Economic sphere. productive forces

The technological process of production of any product includes three main elements: the object of labor, the means of labor and labor,

Items of labor. Under the objects of labor is understood the totality of forces, substances and objects of nature, on which people act in the course of their production activities; are the natural basis of material production, one of the necessary material conditions of human life.

The “Object of Labor” element combines raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, fuel, etc.

Raw materials are one of the most important elements of production, affecting the technology and product quality. The success and economy of the industry depends on the provision and quality of raw materials.

A raw material is an object of labor that has undergone a change in the process of its extraction or production. Thus, viscose fiber obtained from wood is a raw material for the textile industry; iron ore, mined from the bowels of the earth, is a raw material for the metallurgical industry, etc. Depending on the origin, raw materials are divided into natural and artificial.

Natural raw materials are divided into organic and mineral. The organic includes wool, flax, cotton, wood, etc. The mineral includes iron ore, chalk, asbestos, etc.

Artificial raw materials are characterized by the fact that they are obtained mainly by chemical means from different types natural materials. This type of raw material includes chemical fibers, synthetic rubbers, soda, etc. Artificial raw materials are divided into organic and mineral, organic materials include: viscose, acetate fiber, etc., mineral - silicate, metal fibers, and other materials.

Depending on the participation in the manufacture of products, raw materials and materials are divided into basic and auxiliary. The main ones also include objects of labor, which form the material basis of products. Thus, iron ore forms the basis of iron smelting, textile fibers - the production of fabrics, metal - the manufacture of machines, machine tools, wood - the production of furniture.

Auxiliary items include such objects of labor that do not constitute the material basis of the products produced, but give them qualitative properties, ensure the operation of equipment and the normal course of the technological process. For example, dyes give fabrics a certain color; fuel, lubricating oils, catalysts ensure the operation of equipment, the normal flow or acceleration of the process.

A semi-finished product is a product whose manufacture is completed at one production site, and it is at the stage of transition to another site.

Fuel and energy. In the process of production, a person uses not only various substances but also energy. Processing parts on machine tools, melting and heating, electrolysis and other processes are unthinkable without the use of energy and fuel. Previously, it was the muscular energy of a person, then they began to use more advanced energy - hydraulic, thermal, mechanical, intra-atomic, etc. They use electricity, fuel, water vapor, compressed air, gases. Raw materials, as one of the main elements of the production process, have an ever-increasing influence on industrial production and its economy. The economic efficiency of social production largely depends on the range and quality of raw materials.

The economic performance of industrial enterprises is largely determined by the level of raw materials and fuel costs for production finished products. This is due to the fact that in all sectors of the manufacturing industry, the cost of raw materials and fuel make up the largest part of production costs.

Preparation of mineral raw materials for processing. Any mineral mined from the bowels of the earth, except for the useful mineral part, always contains a certain amount of low-value or useless, and sometimes harmful impurities for this production.

Therefore, at present, not a single type of raw material is processed without preliminary preparation or enrichment.

Enrichment means a series technological processes primary processing of mineral raw materials, with the aim of separating useful minerals from impurities that are not of practical value under these conditions.

The enrichment task is also to create conditions that allow efficient consumption of minerals in the relevant industries.

The enrichment process includes the following stages: crushing, sorting and enrichment.

Crushing is carried out in order to obtain a certain piece size. For crushing, various crushing machines are used - neck, roller, cone, hammer, drum, etc. After crushing, the raw material is sorted to separate it into grades according to the size of the piece. For sorting, sorting devices of various designs are used.

Methods of mineral processing are based mainly on the use of the physical and physico-mechanical properties of minerals - specific gravity, size, friction coefficient, shape, color, magnetic permeability, wettability and some other properties.

Enrichment based on the difference in the specific gravity of valuable components and waste rock is called gravity.

The process of magnetic enrichment is based on the difference in the magnetic properties of minerals. Grains of minerals with high magnetic susceptibility are easily deflected or stick to a magnet in a magnetic field, while non-magnetic grains pass freely through a magnetic field.

The method of flotation enrichment is based on the use of physical and chemical properties of minerals according to the principle of their wettability by a liquid.

Ways to reduce the consumption of raw materials and materials. The type of feedstock determines the nature of the technological process and its modes, affects the yield, quality and cost of finished products and a number of other production indicators. Properly selected raw materials (materials) should be available (not scarce) and cheap, not require processing high costs labor, time, energy, provide best use equipment and the highest yield of high quality product. For example, the replacement of ethyl alcohol with petroleum gas not only changes the technology for the production of synthetic rubber, but also reduces its cost by a factor of three; one ton of plastics replaces on average about three tons of non-ferrous metals.

With the development of technology and the growth of labor productivity, the share of the cost of raw materials, materials, in the cost industrial products is continuously increasing. Therefore, the economical and rational use of raw materials is of great importance, especially for material-intensive technological processes.

With the current scale of production, the savings in raw materials and materials turn into large additional reserves.

Savings in materials usually manifest themselves in the form of a decrease in consumption rates, i.e. processing allowances are reduced, the shape of the blanks approaches the configuration of the finished product, and therefore, less time is spent on manufacturing products.

Saving materials reduces the need for them from consumers. This leads to a reduction in labor costs in enterprises that produce source materials to reduce transportation costs.

Other ways to reduce the material consumption of products are:

a) improvement of product designs;

b) improvement of technological processes;

c) rationalization of planning and organization of production;

d) all-round strengthening of labor discipline;

e) liquidation of marriage;

f) reducing the weight of machines through the use of more economical materials, welded-cast and welded-stamped structures, rational rolled profiles, replacement of cast blanks with forged ones, steel with ductile iron, non-ferrous metals with plastics and wood with plastics.

Tools. To perform any technological process, a person creates and uses various means production, among which the tools of labor (machines, machine tools, apparatus, etc.) play a decisive role.

The development and improvement of technological processes is associated primarily with changes in technology.

Technique is a set of artificially created tools of labor, human activity, and, above all, tools for influencing environment in order to produce the necessary material goods.

The nature of technology has changed and is changing in the course of historical development production. From simple primitive stone and wooden tools of primitive society, man came to modern machines, automatic lines, workshops and automatic factories, space rockets and ships.

Depending on the purpose and natural-material characteristics, tools and means of labor are divided into groups.

Buildings belong to that part of the means of labor that does not directly participate in the production process, but contributes to its normal implementation. The group of industrial buildings includes the buildings of the main and auxiliary workshops, laboratories, as well as all the premises directly serving production (offices, warehouses, garages, depots).

Structures are a variety of engineering and construction objects (mines, overpasses, dams, water intakes, treatment facilities, bunkers, tanks, etc. devices) necessary for production.

Power plants are power equipment designed for the production or processing (conversion) of energy. This group includes a variety of engines, steam engines, turbines, electric generators, compressors, electric transformers, rectifiers, etc.

Working machines and equipment are tools intended for technological purposes. These include melting and heating furnaces, various machine tools, presses, mills, filters, autoclaves, etc., as well as machines and mechanisms for moving objects of labor in the production process (transformers, conveyors, cranes, roller tables, etc.). According to the method of influencing the subject of labor, machines and equipment are divided into mechanical, thermal, hydraulic, chemical, electrical. Working machines and equipment - essential elements fixed assets that determine the production capacity of an industrial enterprise. The equipment is universal and special. The first can be used for work of a different nature, the second - only to perform certain operations.

Transmission devices are designed to transfer electrical, thermal and mechanical energy from the engine machine to the working machines. These are power lines, air - and steam pipelines, gas and water distribution networks, etc.

Vehicles include vehicles such as electric cars, cars, locomotives, wagons and other inter-shop and intra-shop transport vehicles.

The group of laboratory equipment is a variety of means of control and testing, as well as measuring, regulating, counting devices and instruments.

The last group includes a variety of tools, fixtures ( technological equipment, production, household and other inventory).

Labor in technological processes. When performing each technological process or part of it, one or another amount of labor of a worker of the appropriate qualification is expended. All labor, considered as an expenditure of the worker's physical strength, as the work of the brain and nerves, is the basis of all production.

Labor costs are measured by its duration - the time during which it is carried out. This time according to the nature of use is divided into different kinds.

Labor is the process during which a person transforms the actual reality in order to obtain various benefits and satisfy needs, both material and ideal. Labor as a kind of human activity is a conscious manipulation and a conscious impact on objects, phenomena and information about the surrounding reality.

Labor as an object of academic study

Labor is the object of study in several areas of philosophy, sociology, psychology and economics. As a kind of human activity, labor is of great value both for the individual and for society.

A distinctive feature of the labor process is its focus on results. The goal is always a product, that is, a material or ideal good necessary to meet the needs of an individual, a group of people or society as a whole.

During labor activity, a person forms his attitude to reality and creates a place for himself in the real objective world. Not surprisingly, this activity has a number of complex constituent features and complex characteristics. There are two sides of the labor process: objective and subjective. The objective side, in turn, consists of the subject, conditions, tasks and results of labor. Also, labor activity is divided into types depending on a number of various characteristics and approaches.

Parties to the process

In any kind of labor activity, there are two components of the parties, which are called the object of labor and its subject.

The objective side does not depend on the individual and is the social norm of the process, which includes an established and clearly defined structure and composition of activity. The object of labor is the normative characteristics, the number and structure of operations required in a particular profession.

The subjective side of labor is called its psychogram, that is, the psychological edge, which largely depends on the personal qualities of a person and his attitude to the object of activity. The subject is a set of human qualities necessary for the individual to successfully implement the labor process. Characteristics such as aptitude, creativity, resistance to stress, ambition and motivation constitute the subjective side of the process and are not only prerequisites for successful labor activity, but also as a direct result of it.

The objective composition of labor

Any type of labor activity is determined by a number of rules, regulations and requirements - all this is an objective composition of labor. In simple words, these are answers to the questions: “What to do?”, “How?”, “From what?”, “With the help of what?”, “For what?” and a number of others.

The object and the subject of labor are often perceived as synonyms, but the concept of the object is much broader and includes a number of characteristics. They may differ depending on the profession and type of activity.

The objective composition of the labor process includes the following components:

• activity tasks;
• conditions;
• necessary actions;
• means and tools;
• process result.

Subject area of ​​the concept

Like any other academic discipline, in the process of studying and structuring work, a number of similar terms arise. In the process of academization of labor activity, such concepts as “object” and “objective side” or “subject” and “subject area” are often confused.

The subject of labor is any material object, phenomenon, idea or information that is under the influence of human activity in order to transform and turn them into good.

Some academic sources consider the term synonymous with "subject area", which is, in fact, an incorrect assumption. Just as in the case of the objective side, the subject area is a much broader concept. It covers a wide range of characteristics that represent the entire professional experience and its components, and not just the means and objects of labor.

As in the case of an object that is simple concept, which is part of a more complex and complex, the subject area includes the subject, means, as well as the objective and emotional side of the process. At the same time, the subject of labor is the material or ideological basis of the finished product. In fact, this is what the end result is made of.

illustrative sample

For example, the subject of work of an academician is existing information, which he transforms into new knowledge. New knowledge is an intangible good, in fact, it is an achieved ideal product. They can be perceived by other academics as existing information, in turn, turning into a new subject. In this case, the result of labor activity, which later acts as an object of labor, is called raw material.

Depending on the type of professional activity, the categories that determine the labor process can differ dramatically. For example, the subject of managerial work is the activity of the team as a whole and each person who is part of it.

Separation of types of labor activity

Species differ based on certain characteristics.

1. According to the method of attracting a person to labor activity, the types there are divided into voluntary, forced and forced.
2. According to the content of activity, labor is divided into simple and complex, reproductive and creative (creative), special (a set of functions) and professional, mental and physical.
3. By the nature of the activity, such types are distinguished as individual and collective, private and public, hired and work “for oneself”.
4. According to the conditions, the following types are distinguished: free and formal, light and heavy, stationary and mobile.
5. According to the use of means and tools, labor activity can be manual, mechanized and automated.
6. Focusing on the result of labor activity, material and non-material types of labor are distinguished; they are also called production and non-production.
7. By the time the activity is performed and the result is obtained, labor can be present and past.

Almost every person is capable of various types of labor activity - from the simple production of material products to creative self-realization in the creation of ideal goods. Each type of activity, regardless of complexity and results, is a source of self-education, social and personal experience and development.

The structure of the object of labor includes the subject, means, conditions, goals of labor, etc.

The subject of labor- a system of properties and relationships of things, phenomena, processes, which a person carrying out a given labor activity must mentally or practically operate.

Purpose of labor- the result that society requires or expects from a person.

Goals of professional work

“The purpose of labor is a conscious image of the final result, to which a person strives in the process of his expedient activity. In other words, we can say that the purpose of labor is an idea of ​​the desired future.

The desire to achieve the set goal directs the action, determines the choice of possible ways to achieve it, and encourages the search for new actions. The goal is formed in the mind of a person as answers to the questions "What should I do?", "What should I succeed?", "What should I avoid?", "What actions should I take to get the desired result?"

During work, the consciousness of a person is always filled with acts of assessing the situation, comparing the real course of affairs with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat should happen.

The goals of labor activity are infinitely diverse; they can be reduced to six large groups: gnostic (cognitive), transformative (four groups), exploratory.

Working conditions- features of the environment in which human work takes place, their main types (manual, mechanized; machine-manual; automated and automatic; human functional means as tools of labor).

Working conditions

One of the most important and most multifaceted psychological features of labor is its conditions. The following types of working conditions are distinguished: 1) ordinary microclimatic: a) indoors - domestic, b) on outdoors; 2) unusual, causing psychophysiological tension: a) risk to life, b) complex emergencies requiring quick necessary actions, c) communication with offenders, the mentally ill and persons with various deviations and defects, d) a clearly defined rhythm and pace, e) physical exercise, f) long stay in one position (static working posture), g) night shifts, h) specific conditions (temperature, humidity, chemical hazards, vibration, noise, height, depth).

Means of labor in professional activities

“Means of labor are a necessary component of the labor process. Under the means of labor understand the tools with which a person acts on the object of labor. The means of labor act as a kind of continuation of the natural human organs used in the labor process. Among the tools of labor there are not only things, but also something immaterial - speech, behavior, etc.

Tools of labor are very diverse. Despite this, they are all divided into two groups: real and non-real.

Real tools of labor. Material tools include: manual and mechanized tools; machines (mechanisms), automatic devices, automated means; devices, measuring devices.

Hand tools. The very name "hand tools" comes from the main organ of labor - the human hand. Hand tools have always been and remain in labor as long as a person is alive and able to work. At any level of technological progress, equipment will need to be assembled and assembled by skillful hands.

They include simple manual, mechanized processing tools and fixtures. Simple hand tools are: a screwdriver, a scalpel (surgical knife), a graver (a tool for engraving on wood or metal), a bush hammer (one of the tools of stone carvers), trimming (a kind of paint brush), file, chisel, hammer, etc.

Machine tools. Technical devices, completely or partially replacing a person in terms of the methods of converting materials, the distribution of energy or information, are called machines (mechanisms).

Automated means of labor. These are such means that, being set in motion, perform a certain work without human intervention, i.e. at certain stages of the labor process, they completely replace a person, automatically managing the production process. A person only observes the operation of the equipment and controls its correctness and quality. Automatic means of labor include: automatic machines, semi-automatic machines, automatic lines, robotic complexes, devices for performing long-term continuous hidden processes, including technological ones, proceeding at great speed.

Instruments and devices. This is a separate group of means of labor. They are designed to enhance the cognitive functions of a person at work. Most of them are imaging devices: microscopes, binoculars, telescopes, aerial cameras (for topographic surveys of the earth's surface), X-ray machines, flaw detectors, closed-circuit television systems for video monitoring of technological processes occurring in conditions inaccessible to humans (under water, in space, v aggressive environments etc.). There are devices that provide information in the form of conditional signals, numbers, letters, light and sound indicators: chronometers, stopwatches, thermometers, pulse counters, various electrical measuring instruments (ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter, avometer, wattmeter), calipers, micrometers, etc. a separate subgroup is allocated to technical means of speech transmission (information, orders, commands): telephones, megaphones, emergency light scales, alarm bells, video telephones, television systems, musical instruments. Recently, information processing devices have become widespread: computers, automatic reference installations, recalculation tables, printing, reading, recording and transmitting devices.

Non-material (functional) tools of labor. Intangible means are usually called functional. The fact is that these means of labor are associated with the manifestation of human functions, such as speech, gestures, facial expressions. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that you cannot touch these means of labor with your hands and you cannot see with your eyes, which usually causes great difficulties in the analysis of the profession. Yes, and their awareness is associated with the assimilation of many new psychological concepts: sensory, kinesthetic, somatic, verbal, etc.

Functional tools of labor are mentally held ideas about the samples of the results of labor or a system of "sensory standards". They can be external in relation to consciousness and internal, entering consciousness and held in memory.

These tools of labor are quite diverse, which is due to the richness of the colors of the inner world of a person, manifested in behavior, facial expressions, gestures, speech, etc. They make up large group, which includes: 1) internal, functional sense organs, physiological organs of a person; 2) simple speech; 3) speech is emotional, expressive; 4) business, written speech; 5) behavior in simple forms manifestations - at the level of the whole organism as a whole; 7) behavior is predominantly business-like, impartial; 8) complex intellectual tools used to solve practical and theoretical problems.

different people; patience." EN object of labor DE Arbeitsgegenstand FR objet du travailproduit du travail … Technical Translator's Handbook

SUBJECT OF LABOR- this is a system of interrelated features, properties of things, processes, phenomena, functions of both material and non-material order. In order to realize his own professional activity, a specialist must change, transform the subject ... ... Dictionary of Career Guidance and Psychological Support

SUBJECT OF LABOR- what a person influences in the process of labor with the help of means of production (Bulgarian; Bulgarian) subject to labor (Czech; Čeština) pracovní předmět ( German; Deutsch) Arbeitsgegenstand (Hungarian; Magyar) munka… … Construction dictionary

The subject of labor- substances, things that a person affects in the process of labor ... Terminological dictionary of a librarian on socio-economic topics

The subject of labor- what the activity of the subject is aimed at, it should be distinguished from the means of labor ...

The subject of labor- see Art. Means of production … Great Soviet Encyclopedia

The subject of labor- what is the purpose of human labor ... A concise dictionary of basic forestry and economic terms

thing- 01.01.56 item [item (3)]: A single physical object or a specific set of objects that exist separately. A source … Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

thing- a, m. 1) Any concrete material phenomenon, perceived as something that exists separately. Unfamiliar subject. Household item. Essential items. Whatever was needed, they usually said: You need to ask Natalya ... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

Thing- what the monkey took in hand to become a man. True, scientists have shown that many animals use objects as tools, but do not become people. According to the subject it is the same as the thing separate part,… … Theoretical aspects and foundations of the ecological problem: interpreter of words and idiomatic expressions

Books

• The subject of labor law in Russia, A. V. Kuzmenko. The author of this work is Alexander Valentinovich Kuzmenko, candidate legal sciences. Since 1999, she has been working at the Department of Labor Law and Labor Protection of the Faculty of Law of St. Petersburg ... Buy for 164 rubles electronic book
• , . The rules for labor protection when working with tools and devices are approved by order of the Ministry of Labor and social protection Russian Federation dated August 17, 2015 No. 552 n and ... Buy for 107 rubles
• Rules for labor protection when working with tools and devices. Vulture of the Ministry of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation,. The rules for labor protection when working with tools and devices were approved by order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Russian Federation dated August 17, 2015 552 n and ...