When serfdom was abolished in Russia. Serfdom in Russia: myth and reality (5 photos)

The reign of Alexander II (1856-1881) went down in history as a period of "great reforms". It was largely thanks to the emperor that serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861 - an event that, of course, is his main achievement, which played a big role in the future development of the state.

Prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom

In 1856-1857, a number of southern provinces were shaken by peasant unrest, which, however, subsided very quickly. But, nevertheless, they served as a reminder to the ruling authorities that the situation in which the common people find themselves, in the end, could turn into grave consequences for it.

In addition, the current serfdom significantly slowed down the development of the country. The axiom that free labor is more effective than forced labor manifested itself in full measure: Russia lagged far behind Western states both in the economy and in the socio-political sphere. This threatened that the previously created image of a powerful state could simply dissolve, and the country would move into the category of a secondary one. Not to mention the fact that serfdom was very much like slavery.

By the end of the 1950s, more than a third of the country's 62 million population was completely dependent on their owners. Russia urgently needed a peasant reform. 1861 was to be a year of serious changes, which should have been carried out in such a way that they could not shake the established foundations of the autocracy, and the nobility retained its dominant position. Therefore, the process of abolishing serfdom required careful analysis and elaboration, and this, due to the imperfect state apparatus, was already problematic.

Necessary steps for the coming changes

The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 was to seriously affect the foundations of life in a vast country.

However, if in states living under the constitution, before any transformations are carried out, they are worked out in ministries and discussed in the government, after which finished projects reforms are submitted to the parliament, which makes the final verdict, then in Russia there were no ministries or a representative body. And serfdom was legalized at the state level. Alexander II could not cancel it personally, as this would violate the rights of the nobility, which is the basis of autocracy.

Therefore, in order to promote reform in the country, it was necessary to create a whole apparatus, specially engaged in the abolition of serfdom. It was supposed to be made up of institutions organized locally, whose proposals would be submitted to and processed by a central committee, which in turn would be controlled by the monarch.

Since, in the light of the upcoming changes, it was the landowners who lost the most, for Alexander II the best way out it would be if the initiative to free the peasants came precisely from the nobles. Soon such a moment turned up.

"Rescript to Nazimov"

In the middle of autumn 1857, General Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov, the governor from Lithuania, arrived in St. Petersburg, who brought with him a petition for granting him and the governors of the Kovno and Grodno provinces the right to give freedom to their serfs, but without granting them land.

In response, Alexander II sent a rescript (personal imperial letter) addressed to Nazimov, in which he instructed the local landowners to organize provincial committees. Their task was to develop their own versions of the future peasant reform. At the same time, in the message, the king also gave his recommendations:

• Granting full freedom to serfs.
• All land plots must remain with the landowners, with the preservation of the right of ownership.
• Enabling the liberated peasants to receive land allotments, subject to the payment of dues or working off corvée.
• Give the peasants the opportunity to redeem their estates.

Soon the rescript appeared in print, which gave impetus to a general discussion of the issue of serfdom.

Creation of committees

At the very beginning of 1857, the emperor, following his plan, created a secret committee on the peasant question, which secretly worked on the development of a reform to abolish serfdom. But only after the "rescript to Nazimov" became public, the institution began to work in full force. In February 1958, all secrecy was removed from it, renaming it the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, which was headed by Prince A.F. Orlov.

Under him, editorial commissions were created, which considered the projects submitted by the provincial committees, and on the basis of the data collected, an all-Russian version of the future reform was created.

General Ya.I., a member of the State Council, was appointed chairman of these commissions. Rostovtsev, who fully supported the idea of ​​abolishing serfdom.

Controversy and work done

In the course of work on the draft between the Main Committee and the majority of provincial landowners, there were serious contradictions. Thus, the landowners insisted that the release of the peasants be limited only to the provision of freedom, and the land could be assigned to them only on the basis of a lease without redemption. The committee wanted to give the former serfs the opportunity to acquire land, becoming full owners.

In 1860, Rostovtsev dies, in connection with which Alexander II appoints Count V.N. Panin, who, by the way, was considered an opponent of the abolition of serfdom. Being an unquestioning executor of the royal will, he was forced to complete the reform project.

In October, the work of the Editorial Committees was completed. In total, the provincial committees submitted for consideration 82 projects for the abolition of serfdom, which occupied 32 printed volumes in terms of volume. The result of painstaking work was submitted for consideration to the State Council, and after its adoption, it was submitted for assurance to the king. After familiarization, he signed the relevant Manifesto and Regulations. February 19, 1861 became the official day of the abolition of serfdom.

Main provisions of the manifesto February 19, 1861

The main provisions of the document were as follows:

• The serfs of the empire received complete personal independence, now they were called "free rural inhabitants."
• From now on (that is, from February 19, 1861), serfs were considered full-fledged citizens of the country with the corresponding rights.
• All movable peasant property, as well as houses and buildings, were recognized as their property.
• The landowners retained the rights to their lands, but at the same time they had to provide the peasants with household plots, as well as field plots.
• For use land plots peasants had to pay a ransom both directly to the owner of the territory and to the state.

Necessary Reform Compromise

New changes could not satisfy the desires of all concerned. The peasants themselves were dissatisfied. First of all, the conditions under which they were provided with land, which, in fact, was the main means of subsistence. Therefore, the reforms of Alexander II, or rather, some of their provisions, are ambiguous.

Thus, according to the Manifesto, throughout Russia, the largest and smallest sizes of land plots per capita were established, depending on the natural and economic characteristics of the regions.

It was assumed that if the peasant allotment had a smaller size than was established by the document, then this obliged the landowner to add the missing area. If they are large, then, on the contrary, cut off the excess and, as a rule, the best part of the dress.

The norms of allotments provided

The manifesto of February 19, 1861 divided the European part of the country into three parts: steppe, black earth and non-black earth.

• The norm of land allotments for the steppe part is from six and a half to twelve acres.
• The norm for the black earth belt ranged from three to four and a half acres.
• For the non-chernozem strip - from three and a quarter to eight acres.

In the whole country, the area of ​​allotment became smaller than it was before the changes, thus, the peasant reform of 1861 deprived the "liberated" more than 20% of the area of ​​cultivated land.

Conditions for the transfer of land ownership

According to the reform of 1861, the land was not provided to the peasants for ownership, but only for use. But they had the opportunity to redeem it from the owner, that is, to conclude the so-called redemption deal. Until that moment, they were considered temporarily liable, and for the use of land they had to work out corvee, which was no more than 40 days a year for men, and 30 for women. Or pay rent, the amount of which for the highest allotment ranged from 8-12 rubles, and when assigning a tax, the fertility of the land was necessarily taken into account. At the same time, the temporarily liable did not have the right to simply refuse the allotment provided, that is, the corvée would still have to be worked out.

After the completion of the redemption transaction, the peasant became the full owner of the land.

And the state was not left behind

From February 19, 1861, thanks to the Manifesto, the state had the opportunity to replenish the treasury. Such an income item was opened due to the formula by which the amount of the redemption payment was calculated.

The amount that the peasant had to pay for the land was equated to the so-called conditional capital, which was deposited in the State Bank at 6% per annum. And these percentages were equated to the income that the landowner had previously received from dues.

That is, if the landowner had 10 rubles of quitrent per soul per year, then the calculation was made according to the formula: 10 rubles were divided by 6 (interest from capital), and then multiplied by 100 (total interest) - (10/6) x 100 = 166.7.

Thus, the total amount of dues was 166 rubles 70 kopecks - money "unbearable" for a former serf. But here the state entered into a deal: the peasant had to pay the landlord at a time only 20% of the estimated price. The remaining 80% was contributed by the state, but not just like that, but by providing a long-term loan with a maturity of 49 years and 5 months.

Now the peasant had to pay the State Bank annually 6% of the amount of the redemption payment. It turned out that the amount that the former serf had to contribute to the treasury exceeded the loan three times. In fact, February 19, 1861 was the date when the former serf, having got out of one bondage, fell into another. And this despite the fact that the amount of the ransom itself exceeded the market value of the allotment.

The results of the changes

The reform adopted on February 19, 1861 (the abolition of serfdom), despite its shortcomings, gave a fundamental impetus to the development of the country. 23 million people received freedom, which led to a serious transformation in the social structure of Russian society, and further revealed the need to transform the entire political system countries.

The timely Manifesto on February 19, 1861, the preconditions of which could lead to a serious regression, became a stimulating factor for the development of capitalism in the Russian state. Thus, the eradication of serfdom is, of course, one of the central events in the history of the country.

Serf peasant

Serfdom is a set of state laws that fixed the peasants to a certain piece of land, and also made the peasants dependent on the landowner.

Simply put, the essence of serfdom was that the peasants were "attached" to their land plot and to a certain feudal lord (landowner), and this "attachment" was hereditary. The peasant could not leave his land allotment, and if he tried to escape, he was forcibly returned back.

Usually when they talk about serfdom, they mean Russia. But in Russia serfdom was introduced only in 1649. And in Western Europe it has existed since the 9th century.

A bit of the history of this phenomenon

Serfdom corresponds to a certain stage in the development of the state. But since the development of various states and regions proceeded differently, serfdom in different countries existed in different types: somewhere it captured a short period of time, and somewhere it has survived almost to our time.

For example, in England, France and part of Germany, serfdom arose in the 9th-10th centuries, and in Denmark, the eastern regions of Austria - only in the 16th-17th centuries. Even in one region, for example, in Scandinavia, this phenomenon developed in different ways: in medieval Denmark it developed along the German model, while in Norway and Sweden it practically did not exist. Just as uneven serfdom and disappeared.

AT tsarist Russia serfdom was widespread by the 16th century, but officially confirmed by the Council Code of 1649.

History of serfdom in Russia

Cathedral Code of 1649 finally consolidated serfdom in Russia, but the process of gradual enslavement of the peasants lasted for centuries. AT Ancient Russia most of the land was owned by princes, boyars and monasteries. With the strengthening of the grand duke's power, the tradition of rewarding service people with extensive estates became more and more established. The peasants “attached” to these lands were personally free people and entered into lease agreements with the landowner (“orderly”). At certain times, the peasants were free to leave their plot and move to another, fulfilling their obligations towards the landowner.

But in 1497 a restriction was introduced on the right to transfer from one landowner to another only on one day: St. George's Day - November 26.

S. Ivanov "St. George's Day"

In 1581 St. George's Day was canceled and installed reserved summers(from “commandment” - command, prohibition) - the period during which in some regions of the Russian state a peasant exit was prohibited on the autumn St. George's Day (provided for in Article 57 of the Sudebnik of 1497).

In 1597 landowners receive the right to search for a runaway peasant for 5 years and to return him to the owner - "lesson summers".

In 1649 The Cathedral Code abolished the "lesson summer", thus securing an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.

Cathedral Code of 1649

It comes out under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In essence, this is a new Russian code of laws, which established the power of the landowner over the peasants who worked on his land. From now on, the peasants did not have the right to leave their allotment and move to another owner or stop working on the land altogether, for example, go to the city to work. Peasants were attached to the land, hence the name: serfdom. When land was transferred from one landowner to another, workers were transferred along with it. Also, a nobleman had the right to sell his serf to another owner without land.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich

But still, serfdom differed from slavery: the new owner was obliged to provide the purchased farmer with an allotment and provide him with the necessary property. In addition, the owner had no power over the life of the peasant. For example, everyone knows the story of the landowner Saltychikha, who killed her serfs and was punished for it.

Daria Nikolaevna Saltykova nicknamed Saltychikha- Russian landowner, who went down in history as a sophisticated sadist and serial killer several dozen serfs subject to her. By the decision of the Senate and Empress Catherine II, she was deprived of the dignity of a columned noblewoman and sentenced to life imprisonment in a monastery prison, where she died.

Widowed at the age of twenty-six, she received in her full possession of about six hundred peasants on estates located in the Moscow, Vologda and Kostroma provinces.

During the life of her husband, Saltychikha did not notice a particular tendency to assault. She was still a flourishing and, moreover, a very pious woman, so one can only guess about the nature of Saltykova's mental illness. On the one hand, she behaved like a believer, on the other, she committed real crimes. Approximately six months after the death of her husband, she began to regularly beat, mostly with logs, servants. The main reasons for punishment were dishonestly washed floors or poor-quality laundry. The torture began with the fact that she struck the guilty peasant woman with blows with an object that fell under her arm (most often it was a log). The offender was then flogged by grooms and haiduks, sometimes to death. Gradually, the severity of the beatings became stronger, and the beatings themselves became longer and more sophisticated. Saltychikha could douse the victim with boiling water or singe her hair on her head. She also used hot curling irons for torture, with which she grabbed the victim by the ears. She often dragged people by the hair and at the same time banged their heads against the wall for a long time. Many of those killed by her, according to witnesses, did not have hair on their heads; Saltychikha tore her hair with her fingers, which testifies to her considerable physical strength. Victims were starved and tied naked in the cold. Saltychikha loved to kill brides who were about to get married in the near future. In November 1759, during a torture that lasted almost a day, she killed the young servant Khrisanf Andreev, and then beat the boy Lukyan Mikheev with her own hands.

Barin and his serfs

In 1718-1724. a tax reform was adopted, finally attaching the peasants to the land.

In 1747 the landowner was already given the right to sell his serfs into recruits (acceptance for military service military service or employment) to any person.

I. Repin "Seeing the recruit"

In 1760 the landowner receives the right to exile the peasants to Siberia.

In 1765 the landowner receives the right to exile the peasants not only to Siberia, but also to hard labor.

In 1767 peasants were strictly forbidden to file petitions (complaints) against their landowners personally to the empress or emperor.

In 1783 serfdom extends to the Left-bank Ukraine.

As you can see, the dependence of the peasants on the landowners was constantly expanding, and, consequently, their situation worsened: the landowners began to sell and buy serfs, marry and marry at their own discretion, which we read about in the works of Russian classic writers.

Under Peter I, serfdom continued to be strengthened, which is confirmed by several legislative acts (revisions, etc.). Revision tales- documents reflecting the results of audits of the taxable population Russian Empire in the XVIII - I half of the XIX centuries, carried out with the aim of per capita taxation of the population. Revizsky tales were lists of names of the population, which indicated the name, patronymic and surname of the owner of the yard, his age, name and patronymic of family members indicating age, relation to the head of the family.

Feather with which Alexander II signed the Decree on the abolition of serfdom. State Russian Museum

In cities, revision tales were compiled by representatives of the city administration, in the villages of state peasants - by elders, in private estates - by landowners or their managers.

In the intervals between revisions, the revision tales were updated. The presence or absence of a person at the time of the current registration was recorded, and in case of absence, the reason was recorded (died, on the run, resettled, in soldiers, etc.). All clarifications of revision tales related to the next year, therefore, each “revision soul” was considered cash until the next revision, even in the event of a person’s death, which allowed the state, on the one hand, to increase the collection of per capita tax, and on the other hand, created conditions for abuse, about which we read in N.V. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls".

Under Peter, a new class of possession serfs, attached to factories and factories, is also being created.

And Catherine II to her favorite nobles and numerous favorites gave about 800 thousand state and specific peasants.

Serfdom was beneficial to most of the nobility, but the Russian tsars understood that, in essence, it still differed little from slavery. Both Alexander I and Nicholas I spoke about the need to abolish this system, but it was only abolished by Alexander II in 1861, for which he received the name Liberator.

News of the abolition of serfdom

Soon the state began to pay for the new "owners" the cost of allotted land, in fact, providing a loan at 6% per year for 49 years. Thanks to this "virtuous deed" for the land, the real value of which was about 500 million rubles, the treasury received about 3 billion rubles.

Year of the abolition of serfdom in Russia

1. Inefficiency of landownership by landlords. For the state, there was no benefit from serfdom, and sometimes there were losses. The peasants did not provide the required income to the owner. After the ruin, the state even supported some of the nobles financially, because the landowners provided the country with conscripts.
2. There was a real threat to the industrialization of the country. The existing order did not allow the emergence of a free labor force, the development of trade. As a result, manufactories and factories were significantly inferior to modern enterprises in terms of equipment.
3. Crimean defeat. The Crimean War also confirmed the insignificance of the serf system. The state was unable to resist the enemy because of the financial crisis and total backwardness in certain industries. The defeat threatened Russia with the loss of influence throughout the world.
4. Increased peasant uprisings. The people resented the increase in dues and corvee, additional set serfs in recruits. All this was accompanied by varying degrees of opposition. Open uprisings began to arise, the peasants did not want to work, they did not pay dues.

1861 - that's the year serfdom was abolished in Russia. This date was the result of long meetings of government officials with landowners, nobles who were directly related to the ownership of people and received their income from the use of their slave state. The prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were several factors that created a situation of political and economic impasse in the development of Russia.

Abolition of serfdom

The socio-economic development of the Russian Empire invariably lagged behind the European states, the reason for which was the unproductive serf system. The absence of free hired labor hindered the development of capitalist industry. Poor peasants could not consume industrial products which also had a negative impact on the development of the sector. In addition, the crisis of serf farms led to the ruin of the landowners.

And although already from the beginning of the 19th century serfdom in Russia was subject to weakening and partial abolitions, extending to only a third of the peasants by 1861, the conscience of the Russian nobles was increasingly burdened by it; talk of its abolition has been going on since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The peasants also considered their dependence to be temporary, endured it with Christian patience and dignity, - testified an Englishman traveling around Russia. When asked what struck him most about the Russian peasant, the Englishman replied: “His neatness, intelligence and freedom ... Look at him: what could be freer than his conversion! Is there even a shadow of slavish humiliation in his steps and speech? (Notes of a visit to the Russian Church by the late W. Palmer. London, 1882).

Who abolished serfdom in Russia in 1861

The so-called courtyard people, who had no property and were not allocated land, were also released. They were at that time about 6 percent of the total number of serfs. Such people found themselves practically on the street, without a livelihood. Someone went to the cities and got a job, and someone took the path of crime, hunting for robbery and robbery, engaging in terrorism. It is known that two decades after the proclamation of the Manifesto, members of the Narodnaya Volya from among the descendants of former serfs killed the sovereign-liberator Alexander I. I. .

Who abolished serfdom in Russia? When did it happen

In Russia, the enslavement of peasants proceeded gradually. The beginning was laid in 1497, when farmers were forbidden to move from one landowner to another, except for a certain day in the year - St. George's Day. Nevertheless, over the next century, the peasant retained the right to change the landowner once every seven years - in the so-called reserved summer, i.e. reserved year.

When was serfdom abolished

In Russian historiography, there are two opposing views on the circumstances and time of the emergence of serfdom - the so-called "decree" and "unorder" versions. Both of them appeared in the middle of the 19th century. The first of them proceeds from the statement about the existence of a specific law at the end of the 16th century, namely from 1592, on the final prohibition of the peasant transfer from one landowner to another; and the other, relying on the absence of such a decree among the surviving official documents, considers serfdom as a gradual and protracted process of the loss of civil and property rights by previously free people.

Many modern historians write about the shortcomings of the 1861 reform. For example, Petr Andreevich Zaionchkovsky says that the terms of the ransom were extortionate. Soviet historians unequivocally agree that it was the contradictory and compromise nature of the reform that eventually led to the revolution of 1917.

What year was serfdom abolished

Back in the reign of Nicholas I, a large preparatory material for the peasant reform. Serfdom during the reign of Nicholas I remained unshakable, but significant experience was accumulated in solving the peasant issue, on which his son Alexander II, who ascended the throne on March 4, 1855, could later rely on. Alexander Nikolaevich was animated by the most sincere intention to do everything to eliminate the shortcomings of Russian life. He considered serfdom to be the main disadvantage. By this time, the idea of ​​abolishing serfdom had become widespread among the "top": the government, among officials, the nobility, and the intelligentsia. Meanwhile, this was one of the most difficult problems.

Who abolished serfdom

Often in the context of the theme of the primacy of the abolition of serfdom, one speaks of Great Britain. In particular, in England by the 15th century this happened not formally, but really. The reason was the plague epidemic in the middle of the 14th century, which destroyed half of the population of Europe, as a result of which there were few workers, and a labor market appeared. Corvee - work for the owner has practically disappeared. The same is true for France and West Germany. The ban on the slave trade was introduced in England in March 1807, and she extended this law to her colonies in 1833.

Alexander II abolished serfdom

It is indicative that the Russian expression "serfdom" originally meant precisely attachment to the land; while, for example, the corresponding German term Leibeigenschaft has a different meaning: Leib - "body", Eigenschaft has a common root with the word Eigen - "possession, property". (Unfortunately, in translation dictionaries these different concepts are given as equivalent.)

In what year was serfdom abolished in Russia

Under serfdom, there were a number of laws that stated that a peasant was assigned to a certain piece of land, sometimes completely depriving him of his personal space and limiting his right to freedom. Serfdom in Russia was introduced in 1649. The local system that existed before that time was a rigid form of rental relations, but not serfs. Its essence was that the peasant rented a piece of land from the landowner, and worked on it until the harvest, as a result, he gave part of the profit in the form of "rent". The peasant did not have the right to leave until the moment he paid in full, according to the contract. But after that, he could go anywhere he wanted. That is why this system could not be called serf.

Date of the abolition of serfdom in Russia

To resolve the land issue, the state convened world mediators who were sent to the places and there they were engaged in the division of the land. The overwhelming majority of the work of these intermediaries consisted in the fact that they announced to the peasants that on all disputed issues with the land they should negotiate with the landowner. This agreement had to be in writing. The reform of 1861 gave the landowners the right, when determining land plots, to take away from the peasants, the so-called "surplus". As a result, the peasants had only 3.5 acres (1) of land per audit soul (2). Before the reform of the land was 3.8 acres. At the same time, the landowners took away from the peasants better land leaving only barren lands.

Serfdom in Russia

In the country, serfdom was formed rather late, but we can see the formation of its elements in Ancient Russia. Starting from the 11th century, certain categories of rural residents were transferred to the category of personally dependent peasants, while the bulk of the population constituted the category of free communal peasants who could leave their master, find another, choose a better share for themselves. This right was first limited in the code of laws issued by Ivan III in 1497. The opportunity to leave the owner was now determined by two weeks a year, before and after November 26, when St. George's day was celebrated. At the same time, it was necessary to pay the elderly, a fee for the use of the landowner's yard. In the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible of 1550, the size of the elderly increased, which made the transition impossible for many peasants. From 1581, a temporary ban on crossing began to be introduced. As often happens, the temporary has become surprisingly permanent. The decree of 1597 introduced the duration of the investigation of fugitive peasants at 5 years. In the future, the fixed summers were constantly increasing, until in 1649 an indefinite search for escapees was introduced. Thus, serfdom was finally formalized by the father of Peter the Great, Alexei Mikhailovich. Despite the modernization of the country that had begun, Peter did not change serfdom; on the contrary, he took advantage of its existence as one of the resources for reforms. From his reign begins the combination of capitalist elements of development with serfdom, which prevails in Russia.

Instruction

According to the famous historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, serfdom is the "worst kind" of captivity of people, "pure arbitrariness." Russian legislative acts and government police measures “attached” the peasants not to the land, as was customary in the West, but to the owner, who became the sovereign master over dependent people.

Land has been the main breadwinner for the peasantry in Russia for many centuries. Own "ownership" was not easy for a person. In the 15th century most of the Russian territories were unsuitable for agriculture: forests covered vast expanses. Zaims were based on the arable land mined at the cost of enormous labor. All land holdings were owned by the Grand Duke, and peasant households used independently developed arable plots.

The landowning boyars and monasteries invited new peasants to join them. To settle in a new place, landowners provided them with benefits in the performance of duties, helped them to acquire their own farm. During this period, people were not attached to the land, they had the right to seek more suitable living conditions and change their place of residence, choosing a new landowner. A private contract or "row" record served to establish a relationship between the owner of the land and the new settler. The main duty of the tillers was considered to be the performance of certain duties in favor of the owners, the most important of them being dues and corvée. It was necessary for the landlords to keep the labor force on their territory. Between the princes, even agreements were established on the "non-poaching" of peasants from each other.

Then the era of serfdom began in Russia, which lasted quite a long time. It began with a gradual loss of the possibility of free resettlement to other territories. Burdened with exorbitant payments, the farmers could not pay off their debts, they ran away from their landowner. But according to the law of “years” adopted in the state, the landowner had the full right to search for fugitives for five (and later fifteen) years and return them back.

With the adoption of the Sudebnik in 1497, serfdom began to take shape. In one of the articles of this collection of Russian laws, it was indicated that the transfer of peasants to another owner is allowed once a year (before and after St. George's Day) after paying the elderly. The amount of the ransom was considerable and depended on the duration of the landowner's residence on the land.

In the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible, Yuryev survived the day, but the payment for the elderly increased significantly, and an additional fee was added to it. Dependence on the landowners was strengthened by a new article in the law on the responsibility of the owner for the crimes of his peasants. With the beginning of the census (1581) in Russia, “reserved years” began in certain territories, at which time there was a ban on people leaving even on St. George's Day. At the end of the census (1592), a special Decree finally abolished the resettlement. “Here you are, grandmother, and St. George's Day,” people began to say. There was only one way out for the farmers - to escape with the hope that they would not be found.

The 17th century is the era of the strengthening of autocratic power and the mass popular movement in Russia. The peasantry was divided into two groups. Serfs lived on the landlords', monastery lands, who had to bear various duties. The black-haired peasants were controlled by the authorities, these "hard people" were obliged to pay taxes. Further enslavement of the Russian people was manifested in various forms. Under Tsar Mikhail Romanov, landowners were allowed to cede and sell serfs without land. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the Council Code of 1649 finally attached the peasants to the land. The search and return of the fugitives became indefinite.

Serf bondage was inherited, and the landowner received the right to dispose of the property of dependent people. The debts of the owner were covered by the property of forced peasants and serfs. Police supervision and court within the patrimony were administered by their owners. The serfs were completely powerless. They could not, without the permission of the owner, enter into marriages, transfer inheritance, independently appear in court. In addition to duties to their master, serfs had to perform duties for the benefit of the state.

Legislation laid certain obligations and on the landowners. They were punished for harboring fugitives, killing other people's serfs, and paying taxes to the state for runaway peasants. The owners had to give their serfs land and the necessary equipment. It was forbidden to take land and property from dependent people, turning them into slaves, and letting them go free. Serfdom was gaining strength, it extended to black-haired and palace peasants, who now lost the opportunity to leave the community.

By the beginning of the 19th century, in connection with the quitrent and corvee brought to the limit, contradictions between landlords and peasants escalated. Working for their master, the serfs did not have the opportunity to engage in their own household. For the policy of Alexander I, serfdom was an unshakable basis state structure. But the first attempts to free from serfdom were approved by law. The Decree of 1803 "On free cultivators" allowed the redemption of individual families and entire villages with land in agreement with the landowner. The new law made few changes to the situation of bonded people: many were unable to buy out and negotiate with the landowner. And the decree did not apply at all to a significant number of landless laborers.

Alexander II became the tsar-liberator from serfdom. The February Manifesto of 1961 declared personal freedom and the rights of a citizen to the peasants. The prevailing circumstances of life led Russia to this progressive reform. Former serfs became “temporarily liable” for many years, paying money and serving labor service for the use of land allotments allotted to them, and until the beginning of the 20th century were not considered full members of society.

The legally formalized status of dependence of peasants is called serfdom. This phenomenon characterizes the development of society in the countries of Eastern and Western Europe. The formation of serfdom is connected with the evolution of feudal relations.

The origins of serfdom in Europe

The essence of the feudal dependence of the peasants on the landowner was control over the personality of the serf. It could be bought, sold, banned from moving around the territory of the country or city, even the issues of his personal life could be controlled.

Since feudal relations developed depending on the characteristics of the region, serfdom took shape in different states at different times. In the countries of Western Europe, it was fixed in the Middle Ages. In England, France, Germany, serfdom was abolished by the 17th century. Reforms relating to the liberation of the peasants are rich in the times of the Enlightenment. Eastern and Central Europe are regions where feudal dependence lasted longer. In Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, serfdom began to take shape in the 15th-16th centuries. It is interesting that the norms of the feudal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords did not work out.

Characteristic features and conditions for the formation of feudal dependence

The history of serfdom allows us to trace the characteristic features of the state and social system, under which relations of dependence of peasants on wealthy landowners are formed:

1. Having a strong centralized government.
2. Social differentiation on the basis of property.
3. Low level of education.

On the early stage the development of feudal relations, the goals of enslavement were to attach the peasant to the land allotment of the landowner and prevent the flight of workers. Legal norms regulated the process of paying taxes - the absence of population movements facilitated the collection of tribute. In the period of developed feudalism, prohibitions became more diverse. Now the peasant not only could not move independently from place to place, but also did not have the right and opportunity to purchase real estate, land, he was obliged to pay a certain amount to the landowner for the right to work on his plots. Restrictions for the lower strata of the population varied regionally and depended on the characteristics of the development of society.

The origins of serfdom in Russia

The process of enslavement in Russia - at the level of legal norms - began in the 15th century. The abolition of personal dependence was made much later than in the rest European countries Oh. According to the censuses, the number of serfs in different territories of the country varied. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, dependent peasants began to gradually move into other classes.

Researchers are looking for the origins and causes of serfdom in Russia in the events of the period Old Russian state. Formation social relations took place in the presence of a strong centralized power - at least for 100-200 years, during the reign of Volodymyr the Great and Yaroslav the Wise. The main code of laws of that time was the Russkaya Pravda. It contained norms that regulated the relations between free and not free peasants and landowners. Slaves, servants, purchasers, ryadovichi were dependent - they fell into bondage under various circumstances. Smerds were relatively free - they paid tribute and had the right to land.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion and feudal fragmentation became the reasons for the collapse of Russia. The lands of the once unified state became part of Poland, Lithuania, Muscovy. New attempts at enslavement were made in the 15th century.

The beginning of the formation of feudal dependence

In the XV-XVI centuries, a local system was formed on the territory of the former Russia. The peasant used the landowner's allotments under the terms of the contract. Legally, he was a free man. The peasant could leave the landowner for another place, but the latter could not drive him away. The only restriction was that it was impossible to leave the site until you paid its owner.

The first attempt to limit the rights of the peasants was made by Ivan III. The author of "Sudebnik" approved the transition to other lands within a week before and after St. George's Day. In 1581, a decree was issued banning the exit of peasants in certain years. But it did not attach them to a specific site. A decree of November 1597 approved the need to return fugitive workers to the landowner. In 1613, the Romanov dynasty came to power in the Muscovite kingdom - they increased the time needed to search for and return the fugitives.

About the Council Code

In what year did serfdom become a formalized legal norm? The officially dependent status of the peasantry was approved by the Council Code of 1649. The document differed significantly from previous acts. The main idea of ​​the Code in the field of regulation of relations between the landowner and the peasant was the prohibition of the latter to move to other cities and villages. As a place of residence, the territory in which a person lived according to the results of the census of the 1620s was fixed. Another fundamental difference between the norms of the Code is the statement that the search for fugitives becomes indefinite. The rights of the peasants were limited - the document practically equated them with serfs. The farm of the worker belonged to the master.

The beginning of serfdom is a series of restrictions on movement. But there were also norms that protected the landowner from the willfulness. The peasant could complain or sue, could not be deprived of land simply by the decision of the masters.

In general, such norms consolidated serfdom. It took years to complete the process of formalizing a complete feudal dependence.

History of serfdom in Russia

After the Council Code, several more documents appeared that consolidated the dependent status of the peasants. The tax reform of 1718-1724 was finally attached to a certain place of residence. Gradually, restrictions led to the formalization of the slave position of the peasants. In 1747, the landlords received the right to sell their worker as recruits, and after another 13 years - to send them into exile in Siberia.

At first, the peasant had the opportunity to complain about the landowner, but from 1767 this was canceled. In 1783, serfdom extended to the territory. All laws confirming feudal dependence protected only the rights of landlords.

Any documents aimed at improving the situation of the peasants were actually ignored. Paul I issued a decree on but in fact the work lasted 5-6 days. Since 1833, the landowners received a legally fixed right to dispose of the personal life of a serf.

The stages of serfdom make it possible to analyze all the milestones in the consolidation of peasant dependence.

On the eve of the reform

The crisis of the serf system began to make itself felt at the end of the 18th century. This state of society hindered the progress and development of capitalist relations. Serfdom became a wall that separated Russia from the civilized countries of Europe.

Interestingly, feudal dependence did not exist throughout the country. There was no serfdom in the Caucasus, the Far East, or in the Asian provinces. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was abolished in Courland, Livonia. Alexander I issued a law on its purpose was to ease the pressure on the peasants.

Nicholas I made an attempt to create a commission that would develop a document abolishing serfdom. The landlords prevented the elimination of this kind of dependence. The emperor obliged the landowners, when freeing a peasant, to give him land that he could cultivate. The consequences of this law are known - the landlords stopped freeing the serfs.

The complete abolition of serfdom in Russia will be carried out by the son of Nicholas I - Alexander II.

Reasons for agrarian reform

Serfdom hindered the development of the state. The abolition of serfdom in Russia has become a historical necessity. Unlike many European countries, industry and trade developed worse in Russia. The reason for this was the lack of motivation and interest of workers in the results of their work. Serfdom became a brake on the development of market relations and the completion of the industrial revolution. In many European countries, it successfully ended at the beginning of the 19th century.

The landlord economy and the feudal building of relations ceased to be effective - they have become obsolete and did not correspond to historical realities. The work of the serfs did not justify itself. The dependent position of the peasants completely deprived them of their rights and gradually became a catalyst for rebellion. Social discontent grew. Serfdom reform was needed. The solution of the issue required a professional approach.

An important event, the consequence of which was the reform of 1861, is the Crimean War, in which Russia was defeated. Social problems and foreign policy failures pointed to the unproductiveness of domestic and foreign policy states.

Opinions on serfdom

The attitude to serfdom was expressed by many writers, politicians, travelers, and thinkers. Plausible descriptions of peasant life were censored. Since the beginning of the existence of serfdom, there have been several opinions about it. We single out two main, opposite ones. Some considered such relations natural for the monarchical state system. Serfdom was called a historically determined consequence of patriarchal relations, useful for educating the population and an urgent need for a full and effective economic development. The second, opposite to the first, position speaks of feudal dependence as an immoral phenomenon. Serfdom, according to fans of this concept, destroys the social and economy of the country. Supporters of the second position can be called A. Herzen, K. Aksakov. A. Savelyev's publication refutes any negative aspects of serfdom. The author writes that the statements about the disasters of the peasants are far from the truth. The 1861 reform also drew mixed reviews.

Development of a reform project

For the first time, Emperor Alexander II spoke about the possibility of abolishing serfdom in 1856. A year later, a committee was convened to develop a draft reform. It consisted of 11 people. The commission came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create special committees in each province. They should study the situation on the ground and make their own corrections and recommendations. In 1857, this project was legalized. The main idea of ​​the original plan for the abolition of serfdom was the elimination of personal dependence while maintaining the rights of landowners to land. A transitional period was envisaged for the adaptation of society to the reform carried out. The possible abolition of serfdom in Russia caused misunderstanding among the landowners. In the newly formed committees, there was also a struggle over the terms of the reform. In 1858, the decision was made to ease the pressure on the peasants, rather than abolish dependence. The most successful project was developed by Ya. Rostovtsev. The program provided for the abolition of personal dependence, the consolidation of the transition period, and the provision of land to the peasants. Conservative politicians did not like the project - they sought to limit the rights and size of the peasants' allotments. In 1860, after the death of Y. Rostovtsev, V. Panin took up the development of the program.

The results of several years of work of the committees served as the basis for the abolition of serfdom. The year 1861 in the history of Russia became a landmark in all respects.

Proclamation of the "Manifesto"

The agrarian reform project formed the basis of the Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom. The text of this document was supplemented by the "Regulations on the Peasants" - they described in more detail all the subtleties of social and economic changes. The abolition of serfdom in Russia took place a year. On this day the Emperor signed the Manifesto and promulgated it.

The program of the document abolished serfdom. The years of non-progressive feudal relations are in the past. At least that's what many thought.

The main provisions of the document:

• Peasants received personal freedom, were considered "temporarily liable".
• Former serfs could have property, the right to self-government.
• The peasants were given land, but they had to work it out and pay for it. It is obvious that the former serfs did not have money for ransom, so this clause formally renamed personal dependence.
• The size of land plots was determined by the landowners.
• The landowners received a guarantee from the state for the right to redeem operations. Thus, financial obligations fell on the peasants.

Below is the table "Serfdom: the abolition of personal dependence." Let's analyze the positive and negative results of the reform.

1861 in the history of Russia was the year of a turning point in social foundations. The feudal relations that had become entrenched in society could no longer be useful. But the reform itself was not well thought out, and therefore had many negative consequences.

Russia after the reform

The consequences of serfdom, such as unpreparedness for capitalist relations and a crisis for all classes, speak of the untimeliness and ill-conceivedness of the proposed changes. The peasants reacted to the reform with large-scale performances. The uprisings engulfed many provinces. During 1861, more than 1,000 riots were recorded.

The negative consequences of the abolition of serfdom, which equally affected both landowners and peasants, were reflected in the economic condition of Russia, which was not ready for change. The reform eliminated the existing long-term system of social and economic relations, but did not create a base and did not suggest ways further development countries under new conditions. The impoverished peasantry was now completely destroyed both by the oppression of the landlords and by the needs of the growing bourgeois class. The result was a slowdown in the capitalist development of the country.

The reform did not free the peasants from serfdom, but only took away from them the last opportunity to feed their families at the expense of the landlords, who were obliged by law to support their serfs. Their allotments have decreased in comparison with pre-reform ones. Instead of the quitrent, which they worked out from the landowner, huge payments of a different nature appeared. The rights to use forests, meadows and water bodies were actually completely taken away from the rural community. Peasants were still an isolated class without rights. And still they were considered as existing in a special legal regime.

The landowners, on the other hand, suffered many losses because the reform limited their economic interest. The monopoly on the peasants eliminated the possibility of free use of the latter for development Agriculture. In fact, the landowners were forced to give the peasants allotment land as property. The reform was distinguished by inconsistency and inconsistency, the absence of a decision on the further development of society and the relationship between former slaves and landlords. But, ultimately, a new historical period was opened, which had a progressive significance.

The peasant reform was of great importance for the further formation and development of capitalist relations in Russia. Among the positive results are the following:

After the liberation of the peasants, an intensive trend appeared in the growth of the non-professional labor market.

The rapid development of industry and agricultural entrepreneurship was due to the granting of civil and property rights to the former serfs. The class rights of the nobility to the land were eliminated, and it became possible to trade in land plots.

The reform of 1861 became a salvation from the financial collapse of the landlords, as the state took on huge debts from the peasants.

The abolition of serfdom served as a prerequisite for the creation of a constitution designed to provide people with their freedoms, rights and obligations. This has become the main goal on the way to the transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, that is, to a rule of law state in which citizens live according to the laws in force, and everyone is given the right to reliable personal protection.

The active construction of new factories and factories led to the fact that belated technical progress began to develop.

The post-reform period was distinguished by the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeoisie and the economic landslide weakening of the nobility, which still ruled the state and firmly held power, which contributed to the slow transition to the capitalist form of management.

At the same time, the emergence of the proletariat as a separate class is noted. The abolition of serfdom in Russia was followed by zemstvo (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), which were beneficial to the bourgeoisie. The purpose of these legislative changes was to bring the system and administrative management in Russia into legal compliance with the new developing social structures, where millions of liberated peasants wanted to get the right to be called people.