Unlike a natural ecosystem, an artificial ecosystem is characterized. Write your answer in numbers without spaces.
1) a wide variety of species
2) diverse supply chains
3) open circulation of substances
4) the predominance of one or two species
5) the influence of the anthropogenic factor
6) closed circulation of substances
Explanation.
Differences of agrocenoses from natural biogeocenoses. Between natural and artificial biogeocenoses, along with similarities, there are also big differences that are important to take into account in agricultural practice.
The first difference is in the different direction of selection. In natural ecosystems, there is natural selection that rejects non-competitive species and forms of organisms and their communities in the ecosystem and thereby ensures its main property - sustainability. In agrocenoses, mainly artificial selection operates, directed by man primarily to maximize the yield of agricultural crops. For this reason, the ecological stability of agrocenoses is low. They are not capable of self-regulation and self-renewal, they are subject to the threat of death during the mass reproduction of pests or pathogens. Therefore, without the participation of a person, his tireless attention and active intervention in their lives, agrocenoses of grain and vegetable crops exist for no more than a year, perennial grasses - 3-4 years, fruit crops- 20-30 years. Then they disintegrate or die.
The second difference is in the source of energy used. For natural biogeocenosis, the only source of energy is the Sun. At the same time, agrocenoses, in addition to solar energy, receive additional energy that a person spent on the production of fertilizers, chemicals against weeds, pests and diseases, for irrigation or drainage of lands, etc. Without such an additional expenditure of energy, the long-term existence of agrocenoses is practically impossible.
The third difference is that the species diversity of living organisms is sharply reduced in agroecosystems. One or several species (varieties) of plants are usually cultivated in the fields, which leads to a significant depletion of the species composition of animals, fungi, and bacteria. In addition, the biological uniformity of varieties cultivated plants occupying large areas (sometimes tens of thousands of hectares), is often the main reason for their mass destruction by specialized insects (for example, the Colorado potato beetle) or damage by pathogens (powder-hummock, rust, smut fungi, late blight, etc.).
The fourth difference is the different balance of nutrients. In natural biogeocenosis, the primary production of plants (crop) is consumed in numerous food chains (networks) and is again returned to the biological cycle system in the form of carbon dioxide, water and mineral nutrition elements.
In the agrocenosis, such a cycle of elements is sharply disturbed, since a person removes a significant part of them with the harvest. Therefore, in order to compensate for their losses and, consequently, to increase the yield of cultivated plants, it is necessary to constantly apply fertilizers to the soil.
Thus, in comparison with natural biogeocenoses, agrocenoses have a limited species composition of plants and animals, are not capable of self-renewal and self-regulation, are subject to the threat of death as a result of mass reproduction of pests or pathogens, and require tireless human activity to maintain them.
Under the numbers 3, 4, 5 - characterizes agrocenosis; 1, 2, 6 - natural biogeocenosis.
Answer: 345.
Natural, natural ecosystems were formed as a result of the action of the forces of nature. They are characterized by:
- Close relationship between organic and inorganic substances
- A complete, vicious circle of the circulation of substances: starting from the appearance organic matter and ending with its decay and decomposition into inorganic components.
- Resilience and ability to self-heal.
All natural ecosystems are defined by the following features:
- species structure: the number of each species of animal or plant is regulated by natural conditions.
- Spatial structure: all organisms are arranged in a strict horizontal or vertical hierarchy. For example, in a forest ecosystem, tiers are clearly distinguished, in an aquatic ecosystem, the distribution of organisms depends on the depth of the water.
- Biotic and abiotic substances. The organisms that make up an ecosystem are divided into inorganic (abiotic: light, air, soil, wind, humidity, pressure) and organic (biotic - animals, plants).
- In turn, the biotic component is divided into producers, consumers and destroyers. Producers include plants and bacteria, which, with the help of sunlight and energy, create organic matter from inorganic substances. Consumers are animals and carnivorous plants that feed on this organic matter. Destroyers (fungi, bacteria, some microorganisms) are the crown of the food chain, as they produce the reverse process: organics are converted into inorganic substances.
artificial ecosystems
Artificial ecosystems are communities of animals and plants that live in conditions created for them by man. They are also called noobiogeocenoses or socioecosystems. Examples: field, pasture, city, society, spaceship, zoo, garden, artificial pond, reservoir.
by the most simple example artificial ecosystem is an aquarium. Here, the habitat is limited by the walls of the aquarium, the influx of energy, light and nutrients is carried out by man, he also regulates the temperature and composition of the water. The number of inhabitants is also initially determined.
First feature: all artificial ecosystems are heterotrophic, i.e. consuming prepared food. Take for example the city - one of the largest artificial ecosystems. The influx of artificially created energy (gas pipeline, electricity, food) plays a huge role here. At the same time, such ecosystems are characterized by a high yield of toxic substances. That is, those substances that in the natural ecosystem later serve for the production of organic matter often become unusable in artificial ones.
One more distinguishing feature artificial ecosystems - an open cycle of metabolism. Take for example agroecosystems - the most important for humans. These include fields, orchards, vegetable gardens, pastures, farms and other agricultural lands on which a person creates conditions for the removal of consumer products. A part of the food chain in such ecosystems is taken out by a person (in the form of a crop), and therefore the food chain becomes destroyed.
The third difference between artificial ecosystems and natural ones is their species scarcity.. Indeed, a person creates an ecosystem for the sake of breeding one (rarely several) species of plants or animals. For example, in a wheat field, all pests and weeds are destroyed, only wheat is cultivated. This makes it possible to get best harvest. But at the same time, the destruction of organisms “unprofitable” for humans makes the ecosystem unstable.
Comparative characteristics of natural and artificial ecosystems
It is more convenient to present a comparison of natural ecosystems and socio-ecosystems in the form of a table:
|
natural ecosystems |
artificial ecosystems |
| The main component is solar energy. | Mainly gets energy from fuel and cooked food (heterotrophic) |
| Forms fertile soil | Depletes the soil |
| All natural ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. | Most artificial ecosystems consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. |
| Great species diversity | Limited number of species of organisms |
| High stability, ability to self-regulation and self-healing | Weak sustainability, as such an ecosystem depends on human activities |
| closed metabolism | Unclosed metabolic chain |
| Creates habitats for wild animals and plants | Destroys wildlife habitats |
| Accumulates water, using it wisely and purifying |
artificial ecosystem - it is an anthropogenic, man-made ecosystem. All the basic laws of nature are valid for it, but unlike natural ecosystems, it cannot be considered as open. Creation and observation of small artificial ecosystems allows obtaining extensive information about the possible state environment, due to large-scale human impacts on it. In order to produce agricultural products, a person creates an unstable, artificially created and regularly maintained agroecosystem (agrobiocenosis ) - fields, pastures, vegetable gardens, orchards, vineyards, etc.
Differences of agrocenoses from natural biocenoses: insignificant species diversity (agrocenosis consists of a small number of species with a high abundance); short supply chains; incomplete circulation of substances (part of the nutrients are taken out with the harvest); the source of energy is not only the Sun, but also human activities (reclamation, irrigation, fertilizer application); artificial selection (the effect of natural selection is weakened, selection is carried out by man); lack of self-regulation (regulation is carried out by a person), etc. Thus, agrocenoses are unstable systems and can exist only with the support of a person. As a rule, agroecosystems are characterized by high productivity compared to natural ecosystems.
Urban systems (urban systems) -- artificial systems (ecosystems) resulting from the development of cities, and representing the focus of the population, residential buildings, industrial, domestic, cultural facilities, etc.
The following territories can be distinguished in their composition: industrial zones , where industrial facilities of various sectors of the economy are concentrated and are the main sources of environmental pollution; residential areas (residential or sleeping areas) with residential buildings, administrative buildings, objects of everyday life, culture, etc.); recreational areas , intended for recreation of people (forest parks, recreation centers, etc.); transport systems and facilities , permeating the entire urban system (automobile and railways, metro, gas stations, garages, airfields, etc.). The existence of urban ecosystems is supported by agroecosystems and the energy of fossil fuels and the nuclear industry.
An ecosystem is a collection of living organisms that continuously exchange matter, information and energy with each other and the environment. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Its properties are described by the laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can change from one form to another, but it does not disappear or be created anew.
The second law of thermodynamics says: in any transformation of energy, part of it is lost in the form of heat, i.e. becomes unavailable to further use. The measure of the amount of energy that is not available for use, or otherwise the measure of the change in order that occurs during the degradation of energy, is entropy. The higher the order of the system, the lower its entropy.
Spontaneous processes lead the system to a state of equilibrium with the environment, to the growth of entropy, the production of positive energy. If a non-living system unbalanced with the environment is isolated, then all movement in it will soon stop, the system as a whole will die out and turn into an inert group of matter that is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment, that is, in a state with maximum entropy.
This is the most probable state for the system and it will not be able to get out of it spontaneously without external influences. So, for example, a red-hot frying pan, having cooled down, having dissipated heat, does not heat up itself; the energy was not lost, it heated the air, but the quality of the energy changed, it can no longer do work. Thus, in non-living systems their equilibrium state is stable.
Living systems have one fundamental difference from non-living systems - they perform constant work against balancing with the environment. In living systems, a stable non-equilibrium state. Life is the only natural spontaneous process on Earth in which entropy decreases. This is possible because all living systems are open to energy exchange.
There is a huge amount of free energy from the Sun in the environment, and the living system itself contains components that have mechanisms for capturing, concentrating and then dissipating this energy in the environment. The dissipation of energy, that is, the increase in entropy, is a process characteristic of any system, both inanimate and living, and self-capture and concentration of energy is the ability of only a living system. At the same time, order and organization are extracted from the environment, that is, the development of negative energy - non-entropy. This process of formation of order in the system from the chaos of the environment is called self-organization. It leads to a decrease in the entropy of a living system, counteracts its balancing with the environment.
Thus, any living system, including an ecosystem, maintains its vital activity due, firstly, to the presence of an excess of free energy in the environment; secondly, the ability to capture and concentrate this energy, and when used, to disperse states with low entropy into the environment.
They capture the energy of the Sun and convert it into potential energy of the organic matter of the plant - producers. The energy received in the form of solar radiation is converted into the energy of chemical bonds during photosynthesis.
The solar energy reaching the Earth is distributed as follows: 33% of it is reflected by clouds and dust of the atmosphere (this is the so-called albedo or Earth's reflection coefficient), 67% is absorbed by the atmosphere, the Earth's surface and the ocean. Of this amount of absorbed energy, only about 1% is spent on photosynthesis, and the rest of the energy, heating the atmosphere, land and ocean, is re-radiated into space in the form of thermal (infrared) radiation. This 1% of energy is enough to provide it with all the living matter of the planet.
The process of energy accumulation in the body of photosynthetics is associated with an increase in body weight. Ecosystem productivity is the rate at which producers absorb radiant energy through photosynthesis, producing organic matter that can be used as food. The mass of substances created by the photosynthetic producer is referred to as primary production, this is the biomass of plant tissues. Primary production is subdivided into two levels - gross and net production. Gross primary production is the total mass of gross organic matter created by a plant per unit time at a given rate of photosynthesis, including expenditure on respiration (part of the energy that is spent on vital processes; this leads to a decrease in biomass).
That part of the gross output that is not spent "for breathing" is called net primary production. Net primary production is a reserve, from which part is used as food by organisms - heterotrophs (consumers of the first order). The energy received by heterotrophs with food (the so-called great energy) corresponds to the energy cost of the total amount of food eaten. However, the efficiency of digestion of food never reaches 100% and depends on the composition of the feed, temperature, season and other factors.
Functional connections in the ecosystem, i.e. its trophic structure can be represented graphically, in the form ecological pyramids. The base of the pyramid is the level of producers, and the subsequent levels form the floors and the top of the pyramid. There are three main types of ecological pyramids.
The pyramid of numbers (Elton's pyramid) reflects the number of organisms at each level. This pyramid reflects a pattern - the number of individuals that make up a series of links from producers to consumers is steadily decreasing.
The biomass pyramid clearly indicates the amount of all living matter at a given trophic level. In terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass pyramid rule applies: the total mass of plants exceeds the mass of all herbivores, and their mass exceeds the entire biomass of predators. For the ocean, the biomass pyramid rule is invalid - the pyramid has an inverted view. The ocean ecosystem is characterized by the accumulation of biomass on high levels, in predators.
The pyramid of energy (production) reflects the expenditure of energy in trophic chains. Energy pyramid rule: at each previous trophic level, the amount of biomass created per unit of time (or energy) is greater than at the next.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Branch of the Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution
higher professional education
"Russian State Vocational Pedagogical University"
in Sovietsky
Department of Professional and Pedagogical Education
Test
by discipline
"Ecology"
Option number 17
Completed by: Kalinin A.N.
Checked by: Kryukova N. S.
Soviet 2011
Table of contents
Task number 1
3
Task number 2
8
Task number 3
12
LIST OF SOURCES USED
20
Task number 1: 18. The concept of an ecosystem (biogeocenosis). Structure and examples of ecosystems. Distinctive features of natural and artificial ecosystems.
Biogeocenosis is a system that includes a community of living organisms and a closely related set of abiotic environmental factors within the same territory, interconnected by the circulation of substances and the flow of energy. It is a sustainable self-regulating ecological system in which organic components (animals, plants) are inextricably linked with inorganic ones (water, soil). Examples: pine forest, mountain valley. The doctrine of biogeocenosis was developed by Vladimir Sukachev in 1940. In foreign literature - little used. Previously, it was also widely used in German scientific literature.A similar concept is an ecosystem - a system consisting of interconnected communities of organisms of different species and their habitat. Ecosystem is a broader concept referring to any such system. Biogeocenosis, in turn, is a class of ecosystems, an ecosystem that occupies a certain area of \u200b\u200bland and includes the main components of the environment - soil, subsoil, vegetation, and the surface layer of the atmosphere. Aquatic ecosystems are not biogeocenoses, most artificial ecosystems. Thus, every biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis. To characterize biogeocenosis, two close concepts are used: biotope and ecotope (factors of inanimate nature: climate, soil). A biotope is a set of abiotic factors within the territory occupied by a biogeocenosis. An ecotope is a biotope that is affected by organisms from other biogeocenoses. The content of the ecological term "biogeocenosis" is identical to the physical and geographical term facies.
Properties of biogeocenosis:
- natural, historical system
a system capable of self-regulation and maintaining its composition at a certain constant level
the circulation of substances
an open system for the input and output of energy, the main source of which is the Sun
- Species composition - the number of species living in biogeocenosis.
Species diversity - the number of species living in a biogeocenosis per unit area or volume.
- Biomass - the number of organisms of biogeocenosis, expressed in units of mass. Most often, biomass is divided into:
- producer biomass
- consumer biomass
decomposer biomass
Productivity
Sustainability
Ability to self-regulate
An ecosystem can be divided into two components - biotic and abiotic. Biotic is divided into autotrophic (organisms that receive primary energy for existence from photo- and chemosynthesis or producers) and heterotrophic (organisms that receive energy from the processes of oxidation of organic matter - consumers and decomposers) components that form the trophic structure of the ecosystem.
The only source of energy for the existence of an ecosystem and the maintenance of various processes in it are producers that absorb the energy of the sun (heat, chemical bonds) with an efficiency of 0.1 - 1%, rarely 3 - 4.5% of the initial amount. Autotrophs represent the first trophic level of an ecosystem. Subsequent trophic levels of the ecosystem are formed due to consumers (2nd, 3rd, 4th and subsequent levels) and are closed by decomposers that convert inanimate organic matter into a mineral form (abiotic component), which can be assimilated by an autotrophic element.
The main components of the ecosystem:
From the point of view of the structure in the ecosystem, there are:
- climate regime, which determines temperature, humidity, lighting regime and other physical characteristics of the environment;
inorganic substances included in the cycle;
organic compounds that link the biotic and abiotic parts in the cycle of matter and energy;
producers - organisms that create primary products;
macroconsumers, or phagotrophs, are heterotrophs that eat other organisms or large particles of organic matter;
microconsumers (saprotrophs) - heterotrophs, mainly fungi and bacteria, which destroy dead organic matter, mineralizing it, thereby returning it to the cycle;
- biophages - organisms that eat other living organisms,
saprophages - organisms that eat dead organic matter.
All these components are interconnected in space and time and form a single structural and functional system.
An example of an ecosystem is a pond with plants, fish, invertebrates, microorganisms that make up the living component of the system, a biocenosis living in it. A pond as an ecosystem is characterized by bottom sediments of a certain composition, chemical composition (ionic composition, concentration of dissolved gases) and physical parameters (water transparency, trend of annual temperature changes), as well as certain indicators of biological productivity, the trophic status of the reservoir and the specific conditions of this reservoir. Another example of an ecological system is a deciduous forest in central Russia with a certain composition of forest litter, soil characteristic of this type of forests and a stable plant community, and, as a result, with strictly defined microclimate indicators (temperature, humidity, light) and corresponding to such environmental conditions. complex of animal organisms.
Artificial ecosystems are ecosystems created by man, for example, agrocenoses, natural economic systems or the Biosphere.
Artificial ecosystems have the same set of components as natural ones: producers, consumers and decomposers, but there are significant differences in the redistribution of matter and energy flows. In particular, human-created ecosystems differ from natural ones in the following ways:
- a smaller number of species and the predominance of organisms of one or more species (low evenness of species);
low stability and strong dependence on the energy introduced into the system by a person;
short food chains due to the small number of species;
open circulation of substances due to the removal of the crop (community products) by man, while natural processes on the contrary, they strive to include in the cycle as much of the crop as possible.
Task number 2: 61. The concept of "natural resources". Classification of natural resources according to their exhaustibility and renewability. conditionality of such a classification.
Natural resources is one of the most commonly used concepts in the literature. In the Concise Geographical Encyclopedia, this term refers to “...elements of nature used in the national economy, which are the means of existence of human society: soil cover, useful wild plants, animals, minerals, water (for water supply, irrigation, industry, energy, transport ), favorable climatic conditions (mainly heat and moisture), wind energy”.Natural resources - spatio-temporal category; their volume is different in different regions of the globe and at different stages of the socio-economic development of society. Bodies and phenomena of nature act as a certain resource in the event that they are needed. But the needs, in turn, appear and expand as the technical possibilities for the development of natural resources develop.
When taking into account the reserves of natural resources and the volumes of their possible economic withdrawal, they use the concept of the depletion of reserves. A. Mints proposed to call the classification according to this criterion ecological. All natural resources are depleted into two groups: exhaustible and inexhaustible.
1. Exhaustible resources. They are formed in the earth's crust or landscape sphere, but the volumes and rates of their formation are measured on the geological time scale. At the same time, the need for such resources on the part of production or for the organization of favorable living conditions for human society significantly exceeds the volumes and rates of natural replenishment. As a result, depletion of natural resource reserves inevitably occurs. The exhaustible group includes resources with different rates and volumes of formation. This allows them to be further differentiated. Based on the intensity and speed of natural formation, resources are divided into subgroups:
1. Non-renewable, which include:
a) all types of mineral resources or minerals. As is known, they are constantly formed in the bowels of the earth's crust as a result of a continuously ongoing process of ore formation, but the scale of their accumulation is so insignificant, and the formation rates are measured in many tens and hundreds of millions of years (for example, the age of coal is more than 350 million years), which is practically they cannot be taken into account in economic calculations. The development of mineral raw materials takes place on a historical time scale and is characterized by ever-increasing volumes of withdrawal. In this regard, all mineral resources are considered as not only exhaustible, but also non-renewable.
b) Land resources in their natural form are the material basis on which the life of human society takes place. The morphological structure of the surface (i.e., relief) significantly affects economic activity and the possibility of developing the territory. Once disturbed lands (for example, by quarries) during large-scale industrial or civil construction, they are no longer restored in their natural form.
2. Renewable resources to which belong:
a) plant resources and
b) the animal world.
Both of them are restored quite quickly, and the volumes of natural renewal are well and accurately calculated. Therefore, when organizing the economic use of accumulated timber reserves in forests, herbage in meadows or pastures, and hunting for wild animals within the limits not exceeding the annual renewal, it is possible to completely avoid the depletion of resources.
3. Relatively renewable. Although some resources are restored in historical periods of time, their renewable volumes are much less than the volumes of economic consumption. That is why these types of resources are very vulnerable and require particularly careful human control. Relatively renewable resources also include very scarce natural resources:
a) productive arable soils;
b) forests with stands of mature age;
c) water resources in the regional aspect.
The fact of the practical inexhaustibility of water resources on a planetary scale is well known. However, fresh water reserves are unevenly concentrated on the surface of the land, and there is a shortage of water suitable for use in water management systems over vast areas. Arid and subarid areas are particularly affected by water shortages, where irrational water consumption (for example, water withdrawal in excess of the amount of natural replenishment of free water) is accompanied by a rapid and often catastrophic depletion of water resources. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately record the amount of allowable withdrawal of water resources by region.
2 Inexhaustible resources. Among the bodies and natural phenomena of resource significance, there are those that are practically inexhaustible. These include climatic and water resources.
A) climatic resources. The most stringent climate requirements are imposed by agriculture, recreational and forestry, industrial and civil construction, etc. Usually, climate resources are understood as the reserves of heat and moisture that a particular area or region has. Since these resources are formed in certain links of the thermal and water cycles, constantly operating over the planet as a whole and over its individual regions, the reserves of heat and moisture can be considered as inexhaustible within certain quantitative limits, precisely established for each region.
B) Water resources of the planet. The earth has a colossal volume of water - about 1.5 billion cubic meters. km. However, 98% of this volume is made up of salty waters of the World Ocean, and only 28 million cubic meters. km - fresh water. Since technologies for desalination of salty sea waters are already known, the waters of the World Ocean and salt lakes can be considered as potential water resources, the use of which is quite possible in the future. Subject to the principles of rational water use, these resources can be considered as inexhaustible. However, if these principles are violated, the situation can sharply worsen, and even on a planetary scale, there may be a shortage of clean fresh water. In the meantime, the natural environment annually "gives" humanity 10 times more water than it needs to meet a wide variety of needs.
Any classification of natural resources today is rather conditional, because at each stage of the knowledge of environmental laws they will change taking into account the possibilities of scientific and technological progress and socio-economic development.
Task number 3: 81. Objects and subjects of environmental law. Environmental harm. Legal liability for environmental offenses.
According to Art. 9 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, land and other natural resources are used and protected in the Russian Federation as the basis of life and activity of the peoples living in the respective territory. The state guarantees the protection of the environmental rights of man and citizen. Consequently, one of the participants in environmental legal relations (subject) is the state represented by its competent authority.Another subject of environmental relations is a legal entity or an individual acting on the natural environment for the purpose of its consumption, use, reproduction or protection. These entities include citizens, including foreign ones, and business entities.
Economic entities are understood as enterprises, institutions, organizations that affect the natural environment, as well as citizens engaged in entrepreneurial activities, or citizens engaged in general or special nature management.
In relation to environmental legal relations, state bodies act as holders of authority for management and control in the field of environmental protection. They determine the procedure and conditions for the use and protection of the natural environment, its individual objects.
Business entities, citizens, including foreign legal entities and individuals, are required to comply with environmental regulations.
The objects of environmental legal relations are the objects of environmental protection from pollution, depletion, degradation, damage, destruction and other negative impacts of economic and other activities. Such objects include: lands, bowels, soils; superficial and The groundwater; forests and other vegetation, animals and other organisms and their genetic fund; atmospheric air, the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth space.
As a matter of priority, natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes that have not been subjected to anthropogenic impact are subject to protection.
The nature of the object of legal relations, its features determine the rights and obligations that are vested in the subject of legal relations. In the presence of, say, such an object of legal relations as nature reserves, prohibitive norms prevail in the composition of legal relations; in the economic use of land, priority is given to preventive, permissive measures.
Speaking about the concept of environmental harm, it should be borne in mind that the object of encroachment in this case is the stability of the environment and natural resource potential, as well as the right of everyone guaranteed by Article 42 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation to a favorable environment.
The consequences of violating the rules of environmental protection in the course of work (Article 246 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) should be understood as a significant deterioration in the quality of the environment or the state of its objects, the elimination of which requires a long time and large financial and material costs; destruction of individual objects; land degradation and other negative changes in the environment that impede its conservation and lawful use.
Significant environmental damage is characterized by the occurrence of diseases and the death of aquatic animals and plants, other animals and vegetation on the banks of water bodies, the destruction of fish stocks, spawning and feeding areas; mass death of birds and animals, including aquatic ones, in a certain area, in which the mortality rate exceeds the average by three or more times; the ecological value of the damaged territory or the lost natural object, the destroyed animals and trees and shrubs; a change in the radioactive background to values that pose a danger to human health and life, the genetic fund of animals and plants; the level of land degradation, etc.
The creation of a threat of causing significant harm to human health or the environment (part 1 of article 247 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) implies the occurrence of such a situation or such circumstances that would entail harmful consequences provided for by law, if they were not interrupted by timely measures taken or other circumstances beyond the control of from the will of the harmer.
In this case, the threat implies the presence of a specific danger of actual harm to human health or the environment.
Violation of legal environmental requirements entails the application of legal liability measures.
Legal liability is understood as a system of coercive measures applied to violators of environmental legislation in order to punish the perpetrators, suppress and prevent offenses, and restore violated rights. One of the properties of legal responsibility is that it has a state coercive character, expressed in the right of the state to impose on the relevant subjects the obligation to bear adverse consequences. Adverse consequences of a personal, property, organizational and other nature are called sanctions. The most common sanctions provided for committing environmental offenses are administrative and criminal fines, seizure of tools of illegal activity and illegally obtained products, imposition of the obligation to compensate for the damage caused.
Legal liability for environmental offenses occurs if there are legal and factual grounds, which include:
- a rule that prohibits behavior or action, or a rule that obliges one or another action to be taken;
- the fact of non-compliance with the requirements of the law, i.e. existence of an offense;
- causal relationship between the committed action and the resulting consequences.
Environmental offenses are actions or omissions that intentionally or recklessly violate the norms of environmental law. An action or inaction is recognized as an environmental offense if it is environmentally significant. Environmentally significant behavior means the mandatory use of natural objects that are the subject of encroachment, and the focus on such a change in the state of the environment that is prohibited by law. Thus, an environmental offense differs from other offenses in that the subject of the encroachment of actions or inactions prohibited by law is the environment or its individual components in their legal sense.
For the commission of environmental offenses, the application of measures of criminal, administrative, civil and disciplinary liability is envisaged. Legal regulation in the field of criminal and civil liability, in accordance with Art. 71 of the Constitution of Russia, is within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. Accordingly, at the level of the subjects of the Russian Federation, laws or other regulatory legal acts establishing these measures of responsibility for environmental offenses cannot be adopted. At the same time, in accordance with Art. 72 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, administrative legislation is the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Criminal liability for environmental crime is provided for by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. In ch. 26 of this Code "Ecological crimes", 17 elements of criminal offenses are defined. These include illegal harvesting of aquatic animals and plants, illegal hunting, violation of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone, violation of the rules for the protection and use of subsoil, illegal forest management, destruction or damage to forests, pollution of water bodies and atmospheric air, sea pollution harmful substances, violation of the regime of specially protected natural areas and natural objects, violation of the rules for handling environmentally hazardous substances and waste, etc.
Penal sanctions, deprivation of the right to occupy certain positions or the right to engage in certain activities, deprivation or restriction of liberty are applied for the commission of criminal offenses. Criminal fines are calculated in multiples of the minimum wage and range from 50 to 700 times the minimum wage. The subjects of criminal liability can only be individuals - citizens and officials, whose criminal liability may be different for the same offense. A criminal fine in the amount of 500 to 700 times the minimum wage is provided for illegal hunting with aggravating circumstances using one's official position. The most severe punishment in the form of 8 years in prison is set for the deliberate destruction or damage of forests by arson, violation of the rules with environmentally hazardous substances, which negligently caused the death of a person or mass disease of people. In appropriate cases, along with fines, confiscation of illegally obtained and instruments of environmental crime is carried out. The application of criminal liability measures does not relieve the offender from the obligation to compensate for the environmental damage caused to citizens, organizations, the state
Criminal sanctions are applied by a court decision, which is preceded by investigative actions by law enforcement agencies.
Administrative responsibility for environmental offenses is applied for the commission of unlawful acts, which, in comparison with a criminal offense, are characterized by a lesser degree of public danger. Measures of administrative responsibility are applied by specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection, sanitary and epidemiological supervision bodies, administrative commissions on the basis of decisions to impose a fine. Decisions on the imposition of an administrative fine may be appealed to the court.
One of the most common penalties applied to citizens, officials or organizations for environmental offenses is a fine based on the officially established minimum wage. The payment of a fine does not release the perpetrators from the obligation to compensate for the harm caused by the offense.
A feature of the legal regulation of administrative liability for environmental offenses is that administrative liability is established by several federal laws - the Law "On Environmental Protection", the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, the Land Code, the Law "On Specially Protected Natural Territories", etc.
etc.................
Ecosystems are one of key concepts ecology, which is a system that includes several components: a community of animals, plants and microorganisms, a characteristic habitat, a whole system of relationships through which the interchange of substances and energies is carried out. In science, there are several classifications of ecosystems. One of them divides all known ecosystems into two large classes: natural, created by nature, and artificial, those created by man.
natural ecosystems They are characterized by: A close relationship between organic and inorganic substances A complete, vicious circle of the circulation of substances: starting from the appearance of organic matter and ending with its decay and decomposition into inorganic components. Resilience and ability to self-heal.
All natural ecosystems are determined by the following features: 1. Species structure: the number of each species of animal or plant is regulated by natural conditions. 2. Spatial structure: all organisms are arranged in a strict horizontal or vertical hierarchy. 3. Biotic and abiotic substances. The organisms that make up an ecosystem are divided into inorganic (abiotic: light, air, soil, wind, moisture, pressure) and organic (biotic animals, plants). 4. In turn, the biotic component is divided into producers, consumers and destroyers.
Artificial Ecosystems Artificial ecosystems are communities of animals and plants that live in conditions created for them by humans. They are also called noobiogeocenoses or socioecosystems. Examples: field, pasture, city, society, spaceship, zoo, garden, artificial pond, reservoir.
Comparative characteristics natural and artificial ecosystems Natural ecosystems Artificial ecosystems The main component of solar energy. It mainly receives energy from fuel and cooked food (heterotrophic) Forms fertile soil Depletes soil All natural ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen Most artificial ecosystems consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide High species diversity Limited number of organism species High resilience, ability to self-regulate and self-repair Poor resilience, as such an ecosystem depends on human activity Closed metabolism Unclosed metabolic chain Creates habitats for wild animals and plants Destroys wildlife habitats
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