the system of three styles, he created a variety of styles, stylistic contexts, welded together by theme and content, opened up the possibility of their endless, individual artistic variation. All subsequent development of the Russian literary language was a deepening and improvement of the norms laid down in this era. In the development of the Russian literary language, the formation of its norms, the language practice of the largest Russian writers of the 19th - early 20th centuries (Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky, etc.) played an important role. With Pushkin, the system of functional speech styles was finally established in the Russian literary language, and then improved. In the second half of the 19th century, a significant development of the journalistic style was noted. He begins to influence the development of fiction. Scientific-philosophical, socio-political terminology appears in the literary language. Along with this, the literary language incorporates vocabulary and phraseology from territorial dialects, urban vernacular and socio-professional jargons.

After 1917, there is a significant change in the language and its norms. The social base of native speakers is changing. Moscow, as a carrier of the capital's Koine, acquires the character of a multinational city, under the influence of these factors, the norms of the language begin to change rapidly. The development of public education, publishing, the interest of the broad masses in literature and journalism, the emergence of radio, etc. led to the fact that the functions of the literary language became more complex and expanded. New conditions for the relationship between literary and non-literary language arose. There are changes in the expressive coloring of some words (master, master). The language of the Communist Party and its leaders has an impact on the literary one (for example, dizziness from success, to catch up and overtake). Extralinguistic factors influence the formation of new words and expressions (council, five-year plan, collective farm, sabotage). The special technical language is enriched in connection with achievements in science and technology, etc.

In Soviet times, academic grammars play an important role, normative dictionaries, books on the culture of speech and magazines.

In the 20th century, the vocabulary of the Russian literary language was significantly enriched. In particular, the development of science and technology contributed to the replenishment of the literary language with special terminological vocabulary, some shifts occurred in word formation, grammatical structure, and stylistic means were enriched.

Russian language- one of the East Slavic languages, one of the largest languages ​​in the world, the national language of the Russian people. It is the most widespread of the Slavic languages ​​and the most widespread language in Europe, both geographically and in terms of the number of native speakers (although a significant and geographically large part of the Russian language area is located in Asia). The science of the Russian language is called linguistic Russian studies, or, in short, simply Russian studies.

« The origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Approximately in 2000-1000 thousand BC. e. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1st-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic). Where the Proto-Slavs and their descendants, the Proto-Slavs, lived is a debatable issue. Probably the Proto-Slavic tribes in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. and at the beginning of N. e. They occupied lands from the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east to the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, south of the Pripyat in the north, and forest-steppe regions in the south. Proto-Slavic territory expanded dramatically. In the VI-VII centuries. Slavs occupied lands from the Adriatic to the southwest. to the headwaters of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen in the north-east. Proto-Slavic ethno-linguistic unity broke up. Three closely related groups were formed: eastern (Old Russian nationality), western (on the basis of which Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians, Pomeranian Slavs were formed) and southern (its representatives are Bulgarians, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians).

The East Slavic (Old Russian) language existed from the 7th to the 14th centuries. In the X century. on its basis, writing arises (the Cyrillic alphabet, see Cyrillic), which reached a high flowering (Ostromir Gospel, XI century; “Word on Law and Grace” of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion, XI century; “The Tale of Bygone Years”, early XII century. ; "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", XII century; Russkaya Pravda, XI-XII centuries). Already in Kievan Rus (IX - early XII centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the XIV-XVI centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Principality of Moldavia. Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the XIII-XIV centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language also gradually disintegrated. Three centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the XIV-XV centuries. on the basis of these associations, closely related, but independent Eastern Slavic languages: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Russia (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape—Northern Great Russian (approximately to the north from the Pskov-Tver-Moscow line, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (to the south from this line to the Byelorussian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, which were overlapped by other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system.

The written language remains colorful. Religion and the rudiments of scientific knowledge were mainly served by the book-Slavonic, by origin the ancient Bulgarian, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, cut off from the popular colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. Speech cliches developed in it, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, in contrast to the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialect features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Diverse in language means was written fiction. Since ancient times, the oral language of folklore, which served until the 16th-17th centuries, played an important role. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about the Belogorod jelly, about Olga's revenge, etc. in The Tale of Bygone Years, folklore motifs in The Tale of Igor's Campaign, vivid phraseology in Daniil Zatochnik's Prayer, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art. Since the 17th century the first recordings of folklore works and book imitations of folklore begin, for example, songs recorded in 1619-1620 for the Englishman Richard James, lyric songs by Kvashnin-Samarin, "The Tale of Mount Misfortune" and others. The complexity of the language situation did not allow the development of uniform and stable norms. There was no single Russian literary language.

In the 17th century national ties arise, the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In the XVIII and early XIX centuries. secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and finally became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the second half of the XVIII century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. The language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means, depending on the purpose of literary works, into high, medium and low “calms”. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers paved the way for the great reform of A.S. Pushkin. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized various speech elements into a single system: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and Russian became the cementing basis. vernacular, especially its Moscow variety. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, rich and diverse language styles (artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.) are closely related to each other, all-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms that are mandatory for all who know the literary language are defined, the lexical system. Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries played an important role in the development and formation of the Russian literary language. (A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov, etc.) . Since the second half of the XX century. on the development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles- scientific, journalistic, etc. - public figures, representatives of science and culture begin to influence.

Neutral (stylistically uncolored) means of the modern Russian literary language form its basis. The remaining forms, words and meanings have a stylistic coloring that gives the language all sorts of shades of expressiveness. The most widespread are colloquial elements that carry the functions of ease, some reduced speech in the written variety of the literary language and are neutral in everyday speech. However, colloquial speech component literary language is not a special language system.

A common means of stylistic diversity of the literary language is vernacular. It, like the colloquial means of the language, is dual: being an organic part of the literary language, at the same time it exists outside of it. Historically, vernacular goes back to the old colloquial and everyday speech of the urban population, which opposed the bookish language at a time when the norms of the oral variety of the literary language had not yet been developed. The division of the old colloquial and everyday speech into an oral variety of the literary language of the educated part of the population and vernacular began around the middle of the 18th century. In the future, vernacular becomes a means of communication for predominantly illiterate and semi-literate citizens, and within the literary language, some of its features are used as a means of bright stylistic coloring.

Dialects occupy a special place in the Russian language. Under the conditions of universal education, they quickly die out, being replaced by the literary language. In its archaic part, modern dialects make up 2 large dialects: North Great Russian (Okanye) and South Great Russian (Akanye) with an intermediate transitional Middle Great Russian dialect. There are smaller units, the so-called dialects (groups of close dialects), for example, Novgorod, Vladimir-Rostov, Ryazan. This division is arbitrary, since the boundaries of the distribution of individual dialect features usually do not coincide. The boundaries of dialect features cross Russian territories in different directions, or these features are distributed only in part of it. Before the emergence of writing, dialects were the universal form of the existence of a language. With the emergence of literary languages, they, changing, retained their strength; the speech of the vast majority of the population was dialectal. With the development of culture, the emergence of the national Russian language, dialects become predominantly the speech of the rural population. Modern Russian dialects are turning into a kind of semi-dialects, in which local features are combined with the norms of the literary language. Dialects constantly influenced the literary language. Dialectisms are still used by writers for stylistic purposes.

In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused primarily by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the XVIII century. terminology borrowed from German language, in the XIX century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from in English(in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialectal and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and the main vocabulary (which ensures mutual understanding of the entire population), constitute a single national Russian language, the main link of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the very system of the literary language, the constant impact on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variance, i.e., the ability to designate the same or close in meaning different words and forms.

The Russian language plays an important role as the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of the USSR. The Russian alphabet formed the basis of the writing of many young languages, and the Russian language became the second native language of the non-Russian population of the USSR. “The process of voluntary study taking place in life, along with the native language, of the Russian language has positive value, as this contributes to the mutual exchange of experience and the introduction of each nation and nationality to the cultural achievements of all other peoples of the USSR and to world culture.

Since the middle of the XX century. the study of the Russian language is expanding all over the world. The Russian language is taught in 120 states: in 1,648 universities in capitalist and developing countries and in all higher educational institutions of the socialist countries of Europe; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. (1975). The International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was founded in 1967; in 1974 - Institute of the Russian Language. A.S. Pushkin; a special magazine is published ‹ Russian language abroad›» .

The national language is the means of oral and written communication of the nation. Along with the common territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as the mental warehouse, language is the leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio - tribe, people).

Russian national language by family ties, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages ​​are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.

Slavic languages ​​come from single Proto-Slavic a language that evolved from the Indo-European base language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages ​​developed. Around the 6th-7th centuries AD, the Proto-Slavic unity broke up. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively uniform East Slavic language. (Old Russian, or the language of Kievan Rus). At about the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbal Lusatian and "dead" Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovene, Rusyn and "dead" Old Church Slavonic).

In the 9th-11th centuries, on the basis of translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language of the Slavs was formed - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship. – Church Slavonic .

With the strengthening of feudal fragmentation and the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities are formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages ​​is divided into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th-15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people was formed with the Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at the core.

Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian nationality into nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and the main vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language Great Russian people formed in the process interaction between the northern Great Russian and the southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.

An important stage in the development of the Russian national language was the 18th century. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. The democratization of the language was required, the introduction of elements of lively, colloquial speech of the merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants into its system. Leading role in theoretical substantiation of the Russian language played M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a "Russian grammar", which has theoretical and practical significance: ordering of the literary language and development rules for the use of its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, incomprehensible history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:

- "the vastness of the places where he reigns"

- "your own space and contentment."

In the Petrine era due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena the vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so huge that even a decree of Peter I was needed to regulate the use of borrowings.

The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages ​​(French), to free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, to create new words, to expand the semantics of those already used to designate emerging in the life of society, mostly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin's opponent was the Slavophil A.S. Shishkov, who believed that the Old Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute over language between Slavophiles and Westernizers was brilliantly resolved in the work of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of live colloquial speech, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.

Creator same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportion and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create unified orthoepic, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dahl.

After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out”. The new power destroys objects, phenomena, processes, and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privatdozent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot openly use Christian terminology: seminary, sexton, Eucharist, Ascension, Mother of God, Spas, Assumption, etc. These words live in the people's environment secretly, implicitly, waiting for the hour of their revival. On the other side. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak, Red Army soldier, Chekist. There are a large number of compound words: party dues, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, Commander, Prodrazverstka, food tax, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the brightest distinguishing features of the Russian language of the Soviet period - interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism. : scouts and spies, warriors-liberators and invaders, partisans and bandits.

Today, the Russian national language continues to develop in the post-Soviet space. Among modern characteristic features the most important languages ​​are:

1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, it is a borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;

2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all, it religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, Vespers, Epiphany, Metropolitan;

3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;

4) the destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.

A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the largest languages ​​in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Russian is one of the official and working languages ​​of the UN. The number of Russian speakers is about 180 million people. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages ​​show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages ​​form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.
The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language

The history of the origin of the Russian language goes back to ancient times. Approximately in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14-16 centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Principality of Moldavia.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (13-15 centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the 13-14 centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language also gradually disintegrated. 3 centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the 14-15 centuries. on the basis of these associations, closely related, but independent East Slavic languages ​​are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
The history of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Russia

The Russian language of the era of Moscow Russia (14-17 centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod, and South Great Russian in the south from this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in live speech, the final restructuring of the categories of time takes place (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with "-l"), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six bases is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 17th century national ties arise, the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In the 18th and early 19th centuries secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the 2nd half of the 18th century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language.

In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.
On the development of the Russian language

Starting from the middle of the 20th century. the study of the Russian language is expanding all over the world. Information for the mid-1970s: Russian is taught in 87 states: in 1648 universities; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. The International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was founded in 1967; in 1974 - Institute of the Russian Language. A. S. Pushkin.