Similarity associations. Association

2.8. Nikolai Vyacheslavovich Krushevsky (1851–1887). Language is an approximate “substitute for thought”. Associations of words by similarity and adjacency

N. V. Krushevsky (Nikolai Khabdank) is a representative of the Kazan Linguistic School. Lived a short but vibrant life. His few works on linguistics ("On Analogy and Folk Etymology" 1879, "Essay on the Science of Language" 1883, etc.) had a huge impact on the development of linguistics in the 20th century. Graduate of Warsaw University. According to the memoirs of B. de Courtenay, while studying at the university, N. Krushevsky underwent thorough training in the field of logic, psychology and philosophy. Later, "he got a taste for linguistics", wrote a Ph.D. thesis on "Conspiracies as a type of Russian folk poetry."

There are numerous memories of N. Krushevsky, testifying to his talent and the high significance of his linguistic works. Here are some excerpts from them:

Bogoroditsky V.A.: “N. V. Krushevsky always knew how to emphasize this or that important idea, dwell on it and develop it to logical consequences. All of his writings show a tendency to generalize. But these generalizations were not the product of fantasy or illusion.

Bulich S. K.: “The scientific merit of K. lies in the independent development of this (neo-grammatical) direction in our country and familiarization of Russian scientists with its most important results.”

Yakobson R.O.: “Through the Geneva ‘Cours’, the fundamental idea of ​​the ‘Essay’ about two linguistic axes, syntagmatic and, as they say today, paradigmatic, has firmly entered modern international linguistics. This dichotomy, as well as a number of other ideas of Krushevsky, was also used by Baudouin in his later works ... but it should be noted that Krushevsky's concept in this regard is incomparably more systematic, consistent and broader than that of Baudouin and Saussure.

Main works:

Observations on some phonetic phenomena associated with accentuation, 1879;

Linguistic notes, 1880;

To the question of guna. Research in the field of Old Slavonic vocalism, 1881;

Essay on the Science of Language, 1883;

Sources:

Krushevsky NV Selected works on linguistics. Comp. F. M. Berezin. - M., 1998. - 296 p.

Basic philosophical and linguistic views:

1. Comparison of languages ​​and the establishment of their genetic relationship leads to unreliable results.

The axiom, according to which everything similar in languages ​​is inherited from the parent language, and dissimilar is the result of subsequent development, is false.

It turns out that "sound laws do not have the fatal force" that is attributed to them.

The "development of language" as a question of linguistics, however, is not removed from the agenda, but its solution has a different focus. It is supposed to trace the promising, progressive development of the language - to go from some of its historical state, fixed in written sources, before it state of the art accessible to our senses.

2. Linguistics moves from the analysis of dead languages ​​to the analysis of living languages. This direction should be based on the method of deduction.

In accordance with the new interests of linguistics, there is a need for a critical assessment of the existing comparative grammar and the goal is to determine the ways of analyzing languages. regardless of their history.

Via deductive method it is supposed to analyze general problems "concerning language in general". It is necessary to understand the nature of the language in general, and not the features of the general historical past of each language separately. “The subject of linguistics is language, i.e. words and sentences. Her task is to explore natural process development of the language, i.e., to reveal the laws according to which it develops from the formal and functional side.

3. From the formal and functional side, words and sentences should be studied as substitutes for thought. The cause of language change is the ratio of approximate substitutes to vague thoughts.

The two basic units of language, the word and the sentence, are defined as " substitutes for thoughts". Substitutes are available directly to our senses. Thoughts hidden behind verbal and sentence substitutes cannot be directly perceived through the senses. The sign function of substitutes is to replace mental concepts. N. V. Krushevsky considers the ability of language to change to be the result of a collision of approximate substitutes with indefinite thoughts or ideas. Approximate substitutes in a semiotic act correspond to a “group of thoughts” that is not strictly defined quantitatively and qualitatively. The author suggests talking about their similarity, but not about their identity.

4. A historical worldview, typical of primitive thinking, has been entrenched in the language.

Modern man is attached to primitive, initial forms of thinking through language. Primitive thinking, according to the author, is "primitive contemplation of the people." Such contemplation cannot be considered illogical and abnormal. Rather, it is inherent in man in general in the initial stage of his development and is "a completely natural result of the infantile mind." The logical feature of the primitive, infantile worldview is that a person "a very insignificant reason is enough to connect two things". At the same time, the human mind confuses observation with conclusion, cf. Someone “says he saw a ghost. As a matter of fact, he saw in the darkness of the night some white figure and what was this figure ghost“This is no longer a fact of observation, but a conclusion.” Thus, the observed phenomenon is perceived by the human mind as an action; two different phenomena mentally approach each other on the basis of some one sign, often random. Confirmation of this can be found in languages ​​at an earlier, “primitive” stage of their development, when completely different objects are called only “according to one of their qualities”, which brings them together, although there is no causal relationship between these objects. From false observations, a conclusion is made about the analogy of these objects.

N. V. Krushevsky's statement about the confusion of observation with inference in the human worldview, objectified in the forms of language, is valuable in two respects. Firstly, as follows from the logic of reasoning, the naming of objects in a retrospective linguistic plan was carried out according to the principle of similarity, analogy, taking into account the existing knowledge about the world, i.e. in the perspective of elementary knowledge accumulated by a person, or experience recognized and accepted by a certain language community . The fact that this experience was different among different peoples is proved by discrepancies in the methods of nomination in a number of languages, even those belonging to the same genetic class. One should not look for a comprehensive rational logic or cause-and-effect relationships in the laws of the "primitive" analogy, in accordance with which certain classes and types of names were formed, although some elements of rationality are not excluded in principle - it all depends on the degree of truth of knowledge and the time of entry of new ones. names in the language. Second, it can be assumed that nomination processes in modern languages also do not obey the scientific logic of thinking and continue to be carried out in accordance with the metaphysical worldview of man as part of nature. intellectual development of a person, as before, is reciprocating in nature - a person starts practically from scratch in his mental and linguistic development. In addition, he joins the achievements of civilization throughout his life and assimilates them as something ready-made, already created by previous generations. /In principle, many people repeat and intellectually live someone else's life/. In exactly the same way, a person learns a language, and through it or with its help he learns the world around him, the scientific nature of which is comprehended by him later or in parallel with assimilation, although it does not have a mandatory character.

5. An image of homogeneous objects is formed in the mind.

Of great epistemological interest are the arguments of N. V. Krushevsky about the reflection of the objects of reality in the human mind. Homogeneous objects, reflected in the mind of a person, leave original imprints, traces in his mind. As a result, a general image of these homogeneous objects is formed. General representations receive common names in the language, cf. oak, birch, aspen - tree. Ideas about phenomena are formed in exactly the same way, cf.: “If we call a phenomenon a combination of objects or a change, then a number of homogeneous combinations or changes of objects leaves in mind general impression of a known series of phenomena»].

In fact, N. V. Krushevsky is not talking about a "pure" mind, consciousness or thinking, but about reflection processes that are fixed in the language in the form of names. Translated into the metalanguage of modern psycholinguistics, we are talking about linguistic consciousness when individual objects are reflected and named; and about speech thinking when phenomena are reflected and named, that is, combinations of objects.

6. Representations relate to each other in accordance with the laws of association.

The primitive worldview was formed in historical terms under the influence of the environment on a person or due to a person's observation of his own life, in particular, we can talk about zoomorphism and anthropomorphism of ideas.

2) the ratio of different ideas about the same subject belonging to different time periods (epochs);

3) the ratio of different ideas about different subjects. These ratios, or combinations of representations, are the merging of two or more images in a new (third) image.

Such a merging of ideas becomes possible thanks to "the general laws of the association of ideas in psychology."

First Law of Association is formulated by the author as follows: “Two ideas that have anything in common, are mutually attracted.

According to second law of association, "representations included in the combination or essence of representations about the same object, or themselves in some way resemble each other."

Only due to the generality, universality of these laws, in some peoples there are similar combinations of ideas that form the basis of equivalent nominations.

7. It is necessary to distinguish between the genetic meaning of a word and the meaning of a word peculiar to it in a certain period of time (individual meaning).

Nominative sign of a word, for example, a noun firefly N. V. Krushevsky refers to the “genetic meaning of the word” (“something luminous”) and opposes it to the “individual meaning” (“known insect”).

The words of the language, naming combinations of representations, initially associate the whole chain of objects connected in space and time. Over time, these associations are replaced, updated, erased. Their meaning is etymological. Apparently, this should be attributed, first of all, to the phraseological units of the language, in which the historical meaning is idiomatized.

Some actions and even activities of people in the sphere of traditions and customs are also etymologized to one degree or another, cf.: “In the era of fist law, a knight entering a foreign castle had to take off his helmet and gloves without fail. It was a necessary precaution on the part of the host: his guest was already safe without these weapons. In our time, this custom, which once had a reasonable basis, has been preserved in a ceremony devoid of real meaning - to remove the hat from the head and not to shake hands with gloves on greetings.

N. V. Krushevsky brings the problem of the etymologization of the word to the problem of the interaction of modern thought and the word with the historical picture of the subject assigned to it, more or less realized by modern man. More precisely, in the word, primitive thought is related to modern thought. In the word, thus, "two sides of the same fact" collide - the historical picture of the subject and the present (modern) representation of the subject.

8. People develop the habit of thinking abstractly. The word becomes a mute sign.

The associative impressions attached to the word in the primitive era are erased in the human mind over time due to the frequent use of this word in other speech conditions. However, the point is not even that the original meaning of the word is gradually forgotten, but that a person develops the habit of thinking abstractly without resorting to images that are superimposed on the word.

If the historical association of the object denoted by the word is etymologized, i.e., is no longer perceived, we are dealing with primitive thought as a “silent picture” of the object. If the person who calls this word given subject, is abstracted from the impressions associated with this subject (“the habit of thinking abstractly”), then we are dealing with modern thought as “ dumb sign».

The historical and modern muteness of the word characterizes this word as a "conventional sign of the subject." In order for the word, speaking metaphorically and, as it seems to us, in accordance with the author's logic of presentation, again started talking, for example, in an artistic description of an object (by the way, figurative thinking encourages this!), it is necessary to use some kind of epithet along with this word. As it seems, in order to revive one of the mute associations of the word, i.e., the once hushed impression; or revitalize, actualize a potentially hidden representation that accompanies a given word on present stage its development, it is necessary to give this word artistry, figurativeness by combining it with the corresponding definition, which names some attribute of the object denoted by the word. In such epithets-definitions, the word does not need only special descriptions. Let us confirm the interpretation with the author's examples, cf. Finland can be represented abstractly by a geographer as the name of a country with a known location in northern Europe; and by the artist - figuratively with the help of epithets, for example: "harsh, gloomy Finland".

9. The word has magical power.

Long before the appearance of the theory of speech acts, N.V. Krushevsky described the power of the impact of a spoken word on a listening person. The word manifests its power of influence (in the modern terminology - illocutionary power) in conspiracies, as peculiar wishes, accompanied or unaccompanied by other ritual actions, with the belief that these wishes will certainly come true. A person who utters the words of a conspiracy seeks to impose his will not only on another person, but also on a deity, objects and circumstances.

Belief in the effectiveness of the human word is explained by N. V. Krushevsky as follows. Primitive man, observing nature and linking two phenomena with each other, was guided by the fact that one (first) phenomenon, which he elevated to the rank of cause, was always accompanied by another (second) phenomenon, which seemed to be a consequence of the first. An example is the sign according to which, with the advent of larks, the warm season begins.

Accordingly, in the conspiracy, the words that replace, “substitute” the named objects, were materialized by the ancient man. Acting as meta objects, they contributed to the touch of these objects. The word denoting an object was so close to it that a person “gave the word a material character”, “in the understanding of primitive man, the word was as material as other, really material objects used in conspiracies.” Therefore, the "spoken" word was perceived as the cause of the phenomenon, namely, as the cause that generates the phenomenon (causa efficiens).

The spoken word, according to belief, could cause the appearance of what is called by this word, cf. "The peasants are afraid to commemorate the unclean spirit by night." The power of the sounding word in the same conspiracies is based either on the authority of the deity to whom they turn for help, or on the authority of the speaking healer.

Thus, the magical power of a word lies in the listener's belief in the materializing action of this word and in the authority of the author or pronounce this word. The problem of the impact of the word through its semiotic relationship, it seems, is still waiting for its solution. The problem of the influence of a thinking and speaking subject on the recipient through the word began to be actively discussed almost a century later in pragmalinguistics, parapsychology and neurolinguistics (cf. neurolinguistic programming).

10. The functioning of the language is based on verbal associations by similarity and contiguity.

In the history of linguistics, the fact is noted that N. V. Krushevsky, in his “Essays on the Science of Language”, determined the nature of interword relations that are built on associations by similarity and by contiguity. These relationships were later named by F. de Saussure, paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

Leaving the question of primacy, let us first pay attention to the interpretation of the associative relations by the author himself, cf.: “All people with normal mental abilities quite quickly and quite easily learn to speak a language. This is due only to the fact that we do not remember and do not recall each word separately, by itself. “Every word is connected with other words by bonds similarity associations; this similarity will be not only external, i.e., sound or structural, morphological, but also internal, semasiological. Or in other words: every word is capable, due to a special psychic law, of stimulating in our spirit other words with which it is similar, and of being excited by these words.

It is easiest to sum up what has been said by declaring that we are talking here about paradigmatic relations. It must be admitted that in recent times, paradigmatic relations are increasingly understood only as vertical interword associative links according to a semantic or "semasiological" criterion, cf. thematically related words, synonyms, antonyms. The fact that these can be words that have a similar architectonics, i.e., phonetic, morphological and word-formation similarity in paradigm, is often left without due attention, since this seems to be a well-known fact, the essence of which was defined by G. Paul as “the principle language analogy”, according to which language is organized and developed.

Here it should only be noted that the principle of associativity is used by N. V. Krushevsky more widely and not only for interpreting interword relations of a vertical order, but also, as we will see below, for determining the essence of linear, syntagmatic relations.

The completeness of N. V. Krushevsky's understanding of associative paradigmatic relations is so linguistically productive and heuristic that it encourages the reader-linguist to reconsider his views on the sign essence of language units. And I would like to carry out this revision not in the direction of the semasiological potentialities of language units, but in relation to their paradigmatic organization.

Without pretending to originality, this can be formulated as follows: a word is not only a sign of an extralinguistic relationship, that is, a sign of a mental concept and an object or phenomenon of objective reality behind it; the word is also a sign of the language system. The system sign of a word is manifested in its belonging to various linguistic categories. The word as a sign of the system includes its phonetic ones; acoustic features, plus or minus motivated by nomination-semantically; morphemic (morphological, grammatical and derivational), and in a narrow sense, syntactic features, as well as semantic features that constitute the main lexical meaning. /The fact that the main meaning of the word is intralinguistic, and not extralinguistic in nature, is not yet realized by all lexicologists due to the methodological weakness and conceptual disunity of linguistics in general/.

Character linear interword relations N. V. Krushevsky convincingly demonstrates with the following explanation: “It is not difficult to discover other connections between words. So for example. the words: “he is a horse by the bridle across the street” excite in our mind the word "leads". In the same way, the real verb excites in us the name in the form of the accusative case, the particle if - past tense verb, word wear out excites the word dress, shoes, word deposit - money, inflict - insult, win - victory; in the same way, such words excite each other as dog And bark, horse And laugh and so on. This ability of words to excite each other is based on the psychic law adjacency associations: we get used to using a given word more often with one word than with another.

In the first example "he's a horse by the bridle across the street" lack of issued word lead predicts not one word, which is typical for a binary syntagma with a consistent, progressive attitude, but several words at once, cf. by the knot ? lead; across the street? lead; horse? lead. Besides, horse predicts the appearance of a combination under the reins, and vice versa.

It can be concluded that we are dealing here with a multidimensional and multidirectional semantic associative-linear relationship within a sentence-statement. These associative-linear connections legitimately remind us of the concept of the so-called "semantic valency". The term is different, more fashionable and perhaps more successful, but the essence is the same. Relationships of semantic agreement of words linearly related to each other demonstrate examples with verb-nominal phrases of the type wear out a dress, deposit money, the dog barks etc.

When N. V. Krushevsky summarizes that “due to the law similarity associations, words must fit in our minds into systems or nests, then, thanks to the law adjacency associations, the same words must be built in rows”, he thereby sheds light on the constitutive elements of the language system, namely, on words and associative relations by similarity; and on the structure of speech utterances, namely, on the agreement of words in a phrase and sentence, subject to the principle of association by adjacency.

However, let us pay attention to what “rows of words” we are talking about. Isn't this the paradigmatic relationship of words within the text? Are these not vertical connections of constructions within a textual whole that have a similar paradigm? Or maybe these are distant thematic relationships of words within the text? The author himself speaks only of countless connections of words by contiguity "with their various companions in various phrases" and of words as members of "known series of words."

The concept of associative relations in language was widely developed by N. V. Krushevsky. It extended to the problems of the origin of words and the formation of verbal meanings. In particular, during the analysis of numerous multilingual material of living languages, the author came to the conclusion that "if our words owe their origin to similarity associations, then they owe their meaning to contiguity associations." If we talk about the origin of the primary, etymological meaning of the word, then it, of course, was formed in relation to the word to the designated thing. The mental image of a thing was taken as the basis of primary meaning. The transition of the thinking category into the linguistic category has taken place. It is difficult to overestimate the role of contiguity associations, due to which the word entered into various linear relationships with other words. In these relations, other, so-called secondary or figurative meanings of words were formed. This happened by modifying and restructuring the main meaning of the word, which from the status of the main, proper meaning of the word gradually degenerated into the status of other, improper meanings, retaining to one degree or another its motivational image, its co-presence.

The "wider the use of the word", the higher the degree of ambiguity of the word, the less meaningful and more "meager" it becomes, "the word is subjected to semasiological damage and is forgotten." In addition, adjacency associations contribute to the formation of "fixed combinations". In other words, a free combination gradually develops into an idiomatic combination, cf. Privy Councilor. The meaning of the words included in the non-free, phraseologized syntagma becomes connected, isolated.

Similarity associations are the essence of any name. When the necessary name of a thing is missing, we create a new name on the basis of the available verbal material, which has at least some, perhaps even an indirect relation to this thing, cf.: “We produce it from a word denoting something similar for this thing." However, sometimes we call a thing "the name of another thing," that is, a foreign name. There is no word production here, there is an indirect name in accordance with the association by similarity.

11. It is necessary to distinguish between the idea of ​​a thing and the idea of ​​a word.

It is interesting to note one fact, inconspicuous at first glance, that N. V. Krushevsky distinguishes two types of ideas - "the idea of ​​​​a thing and the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe word denoting this thing." Both representations are connected by the law of association, mainly by contiguity, less often by similarity (only if the words are onomatopoeic).

The question is, how do these types of representations differ from each other? Apparently, the symbolic function of the word is manifested in the idea of ​​a thing. With this representation, or mental image of a thing, the word as a whole corresponds in a semiotic act. The idea of ​​a word, taking into account its paradigmatic equipment, is perfect image words as a sign of the language system, i.e., the association of its formal classification and formal semantic and lexico-semantic organization.

However, according to the author, the relationship of the material representation with the verbal representation in the act of designation is carried out by similarity only if the acoustic shell of the word contains signs of the designated object or the action performed by this object, as well as with it (this is the essence of onomatopoeia!). In other cases, this sign relationship, according to the author, is based on associations by adjacency. Does N. V. Krushevsky exclude the meaning of the word from semiotic semiosis and considers that it does not take part in designation? In another place, however, the author notes the presence of agreement between the meaning (as part of the verbal representation) and the representation of the designated thing, because here, as nowhere else, the principle of association by similarity is most clearly implemented.

12. The world of words corresponds to the world of thoughts, thanks to which understanding is provided.

The semantic imprint of a word correlates with its more or less complete mental counterpart-imprint, due to which understanding becomes possible. cf.: "It will be the law of correspondence of the world of words with the world of thoughts. Indeed, if language is nothing but a system of signs, then the ideal state of language will be one in which there will be complete correspondence between the system of signs and what it denotes. We will see that the whole development of language is an eternal striving towards this ideal.

It can be assumed that N. V. Krushevsky was not consistent in the question of the relationship between the meaning of a word and a mental concept, that is, sometimes he mixed linguistic and mental categories, and sometimes separated them. It also remains unclear how a meaning (representation of a word) and a concept (representation of a thing) can be associated by contiguity. There would be no contradictions if the author stated that the relation of designation, i.e., the relation of the word and the thing, and in a narrower sense, the relation of the semantics of the word (motivational and lexical) and the image of the thing (the mental concept) becomes possible, also thanks to the principle agreement, i.e., associations by similarity.

13. Language is a system of signs. Language is a harmonious whole.

N. V. Krushevsky was strict about any formulations. His interpretation of language units as substitutes can be considered the most accurate definition that reflects the sign essence of the language, although the author also has definitions that are more familiar to the later “structuralist hearing”, which were timely unnoticed by his contemporaries, cf.: “But we should never lose sight of the main character of language: the word is the sign of the thing. "Language is nothing but a system of signs."

In the linguistic heritage of N. V. Krushevsky, a position is put forward about language as a harmonic whole, where “each verbal category is in such a more or less definite relation of affinity and dependence not with one category, but with many.” It is about intercategorial cooperation in language. This problem, solved within the framework of linguistics itself, does not lose its relevance to this day.

Polygram of discussed problems (according to N. V. Krushevsky)

This text is an introductory piece.

A) Syntagmatic. These are pairs of such words in which the content of one member (the meaning of a procedural or non-procedural feature) is included in the content of the second member as one of the features of this content. (grandmother is old, grandmother knits). These associative pairs are usually represented by agreed words. various parts speech. However, they may also include associations organized by the type of phrases with inconsistent definitions. (grandmother - in a headscarf).

B) paradigmatic character. These are pairs of words that have at least one common essential feature in their contents. They are quite diverse and include associative pairs, correlated with members of various lexico-semantic, thematic, etc. fields and groups (grandmother - grandfather, grandmother - old woman, white - black, white - color, run - go, head - block, bread - food etc.).

The distinction made between verbal associations is not absolute, but has a relative character, since some associative pairs can simultaneously belong to different types and subtypes. For example, in a pair grandmother grandfather one can see both a similarity of a paradigmatic nature (a common feature is an old person), and an adjacency (grandmother And granddad). Paired with White color manifest, on the one hand, hypo-/hyperonymic relationships (color--white, black, red, green etc.) - paradigmatics, on the other hand - the relationship of the feature to the subject (White color, white color etc.) -- syntagmatics.

The noted types of relationships between the contents of the members of associative pairs are manifested at a deep level and, ultimately (at the origin) underlie the vast majority of verbal associations. Phonetic (night - daughter) and grammar (table - table) associations are associations by formal similarity. Word-building associative pairs (write--record), having common elements of both meaningful and formal plans, form an intermediate type between meaningful and formal associations in terms of similarity.

The considered classification of verbal associations is based on the delimitation of relations that exist between the contents or forms of associated words, and is applicable, first of all, for breeding individual associative pairs Stimulus - Response (S--R) according to the corresponding types. At the same time, observations on the features of the organization of associative fields (AF) as complex entities make it possible to identify specific patterns in their structure, in the relationships that exist between their components.

It is known that each AP obtained by a mass free association experiment (AE) has its own core, peripheral areas of varying degrees of remoteness, and the so-called tail of low-frequency reactions, which includes purely individual (sometimes completely unique) reactions. And if these individual reactions are almost always generated directly on the basis of one of the above types of relationships between S and R, then the generation of standard (stereotypical, reproducible, socially significant) associations is based on a number of special patterns. There are sufficient grounds to assert that a very significant place among standard associations is occupied by associations that arise on the basis of the regular joint occurrence of words in texts (functional adjacency), which N.V. Krushevsky called "direct associations by contiguity". According to A.A. Leontiev, these are, first of all, speech, caused by the patterns of joint occurrence of words in speech (high - toiptain, high - mountain), as well as linguistic ones, caused by the patterns of joint occurrence of words in a language, reflecting a common language pattern (high - school higher - school) associations. Let us give an example of a specific linguistic (psycholinguistic) study, which makes it possible to establish certain features of verbal connections in AP, the relationships between its constituent elements, and also to clarify the conditions for the emergence of these connections and relationships.

In order to study the relationship between associative and situational-thematic (STP) fields, we compared their composition and structure. For this, on the one hand, a free AE was conducted on the stimulus word Birch tree, on the other hand, a distributive-statistical analysis of the word Birch tree according to connected texts of various sizes and nature. Only full-valued vocabulary was analyzed. The main results of the study indicate a significant coincidence and closeness of the distribution of thematically significant words in AP and STP, which once again confirms the possibility of considering AP as direct psychological analogues of STP. The generalization of the AP and STP data makes it possible to determine with the greatest completeness and reliability the standard (stable) parts of lexical associations, thematically organized in the linguistic consciousness of people directly for communicative purposes. The most significant area of ​​such a generalized field, according to the considered materials, is as follows.

White 141 (76+65), wood 98 (30+68), slim 82 (66+16), Russian 74 (35+39), grove 74 (33+41), Forest 72 (27+45), curly 57 (42+15), to stand 60 (20+40), green 53 (36+17), sheet 43 (16+27), juice 43 (24+19), thin 41 (24+17), Russia 41 (15+26), motherland 36 (20+16), beautiful 36 (15+21), white-barreled 34 (25+9), broom 34 (21+13), grow 32 (12+20), trunk 32 (9+23), young woman 33 (21+12), bark 31 (9+22), young 31 (7+24), birch bark 27 (16+11), tall 27 (16+11), field 26 (11+15), branch 25 (3+22), gentle 25 (20+5), weeping 25 (12+13), earrings 25 (13+12), Earth 24 (4+20), oak 23 (9+14), branch 21 (11+10), gorgeous 21 (12+9), the beauty 21 (11+10), wind 20 (3+17), Spring 19 (10+9), foliage 19 (5+14), song 19 (6+13), grass 19 (11+8), sky 18 (14+4), aspen 18 (7+11), Sun 18 (12+6), human 18 (1+17), river 17 (5+12), loyal 17 (3+14), house 16 (5+11), firewood 16 (9+7), maple 16 (4+12), tears 16 (3+13), pacifier 16 (5+11), mushroom 15 (9+6), symbol 15 (3+12), cry 15 (4+11), light coloured 15 (6+9).

Thus, there is every reason to assert that in their standard parts, AP and STP are, in essence, two different forms (ideal and material), two types (AP and STP), two different ways (in linguistic consciousness and texts) of real existence. one and the same. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that all the most stereotypical (socially significant) verbal associations arise and are fixed in the linguistic consciousness of people largely under the influence of texts as a natural result of the constant existence of a person not only in the world of things (primarily the biosphere), but also in world of words (linguosphere), these things representing, mediating, as a result of the regular joint occurrence of the same words in thematically homogeneous texts. Otherwise, for example, it is difficult to explain the high frequency of such reactions to a stimulus. Birch tree, how slender, curly, weeping etc., since it is unlikely that the "slenderness", "curly", "weeping" birch each time anew "discovered" by the subjects (or speaking, writing). It is also very significant that the more often a word appears in the text, the more often it appears in the experiment. Consequently, what is in speech, texts is somehow reflected and fixed in the linguistic consciousness of people, and vice versa - what is in the linguistic consciousness of people is somehow manifested (or in principle can always be manifested) in speech, texts ( also in the experiment). Thus, practically all stereotyped verbal associations belong to functional contiguity associations (associations of use), although, taken by themselves and considered from the substantive and formal points of view, they represent at the same time one of the previously noted types of contiguity associations or similarity.

The results of the comparison of AP and STP also confirm the possibility of interpreting the word-stimulus as a word-theme that sets and organizes AP. This suggests that at the upper (most general) level of AP organization, all its elements are really united on the basis of proper thematic relations, within which all other types of connections and relations that are possible between the nominative units of the language are manifested: synonymous, antonymic, hypo- / hyperonymic, etc.

So, the proposed classification of verbal associations fully fits into the framework of the main classification of associations according to similarity or contiguity as its particular case. The vast majority of word associations are associations that arise on the basis of relations of contiguity or similarity that exist between the contents of associate words and reflect the relationship between the phenomena of the objective world. It is these relationships that are, ultimately, the fundamental basis for the emergence of the bulk of verbal associations, then “replicated” by people in the process of their real speech communication and experiments, which, in particular, is confirmed by the results of our comparison of AP and STP. Based on this, it can be argued that at the level of organization of AP as a complex whole, associations by functional contiguity (associations of use) that arise and become fixed in the linguistic consciousness of people on the basis of the regular joint occurrence of words in speech, texts (speech and language associations) occupy a significant place. . At the most general level of AP organization, all its elements are united on the basis of proper thematic relations, since the word-stimulus is at the same time the word-theme that creates and organizes this field. Within the general thematic relations that unite all elements of the AP, other types of connections and relations that are possible between the nominative units of the language appear.

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associations proposed by K.D. Ushinsky: by place, by time, by

opposites, similarities, “rational associations”, “associations according to

heart feeling, "development association". The influence of associations on

Originality and brightness of musical images.

The study of musical perception in the context of psychology

unconscious. "Collective unconscious" (K.-G. Jung).

Refraction of archetypal

symbols ("child", "hero", "anima", "mother", "old man", "circle") in

Individual unconscious perception of music.

Laws of musical perception. Manifestation of the law of dominance (A.A.

Ukhtomsky) in the perception of music. Musical constancy

perception. "Law of Perception" N.N. Lange: change of phases of perception

Goes from the more general to the more specific

Differentiated, diffuse idea of ​​the subject is replaced

More detailed.

Phases of artistic perception: impression, infection, assimilation,

comprehension, comparison with the original worldview, comprehension "

Through this super-idea of ​​the work, a generalization of the impression.

Stages of the recipient's contact with the piece of music:

Communicative, communicative, post-communicative. Stages in

perception of music: 1) listening to both physical and physiological

Process; 2) understanding and experiencing music; 3) its interpretation and

Assessment (A.N. Sohor).

Apperception as an actualization of value and evaluative experience,

Assimilated criteria and scales. Mechanisms of apperception and the problem

Adequate comprehension artwork. Empathy,

Empathy in the process of artistic perception. co-creation

recipient. Problems of understanding the musical text. The role of the social

Factor in the formation of the ability to perceive music. Influence

Subcultures, group background on musical perception. Stages in

development of the ability to perceive music: 1) sensorimotor learning;

Perceptual actions; 3) the stage of formation of aesthetic models;

heuristic.

The Significance of Mnemic Processes in the Development of Musical Culture

Personalities. Musical memory as a complex various kinds memory.

The main types of musical memory: emotional,

Motor, visual, auditory, logical. The leading role of the auditory

Component in musical memory. Methods for the development of musical memory.

Techniques for memorizing a musical text (semantic

grouping, semantic repression). Types of memorization: arbitrary,

Involuntary. Powering up all analyzers as needed

The condition for the efficiency of the memorization process.

Memorization methods proposed by I. Hoffman: 1) work with

The text of the work without an instrument; 2) work with the text of the work

Behind the instrument; 3) work on a work without text (playing by heart);

Work without instruments and without notes.

Imagination processes in the creation of a work of art.

Individual characteristics imagination, fantasy, intuition,

Inspiration in musical creativity.

Attention and will in the system of musical cognitive processes. Accounting in

The practice of music education functions and properties of attention.

Attention externalized and internalized in structure

musical consciousness. "Circles" of attention (K.S. Stanislavsky).

Topic 3. Features of the emotional-volitional sphere and psychomotor

Acts of a musician.

Section 1 Musical and cognitive processes of the personality psyche.

Section 2 Psychological characteristics of personality and musical

Activities of students and music teachers.

Musical abilities and features from the development on various

Age stages.

The problem of the correlation of general and special, innate and

acquired abilities in musical psychology. Contribution of B.M.

6. If the idea aroused in us is a complete repetition of the former, then it only deepens the trace of the former and thereby roots it in memory. The same thing happens if the new representation, although, in fact, could be distinguished from the previous one, but this difference is so weak that consciousness could not grasp it. Thus, for example, a new name, which is very similar to the one we already remember, is not remembered by us if we do not pay special attention to the difference that exists between them. But if in the new representation there are several members that were in the old one, and at the same time there are several new ones that were not in the old one, then a completely different phenomenon occurs: similar traces, identical members of associations, match, reinforcing each other and at the same time tightly linking what is different in new ideas. This is due to the properties nervous system, which we met already in the chapter on habit. Having acquired some habit, perhaps with great difficulty, our nerves already easily make an addition to this habit; thus, a person who is accustomed to playing the piano easily assimilates a new piece of music, etc. A new association of representations, so to speak, growing together with one of its parts with the old one, already deeply rooted, rests its new part on this solid foundation. This property of memory is the basis, for example, of all the methods of learning foreign languages ​​that originate from Jacotot's method (the methods of Robertson, Seidenstücker, and others). Here, in fact, only the first lessons are difficult; the subsequent ones all gradually become easier and easier, if the first ones have been learned with the greatest accuracy. New words and phrases, constantly mixing with old ones, are strengthened by the fortress of these very old ones, firmly learned; and the old ones, although they give their strength to the new ones, do not lose their strength, because they are constantly repeated. This is the psychological secret of the Jacotot method, which so surprised the teachers of Europe in its time. It would seem that with such incessant repetition, the teaching should go slowly, but it comes out the other way around: it goes slowly when we acquire everything new and new, without repeating the old and without fusing the new with the old.

7. It is quite natural that a new idea, fused with its identical members with an old, deeply rooted one, lies with it. nearby, from which a new association of two, three, four representations, etc., is formed, interconnected by links common to them. It is also clear that these rows of interconnected associations arise in our consciousness in the same chain that has gone into our memory: one link in this chain of traces draws out another, after another comes a third, and so on. gradually grows into a complex habit and simple idea- into a complex idea, and each link from this row or nervous habits, or spiritual ideas entails the activity of another link, the other - the third, etc.

8. Now it is easy for us to explain to ourselves why a person who is predominantly engaged, for example, in history, more and more easily learns historical events, and a person involved in botany, more and more easily learns botanical information; why different people form different memories - botanical, historical, mathematical, etc. New historical facts, entering memory, they settle down in it the easier and stronger, the more they find opportunities to form associations with previous facts already firmly embedded in memory. A botanist, for example, easily notices dozens and hundreds of plants, while a non-botanist quickly forgets even those few that he accidentally drew his attention to. This happens not only because the botanist knows what one should pay attention to in the plant, what exactly is its peculiarity, while the non-botanist, looking indifferently at all parts of the plant, not distinguishing between the accidental and the essential, does not notice anything for sure, but also because in the memory of a botanist there are already firmly rooted ideas of many plants, so that the idea of ​​any new plant immediately forms in its mind a lot of associations with traces of others and is firmly rooted by the power of ideas already rooted before. The same botanist, occupied with the study of another subject, such as languages ​​or history, often finds himself unconscious. So, the famous Linnaeus, possessing an immense botanical memory, was remarkably forgetful in (regarding the study of languages. After living for three years in Holland, he could not learn to speak Dutch; he even knew Latin poorly, although he created a botanical nomenclature in Latin *. " People engaged in the study of any nomenclature," says Mme. de Saussure, "could notice that the first five or six words are memorized with great difficulty, and that then they are retained without difficulty incomparably more. The same is noticed when studying foreign languages, poems and in general with any exercise of memory. It seems as if at the entrance to each field of knowledge there is an obstacle, which, having been removed once, no longer appears "**. However, accepting, together with the followers of Herbart, that memory is something acquired by a person , there is an association of traces, we do not agree to see in this all ability of memory and the whole reason for the difference in this ability in different people. We have already seen how, on the one hand, memory is generally dependent on the nervous system, how it weakens with age and is influenced by the morbid condition of the nerves; and on the other hand, how the direction of memory can depend on the innate abilities of the organism: on the different strength, impressionability and intelligibility of one or another organ of the nervous system in different individuals.

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* Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, von Benecke. B.I.S. 92.

** L "education progressive, par m-me Necker-de-Saussure. 4 ed. T. II. P. 134.

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9. The association of representations through their particular similarity is extremely important for the teacher. To tie to the old, already firmly rooted everything that is studied again - this is such a pedagogical rule, on which the success of any teaching mainly depends. good school, it seems, only does what he repeats, and meanwhile the knowledge of the students is growing rapidly; a bad school does nothing but teach everything anew or repeat what has been forgotten, and meanwhile knowledge is little added. A good teacher, before communicating any information to the students, will consider what associations, by contrast or similarity, it can make with the information already rooted in the minds of the students, and, drawing the attention of the students to the similarity or difference of the new information with the old, will firmly interweave the new a link in the chain of old ones, and then deliberately raises the old links along with the new ones and thereby firmly strengthens the new associations. The constant movement in the head of the old links is necessary already in order to give them strength that strengthens the new links, and therefore a good teacher repeats the old not in order to repeat the forgotten, but in order to strengthen the new with these old ones more firmly. It is clear that the strength of such an acquired memory is increased by new acquisitions.

Association, in psychology - a connection that occurs under certain conditions between two or more mental formations (sensations, motor acts, perceptions, ideas, etc.); the basic concept of associative psychology. Associations are distinguished by contiguity (in space or time), similarity and contrast. The term was introduced by J. Locke (1698).

Association types. According to the type of education, they distinguish

Similarity associations;

Associations by contrast;

Associations by adjacency in space or time;

causal associations.

Any memorization or memorization involves the establishment of appropriate neural connections, or associations. This definition is important for understanding and the psychological nature of associations. Consisting of a series of reflexes connected in this way, each of which is at the same time a sensation (visual, auditory, etc.), the association itself is nothing more than an ʼʼcontinuous sensationʼʼ. ʼʼAssociation is as much an integral sensation as any purely visual, purely auditory, only it usually lasts longer, but its character is constantly changingʼʼ (I.M. Sechenov). Like any separate sensation, an association is fixed and becomes more distinct as a result of repetition. Compared with individual sensations, associations are complex formations. Due to repetition, the nervous processes that make up it are so closely connected that the slightest excitation of a part entails the reproduction of the whole association. ʼʼIf, for example, a visual-tactile-auditory association is given, then at the slightest external hint of its part, i.e., with the slightest excitation of the visual, or auditory, or tactile nerve by a form or sound, consisting in association, it is reproduced in consciousness in its entirety ʼʼ (I. M. Sechenov). The physiological foundations of associations revealed by Sechenov give a clear picture of the physiological mechanisms of both the process of memorization (memorization) and the process of reproduction. In psychology, there are three types of associations according to contiguity, similarity and contrast. When we memorize a free gymnastic exercise, consisting of 8-10 sequentially performed elements, connections are established between the individual elements of this exercise, which are called associations by adjacency. Thanks to these connections, the nervous processes that ensure the fulfillment of one of some, for example, the third in a given series, element, cause an action nervous processes associated with the implementation of the next, fourth, element, etc., thanks to which we consistently and without errors perform the entire exercise as a whole. Adjacency associations also take place when memorizing verbal material, for example, when memorizing a poem. Somewhat different character are similarity associations We deal with them in those cases when the perception of an object evokes in memory the recollection of an object similar to it, although this latter has never been perceived by us together with or next to the first. For example, the sight of the ʼʼDynamoʼʼ stadium in Moscow may evoke in our memory the memory of the stadium we once saw in Kyiv. The perception of a ski jump performed by one athlete can evoke in us the memory of other athletes performing the same ski jump under different conditions. In these cases, the original stimulus and the memory evoked by it refer to objects that have never before been perceived simultaneously or in immediate contiguity. Yet one of them evokes the other in our memory. Similarity associations rely on the similarity of neural connections that are caused by two similar objects. Both stadiums are similar to each other in their general structure (the presence of a football field, a running track, stands, etc.), although they differ in some particular architectural details. Both jumps are also similar in their appearance and style (the presence of a slope along which the skier rolls, the same grouping in flight, similar hand movements to maintain balance in the air, etc.), although they differ in some of their features (different terrain, different skier etc.). Similar moments in these objects perceived at different times cause similar neural connections, reflecting the common features in both objects, due to which the excitation in the cerebral cortex of connections related to one object naturally causes the revival of connections related to another. Similarity associations are of great importance in any educational process. Thanks to them, we get the opportunity to compare the studied phenomena with those already studied, find common and separate features in them, and thus better assimilate and memorize necessary material. Close in form to associations by similarity associations in contrast, in which the perception of an object evokes in memory the memory of another object, which is distinguished by directly opposite features. When we enter an ill-designed stadium, we may recall a vision of a model stadium we have seen before. Observing the failure of some complex physical exercise, such as a pole vault, we can remember how a famous master of sports performs this exercise perfectly. Contrast associations are temporal connections that include ideas about contrasting objects in the form of members that are opposite in nature and meaning to a common whole. This is favored by the fact that in practical activity these opposite objects (cleanliness and dirt, organization and laxity, health and illness, etc.) are usually compared and compared, which leads to the formation of the corresponding neural connections. Associations can have as their starting point not only the direct perception of the first member of such a temporal connection, but also the idea of ​​it that has arisen in the mind, as well as verbal stimuli. Thus the laws of association are of great importance for all processes of memory and can be found in any of these processes. In educational work, as a rule, we are dealing with the deliberate formation of associations in order to better assimilate educational material. All associations are conditioned reflex nature; their physiological basis is the closing function of the cortex. In their origin and course, they are subject to the basic laws of education. conditioned reflexes. In accordance with these laws, in order to quickly and accurately form the required associations, it is necessary to a) correctly combine stimuli, i.e., present the stimulus that we would like to associate with the already known, so that it somewhat precedes the already formed representation; b) organize a sufficient number of repetitions to consolidate the new connection of interest to us, while relying on the already established and fixed connections.

Association. Its main types - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Association. Its main types." 2015, 2017-2018.