The Soviet delegation was besieged from all sides by journalists. There were so many of them that the villa had to transfer the conversation with them to the university. During the break of the meeting of the political subcommittee, the Soviet delegation was regularly visited by representatives of other powers.
On April 13, one of the visitors reported that Lloyd George and Barthou would like to meet with the Soviet delegation before the meeting of the subcommittee. Counting on the possibility of a split in the imperialist united front, the Soviet delegation agreed to take part in the proposed conference. On April 14, at 10 am, a meeting of representatives of the delegations of Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium and Soviet Russia took place at the Albertis Villa.
Opening the meeting, Lloyd George asked if experts needed to be present. Chicherin replied that the Soviet delegates had come without experts. The next meeting continued without experts, but with secretaries.
Lloyd George declared that together with Barthou, Schanzer and Belgian Minister Jaspar they had decided yesterday to organize an unofficial talk with the Soviet delegation in order to get their bearings and come to some conclusion. What does Chicherin think about the program of London experts?
The head of the Soviet delegation replied that the experts' draft was absolutely unacceptable; the proposal to introduce in the Soviet Republic a debt commission and arbitration courts is an attack on its sovereign power; the amount of interest that the Soviet government would have to pay is equal to the entire amount of Russia's pre-war exports - almost one and a half billion rubles in gold; categorical objections are also raised by the restitution of nationalized property.
After inviting Barth to discuss the expert reports item by item, Lloyd George delivered a speech. He stated that public opinion in the West now recognizes the internal structure of Russia as the work of the Russians themselves. During the French Revolution, it took twenty-two years for such recognition; now there are only three. Public opinion demands the restoration of trade with Russia. If this fails, England will have to turn to India and the countries of the Middle East. “As for war debts, they only demand,” the prime minister said about the allies, “that Russia take the same position as those states that were previously its allies. Subsequently, the question of all these debts can be discussed as a whole. Britain owes 1 billion pounds to America. France and Italy are both debtors and creditors, as is Great Britain." Lloyd George hopes that the time will come when all nations will come together to liquidate their debts.
Concerning restitution, Lloyd George remarked that "to be frank, restitution is by no means the same as return." Victims can be satisfied by leasing their former businesses. With regard to Soviet counterclaims, Lloyd George categorically stated:
“At one time, the British government provided assistance to Denikin and, to a certain extent, to Wrangel. However, this was a purely internal struggle, in which assistance was provided to one side. To demand payment on this basis is tantamount to placing the Western states in the position of paying indemnity. It's like they're being told they're a defeated people who have to pay an indemnity."
Lloyd George cannot take that view. If this were insisted on, Great Britain would have to say: "We are not on the way."
But Lloyd George suggested a way out here too: when discussing war debts, to determine a round sum to be paid for the losses caused to Russia. In other words, Lloyd George's suggestion was that private claims should not be set against government counterclaims. Write off war debts for Soviet counterclaims; to agree to the delivery of industrial enterprises to the former owners on a long-term lease instead of restitution.
Barthou, who followed Lloyd George, began with assurances that he had been misunderstood at the plenum. He recalled that he was the first statesman of France, who in 1920 offered to start negotiations with Soviet Russia. Barthou urged the Soviet delegation to acknowledge their debts. “It is impossible to understand the affairs of the future until one understands the affairs of the past,” he said. - How can anyone be expected to invest new capital in Russia without being sure of the fate of the capital invested earlier ... It is very important that the Soviet government recognize the obligations of its predecessors as a guarantee that the government following it will recognize its obligations ".
Lloyd George suggested taking a short break to consult with colleagues. A few minutes later the delegates met again. It was decided to take a break from 12:50 to 3:00, and during this time the experts should prepare some kind of conciliatory formula.
Since the Russian delegation had to travel several tens of kilometers to get to their hotel, Lloyd George invited the delegation to stay for breakfast. After the break, the number of participants in the meeting was replenished by the Belgian Prime Minister Toenis and some experts from England and France.
At 3 pm, the meeting could not be opened. Experts were expected with a formula of agreement. While they were gone, Lloyd George invited the Soviet delegation to inform what Soviet Russia needed. The Delegation presented its economic demands. She was bombarded with questions: who issues laws in the Soviet country, how elections take place, who owns the executive power.
The experts are back. They still haven't come to an agreement. Then Barthou asked what were the counterproposals of Soviet Russia. The representative of the Soviet delegation calmly replied that the Russian delegation had studied the experts' proposals for only two days; however, it will soon present its counterproposals.
Barthou began to get impatient. You can't play hide and seek, he said irritably. The Italian Minister Schanzer explained what this meant: I would like to know whether the Russian delegation accepts the responsibility of the Soviet government for pre-war debts; whether that government is responsible for the loss of foreign nationals resulting from its actions; what counterclaims it intends to make.
Lloyd George invited the experts to work some more. "If this issue is not resolved," he warned, "the conference will fall apart." Again a break was announced until 6 o'clock. At 7 o'clock a new meeting opened. The experts presented a meaningless formula. Its main meaning was that it was necessary to convene another small commission of experts the next day. Lloyd George emphasized that he was extremely interested in continuing the work of the conference. Therefore, he and his friends agree to convene a commission of experts to find out if they can not agree with the Russian delegation. It was decided on the 15th, at 11 am, to convene two experts from each country and then continue with the private meeting. Before dispersing, Barthou offered not to disclose information about the negotiations. It was decided to issue the following communiqué:
“Representatives of the British, French, Italian and Belgian delegations gathered under the chairmanship of Lloyd George for a semi-official meeting to discuss with the Russian delegates the conclusions of the report of the London experts.
Two sessions were devoted to this technical discussion, which will continue tomorrow with the participation of experts nominated by each delegation.”
A meeting of experts was held the next morning. There, representatives of the Soviet republics announced the counterclaims of the Soviet government: they amounted to 30 billion gold rubles. On the same day, at 4:30 a.m., the expert meeting reopened at Villa Albertis. Lloyd George reported that the Soviet delegation had named an astonishing amount of their claims. If Russia really presents them, then he asks if it was worth going to Genoa. Lloyd George went on to stress that the Allies would take Russia's plight into account when it came to military duty. However, they will not make concessions on the issue of debts to private individuals. There is no point in talking about anything else until the issue of debts is resolved. If an agreement cannot be reached, then the allies "will inform the conference that they have not been able to reach an agreement and that there is no point in further dealing with the Russian question." In conclusion, Lloyd George made the following proposal prepared by the Allies:
"one. The allied creditor states represented at Genoa cannot assume any obligations regarding the claims made by the Soviet government.
In view of Russia's difficult economic situation, however, the creditor states are inclined to reduce Russia's war debt to them in percentage terms - the size of which is to be determined later. The nations represented in Genoa are inclined to take into account not only the question of deferring the payment of current interest, but also the further extension of the period for paying a part of the expired or deferred interest.
Nevertheless, it must finally be established that no exceptions can be made for the Soviet government regarding:
a) debts and financial obligations assumed in relation to citizens of other nationalities;
b) the rights of these citizens to the restoration of their property rights or to compensation for the damage and losses incurred.
The discussion began. The Soviet delegation refused to accept the proposal of the allies. Then Lloyd George said that he would like to consult with his colleagues.
The meeting resumed at 6:45 a.m. Already the first speech of the allies showed that they apparently agreed and intend to maintain a single line. Barthou, who had previously remained silent, issued a statement: “It is necessary, first of all, that the Soviet government recognize the debts. If Chicherin answers this question in the affirmative, the work will continue. If the answer is negative, the work will have to be completed. If he can't say yes or no, the job will wait."
Lloyd George supported Bart's ultimatum demand. The Soviet delegation defended its positions. In conclusion, she stated that she needed to contact Moscow. It was decided that the Italian government would take steps to organize communications with Moscow via London; pending the receipt of an answer, it was decided to continue the work of the political commission or subcommittee.
By the end of the meeting, Barthou again tried to put pressure on the Soviet delegates. He asked to be told whether they wanted an agreement, what separates them from the allies, why telegraph to Moscow? They speak only of principles, and meanwhile the Russian delegation has already accepted the conditions of the Cannes Conference, which include the recognition of debts. Why don't they repeat what they did by adopting the Cannes resolutions? If they go for it, 48 hours will be won.
The meeting ended there. It was decided to inform the press that the discussion was going on.
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Resolution of the Allied delegations at the Genoa Conference
with a statement of the conditions presented to Russia
April 15, 1922
(Ignoring the political declaration of the Soviet delegation of April 10, 1922, the Western countries also rejected its economic proposals, formulating harsh conditions for the return of the debt to Russia and the property of foreign citizens)
1. The allied creditor states represented at Genoa cannot assume any obligations with respect to the claims made by the Soviet Government.
2. In view, however, of Russia's difficult economic situation, the creditor states are inclined to reduce Russia's war debt towards them in percentage terms, the size of which is to be determined subsequently. The nations represented in Genoa are inclined to take into consideration not only the question of deferring the payment of current interest, but also of deferring the payment of a part of the interest that has expired or is in arrears.
3. Nevertheless, it must finally be established that no exceptions can be made to the Soviet government regarding:
a) debts and financial obligations assumed in relation to citizens of other nationalities;
b) regarding the rights of these citizens to the restoration of their property rights or to compensation for damages and losses incurred.
Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V. International politics of modern times. M.. 1929. part III. S. 158.
The answers to tasks 1-19 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the answer boxes to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
1
Arrange historical events in chronological order. Write down the numbers that represent historical events in the correct sequence.
1. uprising led by K.A. Bulavina
2. the first mention of Moscow in the Ipatiev Chronicle
3. the defeat of the Invincible Armada by England
2
Establish a correspondence between events and years: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column
3
Below is a list of terms (names). All of them, with the exception of two, refer to events (phenomena) in the history of Russia in the 18th century.
1) palace coup; 2) Slavophiles; 3) possessive peasants; 4) favoritism; 5) redemption payments; 6) colleges.
Find and write down the serial numbers of terms (names) related to another historical period.
4
Write down the term you are talking about.
The name of the territorial community in Ancient Russia, whose members were collectively responsible for the murders and thefts committed within the boundaries of the community; mentioned in Russian Pravda.
5
Establish a correspondence between processes (phenomena, events) and facts related to these processes (phenomena, events): for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
| PROCESSES (PHENOMENONS, EVENTS) | FACTS |
| A) the foreign policy of the USSR during the leadership of the country N.S. Khrushchev | 1) the battle on the Shelon River |
| B) the foreign policy of the first Russian princes | 2) creation of the Warsaw Pact |
| C) Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791 | 3) the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan |
| D) Time of Troubles in Russia | 4) the battle of Rymnik |
| 5) campaign of False Dmitry II to Moscow | |
| 6) the campaign of the Kyiv prince Oleg to Byzantium |
6
Establish a correspondence between fragments of historical sources and their brief characteristics: for each fragment indicated by a letter, select two corresponding characteristics indicated by numbers.
A) “In the second year after the return with the victory of the prince ... [enemies] again came from the western country and built a city on the land of the prince. The prince ... soon went and destroyed their city to the ground, and hanged some of them themselves, took others with him, and others, having mercy, let him go, for he was immensely merciful. In the third year ... the Germans came to Lake Peipus, and the prince met them, and prepared for battle, and they went against each other, and Lake Peipsi was covered with a multitude of those and other warriors ... "
B) “In all the cities of the Muscovite state, such soul-harming was heard near Moscow, and they mourned and wept for it, and they did not kiss the cross in any city, and no one could help. From all the same cities in a single city, in Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod residents ... began to think about how to help the Muscovite state. One of them, Kozma Minin, a Nizhny Novgorodian who trades in meat, Kozma Minin, recommended by Sukhoruk, cry out to all people: “If we want to help the Muscovite state, otherwise we won’t wish our stomachs” ... But everyone in Nizhny Novgorod liked his word, and they decided to send beat the forehead to Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich ... of the Pechersk Monastery of Archimandrite Theodosius, and from all the ranks of all the best people.
1. The events described took place in the 16th century.
2. The prince mentioned in the passage was a member of the Zemsky Sobors.
3. The prince mentioned in the passage received the nickname Donskoy.
4. The described events took place in the XIII century
5. The events described took place in the 17th century
6. The prince mentioned in the passage was nicknamed Nevsky
Write the chosen numbers under the corresponding letters.
| Fragment A | Fragment B | ||
7
Which of the following events occurred during the leadership of the USSR N.S. Khrushchev? Choose three events and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
2. the beginning of the campaign against cosmopolitanism in the USSR
3. Execution of a demonstration of workers in Novocherkassk
4. liquidation of machine and tractor stations
5. price liberalization
6. Caribbean Crisis
8
Fill in the gaps in these sentences using the list of missing elements below: for each sentence marked with a letter and containing a gap, choose the number of the element you want.
A) A Soviet intelligence officer, a partisan who, posing as a German officer in Rovno and Lvov, obtained valuable information, destroyed several prominent Nazis - ____________.
B) The operation of the Red Army "Uranus" began in ____________.
C) During the Great Patriotic War, the Nazis failed to capture the city of _____________.
2. Yu.B. Levitan
6. N.I. Kuznetsov
9
Establish a correspondence between events and participants in these events: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
10
Read an excerpt from a resolution adopted at an international conference and indicate the name of the Chairman of the Soviet Government during the period when this conference was held.
“Allied creditor states ... cannot assume any obligations regarding the claims made by the Soviet government.
In view, however, of Russia's difficult economic situation, the creditor states are inclined to reduce Russia's war debt to them in percentage terms, the size of which is to be determined later. The nations represented in Genoa are inclined to take into account not only the question of deferring the payment of current interest, but also of deferring the payment of a part of the interest that has expired or is in arrears.
11
Fill in the blank cells of the table using the list of missing elements below: for each gap indicated by letters, select the number of the element you need.
Missing items:
1. the beginning of the reign in Kyiv of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich
2. the beginning of the Crusades
4. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire
6. Khan Tokhtamysh's campaign against Moscow
7. "Glorious Revolution" in England
9. accession to the Moscow state of Tver
12
Read an excerpt from the annals.
“In the year 6370. And they expelled the Varangians across the sea, and did not give them tribute, and began to rule themselves, and there was no truth among them, and clan stood against clan, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said: "Let's look for ourselves a prince who would rule over us and dress us in order and according to the law." Went across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and others are Normans and Angles, and still others are Goths, like these. The Chud Rus, the Slavs, the Krivichi and all said: "Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers were chosen with their clans, and they took with them all of Russia, and came first of all to the Slavs. And put the city of Ladoga. And the eldest sat in Ladoga, and the other - Sineus - on the White Lake, and the third - Truvor - in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Two years later, Sineus and his brother Truvor died. And he took all the power alone ... [prince], and came to Ilmen, and set the city over the Volkhov ... and sat down to reign here, and began to distribute to his husbands volosts and cities to set up ”
1. The passage mentions the East Slavic tribal union, which occupied the territory along the middle course of the Dnieper River, with its center in Kyiv.
3. Finno-Ugric tribes are mentioned in the passage.
4. The passage gives the name of the tribal union of the Eastern Slavs, which raised an uprising, during which the son of the prince mentioned in the text was killed.
6. The passage describes an event dated by modern chronology 862
Review the diagram and complete tasks 13-16
13
Fill in the gap in the sentence: "The events indicated in the diagram occurred in the year one thousand nine hundred ____________________." Write your answer in a word (combination of words)
14
Indicate the name of the city, indicated on the diagram by the number "4", during the period when the events reflected in the diagram occurred.
15
Indicate the name of the city indicated on the diagram by the number "2"
16
Which statements about this scheme are correct? Choose three sentences from the six offered. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1. The city, indicated on the diagram by the number "3", is currently part of Russia
2. The city, indicated on the diagram by the number "5", was liberated from the Nazis in the fall
3. During the hostilities, indicated by arrows on the diagram, the Red Army completely liberated Czechoslovakia
4. The diagram shows the actions of the Red Army during Operation Bagration.
5. The diagram shows the actions of the Red Army during the East Prussian operation.
6. The city, indicated on the diagram by the number "1", was liberated from the Nazis in October.
17
Establish a correspondence between cultural monuments and their brief characteristics: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column
Look at the picture and complete tasks 18-19
18
What judgments about this commemorative coin are true? Choose two sentences from the five offered. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table
1. The event to which this coin is dedicated took place less than a year before the abolition of serfdom in Russia.
2. The coin mentions the state body established by Peter I
3. The Russian emperor depicted on the coin was nicknamed the Quietest.
4. This coin was issued in the year when D.A. was the President of Russia. Medvedev.
5. High government posts during the reign of the emperor depicted on the coin were occupied by A.Kh. Benkendorf and S.S. Uvarov.
19
Which of the cultural figures presented below were contemporaries of the event, in memory of which this coin was issued? In your answer, write down two numbers that indicate these cultural figures.
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
Part 2.
First write down the task number (20, 21, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.
From a petition to the king
“Merciful Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich of All Russia! Perhaps we, our serfs, for our former service and for blood for our poverty and ruin and for our sovereign services, unceasingly with our eternal royal salary, as it was under the previous sovereigns, and your sovereign decree: lead, sovereign, to set aside those fixed years for five years , and our runaway peasants and little people were led, sovereign, to us, our serfs, to give according to scribes and according to separate books, and according to our fortresses, so that our estates and patrimonies would not become empty, and the rest would be peasants and little people because of us, your serfs , do not come out, and so that we, your serfs, serving your sovereign's unceasing service and paying your sovereign all sorts of taxes, do not completely perish. And they led, sovereign, to authorities, and to monasteries, and to all kinds of Moscow ranks of people in our fugitive peasants and in little people and in insults to give us, their serfs, on them and on their clerks and peasants court in those cities in which , sovereign, it’s time for us, your serfs, you have to beat the sovereign on them with your forehead. And they led, sovereign, to choose in the cities from the nobles and from the zemstvo people, and led, sovereign, us, their serfs, to judge in the cities according to their sovereign decree and according to their sovereign laid court book, so that you, sovereign, from us, your servants , [annoying requests] were not, but we, your serfs, would not completely die from Moscow red tape and from all kinds of Moscow ranks of strong people and from monasteries, and from all kinds of authorities were not for sale, and so that we, your serfs, from them sales and violence will not perish completely ... "
Indicate, to the nearest half century, the period to which this document relates. Indicate the royal dynasty, the ancestor of which was the ruler mentioned in the document. Name his successor.
Show answer
This text mentions Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, which immediately facilitates the task - there was only one Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich on the Russian throne - the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty, who ruled from 1613 to 1645. The test contains a request from nobles and boyar children to cancel the 5-year term fixed years, during which the nobles could search for fleeing serfs, that is, make the search indefinite. Accordingly, this is the first half of the 17th century. Mikhail Fedorovich is the ancestor of the ruling Romanov dynasty. His successor, as you know, was his son, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (nicknamed "The Quietest"), who ruled from 1645 to 1678.
What measures, which the petitioners expected from the king, are indicated in this passage? Specify any three measures.
Show answer
The response must include:
1. “Tell, sir, to set aside those fixed years for five years, and sir, they led our fugitive peasants and little people, to us, our serfs, to give according to scribes and separate books, and according to our fortresses” - the petitioners asked to cancel the so-called. "Lesson Summers"
2. “And they led, sovereign, to the authorities, and to the monasteries, and to all kinds of Moscow ranks of people in our fugitive peasants and in little people and in insults to give us, their serfs, on them and on their clerks and on the peasants the court in those cities » - i.e. petitioners ask for the transfer of legal proceedings on controversial issues about peasants and lands from the Moscow Orders to the cities at the place of residence of nobles and boyar children.
3. “And they led, sovereign, to choose in the cities from the nobles and from the zemstvo people, and they led, sovereign, us, their servants, to judge in the cities according to their sovereign decree and according to their sovereign laid court book” - in this passage, the desire of the petitioners sounded on the reform of the court (decentralization) and changes in legislation (the participation of elected nobles and zemstvo people in litigation on controversial issues about peasants).
Indicate the name of the code of laws adopted during the reign of the king's successor mentioned in the document. Involving historical knowledge, indicate at least two provisions of this code that determine the position of dependent categories of the country's population.
Show answer
In the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), the so-called. The Cathedral Code is a code of laws adopted by the Zemsky Sobor in 1649. Among the provisions of this code, which determine the position of dependent categories of the population, it is necessary to indicate:
1) the abolition of school years, i.e. the term for the capture of the departed serfs became indefinite, the peasants were finally enslaved.
2) a ban on the free movement of all categories of the taxable population, townspeople, state and serfs.
In the early 1920s the socio-economic and political situation in the RSFSR remained difficult. Give any two statements showing that with the end of the Civil War, the policy of "war communism" reached a dead end, there was a threat to the existence of Soviet power itself. Specify the congress of the RCP (b), which decided to abandon the policy of "war communism" and the transition to a new economic policy (NEP).
Show answer
Among the provisions proving the ineffectiveness of the policy of War Communism (who does not remember, 1918-1921) at the end of the Civil War, failures can be indicated:
1) Surplus appraisal. The system aimed at procuring food eventually led to a decrease in the profitability of agriculture (due to the disinterest of the peasants in obtaining high yields), as a result, a decline in industrial development, to peasant uprisings (in the Tambov region, in Western Siberia) and in the army (in Kronstadt), as well as to hunger.
2) The fall of industry, the decline in industrial output caused by the fall of the financial system (the abolition of de jure money and the use of the so-called "sovznaki" instead of them, subject to rapid depreciation).
The transition to the NEP policy took place after the Tenth Congress of the RCP(b).
There are debatable problems in historical science, on which different, often contradictory points of view are expressed. Below is one of the controversial points of view that exist in historical science.
"Emperor Alexander III was rightly called the Peacemaker for his foreign policy."
Using historical knowledge, give two arguments that can support this point of view, and two arguments that can refute it. When presenting arguments, be sure to use historical facts.
Write your answer in the following form.
Arguments to support:
Arguments in rebuttal:
Show answer
The response may contain the following arguments to support it:
During the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894), the Russian Empire did not take part in any war.
He sought to resolve all disputes peacefully, for example, relations with England in Central Asia.
The Khanate of Kokand, Kazakhstan, the Khanate of Khiva and the Emirate of Bukhara joined the Russian Empire, and the Turkmen tribes continued to join. In total, during the reign of Emperor Alexander III, the area of \u200b\u200bthe empire increased by 430,000 square kilometers.
The answer may contain the following arguments in refutation:
Under him, Russia moved closer to France, which later led to the formation of the Entente and the confrontation that led to the First World War. Russian support for France led to a "customs war" between Russia and Germany.
Under him, active penetration into the Far East began (in particular, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which eventually connected Moscow and Vladivostok), which in the future led to a clash and war with Japan.
Under him, there was a cooling, and then a break in diplomatic relations with Bulgaria, which ultimately led to a weakening of Russian positions in the Balkans (in Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia).
You need to write a historical essay about ONE of the periods in the history of Russia:
1) 1054–1132; 2) October 1894 - July 1914; 3) October 1964 - March 1985
The essay must:
Indicate at least two events (phenomena, processes) relating to a given period of history;
Name two historical personalities whose activities are associated with the indicated events (phenomena, processes), and, using knowledge of historical facts, characterize the role of these personalities in the events (phenomena, processes) of a given period of Russian history;
Indicate at least two causal relationships that existed between events (phenomena, processes) within a given period of history.
Attention!
When characterizing the role of each person named by you, it is necessary to indicate the specific actions of this person that significantly influenced the course and (or) result of the indicated events (processes, phenomena).
Using the knowledge of historical facts and (or) the opinions of historians, give one historical assessment of the significance of this period for the history of Russia. In the course of the presentation, it is necessary to use historical terms, concepts related to this period.
Share your results or ask how to solve a particular problem. Be polite guys.
The main goal was essentially the question of relations between the Soviet state and the Western world after the failure of attempts to overthrow Soviet power through military intervention.
Western countries, primarily Great Britain, in search of overcoming post-war economic difficulties, tried to return Soviet Russia to the world market (so that, taking advantage of its temporary economic weakness, to widely exploit its resources), as well as Germany and its former allies in the First World War.
The Genoa Conference is the first wide international diplomatic meeting of Soviet Russia with the countries of the Western world on economic and financial issues. The conference was held in Genoa (Italy) from April 10 to May 19, 1922 with the participation of representatives of 29 states (including the RSFSR, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, France, Japan).
The work of the delegation of the RSFSR was led by V. I. Lenin, who was appointed its chairman; deputy The chairman was G. V. Chicherin, who in Genoa, where Lenin did not go, enjoyed all the rights of the chairman.
The delegation of the RSFSR (it also included L. B. Krasin, M. M. Litvinov, V. V. Borovsky, Ya. E. Rudzutak, A. A. Ioffe, X. G. Rakovsky, N. I. Narimanov , B. Mdivani, A. Bekzadyan, A. G. Shlyapnikov) represented at the Genoa Conference not only the Russian Federation, but also all other Soviet republics (Azerbaijan, Armenian, Belorussian, Bukhara, Georgian, Ukrainian, Khorezm), as well as the interests of the Far Eastern republics.
The United States, which refused to participate in the work of the Genoa Conference, was represented at it by an observer, the American Ambassador to Italy R. Child.
Among the delegates of Western states, the most active role at the Genoa Conference was played by D. Lloyd George, J. N. Curzon (Great Britain), K. Wirth, W. Rathenau (Germany), L. Facta (Italy), J. Barthou, K. Barrer (France).
The decision to convene the Genoa Conference is a search for measures "towards the economic recovery of Central and Eastern Europe."
The Soviet government, interested in normalizing economic and political relations with Western countries, agreed to take part in the work of the Genoa Conference on January 8, 1922.
At the conference, however, the leading role was played by representatives of those Western states who, instead of a business-like discussion of real ways of establishing economic ties with the Soviet state, tried to use diplomatic pressure to obtain economic and political concessions from the Soviet government, leading to the establishment of a different political and economic system in Russia; they hoped to force the Soviet state to recognize all the debts of the tsarist and Provisional governments, to return to foreign capitalists the enterprises nationalized by the Soviet government or to reimburse the cost of these enterprises, to eliminate the monopoly of foreign trade, etc.
The Soviet delegation, at the direction of Lenin, rejected these demands and, in turn, put forward counterclaims to compensate the Soviet state for losses caused by military intervention and blockade (if the pre-war and military debts of Russia were equal to 18.5 billion gold rubles, then the losses of the Soviet state as a result of the military interventions and blockades amounted to 39 billion gold rubles).
At the same time, wanting to find a basis for an agreement and the restoration of economic ties with Western states, the Soviet delegation at the Genoa Conference on April 20, 1922 stated that the Soviet government was ready to recognize pre-war debts and the succession right for the former owners to receive in concession or lease the property that previously belonged to them. subject to the de jure recognition of the Soviet state, the provision of financial assistance to it and the cancellation of war debts and interest on them.
At the first plenary session of the Genoa Conference on April 10, the Soviet delegation raised the question of a general reduction in armaments. However, both the issue of arms reduction and the settlement of mutual financial and economic claims were not equally resolved at the conference.
During the Genoa Conference, Soviet diplomacy, which used the contradictions in the imperialist camp (the camp of the Western powers), managed to break through the united front of the states that were trying to achieve the diplomatic isolation of the Soviet state, and conclude the 1922 Rappal Treaty with Germany.
Source: Soviet Historical Encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 4. THE HAGUE - DVIN. 1963.
THE SOVIET DELEGATION MADE A STATEMENT AT THE CONFERENCE.
STATEMENT OF THE SOVIET DELEGATION AT THE FIRST PLENARY SESSION OF THE GENOA CONFERENCE April 10, 1922
The Russian delegation, which represents a government that always supports the cause of peace, welcomes with particular satisfaction the statements of previous speakers that peace is necessary first of all... It considers it necessary, first of all, to declare that it has come here in the interests of peace and the general restoration of the economic life of Europe, destroyed by the long war and the post-war five-year plan.
Remaining on the point of view of the principles of communism, the Russian delegation recognizes that in the current historical epoch, which makes possible the parallel existence of the old and the emerging new social order, economic cooperation between the states representing these two systems of property is imperatively necessary for the general economic recovery ... Russian the delegation has come here not to propagate its own theoretical views, but to enter into business relations with the governments and commercial and industrial circles of all countries on the basis of reciprocity, equality and full and unconditional recognition. (...)
Meeting the needs of the world economy and the development of its productive forces, the Russian government is consciously and voluntarily ready to open its borders for international transit routes, to provide for cultivation millions of acres of the most fertile land, the richest forest, coal and ore concessions, especially in Siberia, as well as a number of other concessions. throughout the territory of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. (...)
The Russian delegation intends during the future work of the conference to propose a general reduction in armaments and to support all proposals aimed at alleviating the burden of militarism, provided that the armies of all states are reduced and the rules of war are supplemented by the complete prohibition of its most barbaric forms, such as poisonous gases, air warfare and others, in features of the use of means of destruction directed against the civilian population.
Russia is a debtor. According to official data, Russia's external public debt at the beginning of 1999 amounted to $158.8 billion. According to some estimates, on the eve of the crisis, the debt of private Russian borrowers amounted to $54 billion, including banks - $29 billion, enterprises - $25 billion. the amount of Russian liabilities exceeded $212 billion.
Russia inherited a significant part of the debt from the Soviet Union. The Soviet debt was mainly formed in 1985-1991, increasing from $22.5 billion in 1985 to $96.6 billion at the beginning of 1992. The rapid growth of external debt was due, firstly, to economic conditions, and above all falling oil prices on the world market. The Soviet economy, based on the petrodollar "recharge", was unable to rebuild, and large external loans were required to pay for imports. Secondly, the ill-conceived liberalization of foreign economic activity. Within its framework, in April 1989, the union ministries received the right, on behalf of the state, to issue credit guarantees to enterprises. Because the Soviet Union had been meticulous in its debt-servicing schedule until 1990, international banks and other Western lenders were willing to lend it new loans.
After the collapse of the USSR, the problem of distributing debt among the union republics arose. As a criterion for the section, an indicator was adopted that took into account the population, national income, exports and imports on average for 1986-1990. The share of Russia was 61.3%. In second place by a wide margin (16.3%) was Ukraine. This indicator was extended to external assets, including property abroad and the debt of foreign states to the Soviet Union.
However, it soon became clear that only Russia was fulfilling its debt obligations to one degree or another. But due to the principle of joint and several liability laid down in the agreement, claims could be brought against Russia. In this regard, Russia offered to take responsibility for the entire debt of the USSR, subject to the transfer of rights to external assets to it. Based on this principle, a compromise was reached, which satisfied the parties concerned. In April 1993, the West officially recognized Russia as the only state responsible for the debts of the USSR.
Russian public debt is divided into internal and external in accordance with the currency of obligations. Ruble debt is considered internal, debt in foreign currency - external.
if non-residents are admitted to the domestic financial market, then debt can be classified according to another criterion: domestic debt is debt to residents, external debt to non-residents. From the point of view of the balance of payments, the state of the foreign exchange market, the second classification is preferable.
Taking into account the GKO-OFZ owned by non-residents, as well as the external debt of Russian private legal entities, the ratio between the "old" Soviet debt and the "new" Russian debt will be approximately 50:50. In terms of structure and conditions, Russian debt differs from Soviet debt for the worse; it is overwhelmingly not amenable to restructuring. Therefore, the legacy of the "old" debt cannot be considered as the main cause of the debt crisis experienced by Russia.
Russia is one of the three largest debtors among countries with emerging markets (Mexico, Brazil, Russia). However, the absolute amount of debt says little about a country's solvency.
For a long period of time, Russia was forced to borrow money to cover the budget deficit. In Art. The Budget Code defines state borrowings of the Russian Federation as loans and credits attracted from individuals and legal entities, foreign states, international financial organizations, for which debt obligations arise as a borrower or a guarantor of repayment of loans (credits) by other borrowers.
Public debt consists of the debt of past years and newly arisen debt. The Russian Federation is not responsible for the debt obligations of the national-territorial entities of the Russian Federation, if they were not guaranteed by the Government of the Russian Federation. The form of debt obligations of the national-state and administrative-territorial entities of the Russian Federation and the conditions for their issue are determined independently on the ground.
Depending on the currency in which loans are issued, the Budget Code of the Russian Federation divides them into two groups: internal and external. The groups also differ from each other in terms of types of loan instruments, terms of placement, composition of creditors.
Lenders for internal loans are mainly individuals and legal entities that are residents of this state, although a certain part of them can also be acquired by foreign investors. Domestic loans are issued in national currency. To raise funds, securities are issued that are in demand on the national stock market. Various tax incentives are used to further encourage investors.
Budget Code in Art. 89 defines state domestic borrowings as "loans and credits attracted from individuals and legal entities, foreign states, international financial organizations, for which debt obligations of the Russian Federation arise as a borrower or a guarantor of repayment of loans (credits) by other borrowers, denominated in the currency of the Russian Federation."
Foreign loans are placed on foreign stock markets in the currency of other states. When placing such loans, the specific interests of investors in the country of placement are taken into account. Budget Code in Art. 89 defines state external borrowings of the Russian Federation as "loans and credits attracted from individuals and legal entities, foreign states, international financial organizations, for which debt obligations of the Russian Federation arise as a borrower or guarantor of repayment of loans (credits) by other borrowers, denominated in foreign currency".
Internal loans of the Russian Federation. In the Law on the federal budget of the Russian Federation for 2006, the maximum amount of the state internal debt as of January 1, 2007 is set at 1,148.7 billion rubles.
To finance the federal budget deficit until the mid-1990s, predominantly loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation were used. In 1995, a decision was made to stop the practice of lending by the Central Bank to the Government of the Russian Federation, and the entire burden of covering the budget deficit was transferred to the financial market. However, as early as 1998, the legislature was forced to make a decision to provide loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to cover the budget deficit. Similar decisions were made in the Laws on the federal budget for 1999 and 2000. In particular, the Law on the federal budget for 2000 provides for the purpose of covering intra-annual gaps between current revenues and expenditures of the federal budget to allow the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to purchase government securities during their initial placement in the amount of 30 billion rubles.
Sub-federal government loan. Like the Russian Federation, subjects of the Russian Federation can enter into credit relations as borrowers, creditors and guarantors. In quantitative terms, borrowing activities predominate.
Loans of subjects of the Russian Federation. According to the RF BC (Article 90), government borrowings of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipal borrowings are loans and credits attracted from individuals and legal entities, for which debt obligations arise, respectively, of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation or a municipality as a borrower or guarantor of repayment of loans (credits) by other borrowers, denominated in the currency of the liability.
The totality of debt obligations of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation forms the state debt of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation. Debt obligations of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation may exist in the form (Article 99 of the BC):
- * credit agreements and contracts;
- * government loans of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, carried out by issuing securities of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;
- * contracts and agreements on the receipt by the subject of the Russian Federation of budget loans from the budgets of other levels of the budget system of the Russian Federation;
- * agreements on the provision of state guarantees of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation;
- * agreements and contracts, including international ones, concluded on behalf of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, on the prolongation and restructuring of debt obligations of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation of previous years.
Debt obligations of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation cannot exist in other forms, with the exception of those listed above.
Subjects of the Federation have acquired the right to borrow funds in accordance with Law No. 4807-1 of 1993 from other budgets, from commercial banks, or to issue loans for investment purposes. The same Law provided that the maximum ratio of the total amount of loans, credits, other debt obligations of the relevant budget and the volume of its expenditures would be established additionally. Such a measure is quite justified, since the experience of the developed countries of the West gives us numerous examples of the bankruptcy of certain territories, including such large cities as New York. However, for a long time, the borrowing activities of territories within our state were not legally limited.
Since the beginning of the XXI century. Russia is refusing to widely use budget credits. On the one hand, this is explained by the fact that in practice the system of budget crediting has not justified itself. Loans were not repaid in a timely manner, and interest on them was not paid. On the other hand, commercial banks began to lend more actively to enterprises, interest rates on loans began to decline, and the critical importance of budget loans disappeared.
For these reasons, the conditions for budget lending are beginning to tighten, and its volumes and areas of use are curtailing. A requirement is introduced according to which budget loans by legal entities that are not state or municipal enterprises are received only if the borrower provides security for the fulfillment of the obligation to repay the loan. Only bank guarantees, guarantees, pledge of property in the amount of at least 100% of the loan provided can be used as security methods.
A prerequisite for granting a budget loan is a preliminary check of the financial condition of the borrower. The purposes for which a budget loan should be granted, the conditions and procedure for granting are determined upon approval of the budget for the next financial year.
Today, the recipients of loans provided from the federal budget? are mainly the budgets of other levels, and the policy of budgetary lending pursued by the Russian Federation is concentrated on two basic directions?
- ??? loans are allocated primarily to cover cash gaps;
- ??? Significant steps are being taken to streamline arrears and minimize them.
External government loans. In accordance with the Budget Code (Article 122) “State loans provided by the Russian Federation to foreign states, their legal entities and international organizations are loans (loans) for which foreign states, their legal entities and international organizations have debt obligations to the Russian Federation as a lender??. Such government loans form the external assets of the Russian Federation.
The debt obligations of foreign states to the Russian Federation as a creditor form the debt of foreign states to the Russian Federation.
External government loans and debts to Russia on them are usually divided into three groups?
- 1) the debt of foreign states (except for the CIS countries);
- 2) debt of the CIS countries;
- 3) the debt of foreign commercial banks and firms (to the USSR or the Russian Federation).
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