Analysis of the theoretical foundations of Victor Vroom's motivational model of expectations. Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory

10.10.2019

Introduction

Victor Vroom's expectancy theory refers to motivation theories that are based on human needs and the factors that influence them.

Theories of motivation study what efforts and abilities a person makes to achieve various life goals, since his behavior model depends on this. According to such theories, the model of behavior chosen by a person is associated with his perception of reality and expectations from the world around him, as well as with possible consequences decisions made.

Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory

To begin with, I consider it important to talk a little about who Victor Vroom is and why one of the theories of motivation is named after him.

Victor Vroom is a successful Canadian psychologist and teacher who was born in 1932. He supplemented the theory of expectations with the concept of "valency", i.e. attractiveness for a person of each specific result of an action. Thus, the value of valence determines to what extent the result obtained is a means for obtaining a certain value.

Vroom's valency theory supplemented expectancy theory and provided big influence on psychology, as it claims that the model of human behavior changes depending on the expected result.

So, the theory of expectations is based on the fact that the presence of an active need is the only condition for motivating a person to achieve a goal. The individual believes and hopes that decisions made and the chosen behavior will necessarily lead to the achievement of the desired goal.

The theory of motivation consists of three relationships:

"Labor costs - Result".

This is obviously the ratio between the effort expended and the expected result. For example, a sales manager might expect to make more appointments with prospects if they make 5 more calls.

If there is no direct and visible connection between the efforts expended and the result achieved, then the level of staff motivation will steadily decrease.

The main reasons for this are:

low qualification of personnel;
lack of authority to perform any functions;
low self-esteem and the like.

"The result is the reward."

This is a natural desire to be rewarded for the results achieved. For example, our sales manager might expect to receive a percentage of a successful deal.

At this stage, it is also important to have a visible connection between the result and remuneration, otherwise the motivation of the staff will decrease. Why would a sales manager go out of his way to find new customers if he doesn't get a decent reward?

Also, if an employee is sure that, after achieving results, he will be expected to receive unworthy rewards compared to the efforts expended, then his desire to complete the work will be reduced.

Satisfaction with the reward.

This is the expected level of satisfaction after receiving a reward.

The expectations and needs of individuals are different, so the reward offered may be of value to one but not of any value to another.

For example, after a series of successful deals, a manager could receive a bonus to his salary at the time he expected to get the position of commercial director.

Figure 1 shows the general formula of Victor Vroom's expectancy theory.

Figure 1 - The general formula of the theory of expectations by V. Vroom

Practical Application of Expectancy Theory

The considered theory offers a wide range of opportunities for managing the motivation of the company's personnel.

Often, managers offer rewards without assessing the degree of its attractiveness to the employee. As we found out different people perceive the same reward differently. Obviously, in order to effectively stimulate staff motivation, it is necessary to work out remuneration in accordance with the needs of each employee. It is important to understand that it is worth rewarding only efficient work.

The value of this or that reward strongly depends on the needs of the person. Therefore, in order to motivate an employee, it is necessary to reward him with what is of the greatest value to him, while the reward is necessarily associated with the achievement of the organization's goal.

So, the desire to receive a reward depends on two factors:

employee reward values;
real possibility of achieving the goal.

When motivating, it is important to inspire staff that high level results are achievable with due effort. This will increase the self-esteem of employees, which will positively affect the level of motivation and interest in the activities of the enterprise.

The level of motivation directly depends on the level of expectations of the manager. It has been proven in psychology that the expectations of one person greatly influence the behavior of another.

Goals must be monitored. In the process of work, obstacles may appear on the way to achieving the goal, which reduces the level of staff motivation. The more important the goal is for the employee, the more his motivation decreases. In such cases, it makes sense to underestimate the level of expected results so as not to distort the employee's ideas about the reality of achieving the goal, therefore, motivation will decrease again. Reduced motivation reduces the contribution of employees and makes it difficult to achieve the goal.

It should not be forgotten that personnel are able to achieve the required results to receive valuable rewards if the authority granted to them and their special skills correspond to the requirements of the task.

Expectancy theory has its roots in the 1930s. To a large extent, it is connected with the works of K. Levin, however, its main developer in relation to the motivation and behavior of a person in an organization is V. Vroom.

Expectancy theory is based on the fact that the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition motivation of a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must also hope that the behavior he has chosen will actually lead to the satisfaction or acquisition of the desired. Thus, expectations can be viewed as an individual's assessment of the likelihood of a certain event. For example, most students rightly expect that successful college graduation will enable them to earn Good work and by working with full dedication, they will be able to advance in the service.

Motivation of a person to work determined by three interrelated factors.

Expectations of the desired result from the extra effort expended(costs - results).
For example, a salesperson might expect that if they call 10 more people in a week than usual, their sales will increase by 15%. A manager can expect that if he puts in the extra effort and writes the quarterly report on time, he will get high marks for his performance. A worker in a factory can expect that if he produces high quality products with a minimum amount of waste of raw materials, he will be promoted.

Of course, in all the examples given, people may not expect their extra effort to produce the desired results. According to the expectation theory, if employees feel that there is no direct connection between the efforts expended and the results achieved, then motivation weakens. The relationship "cost - result" may not be due to incorrect self-assessment of the employee, his poor preparation or improper training, or because the employee was not given enough rights to complete the task.
Expectations of reward for the result(result - reward).
Continuing with the above examples, we note that with a 15% increase in sales, the sales agent can expect to receive a certain percentage of the bonus. A manager may expect that, as a result of his efforts, his performance will be highly appreciated by management, he will receive a promotion, and he will have associated benefits and privileges. The worker may expect that by raising his rank he will receive a higher wages or become a foreman.
If there is no clear relationship between the results achieved and the desired reward, motivation labor activity is weakening. For example, if a sales agent is confident that additional calls will lead to a 15% increase in sales, but it is unlikely that he will be adequately rewarded for this, he may not call. Similarly, if an employee is confident that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable effort, he still cannot achieve these results, then the motivation will be weak.
Valence, or the expected value of the reward.
Valence is the degree of attractiveness of the actually received reward, its compliance with the expected. Since various people needs and desires regarding rewards differ, then the specific reward offered for the results achieved may not be of value to them. For example, a manager expected to be promoted for the work done, but received a slight increase in salary. In this case, the valence of the remuneration received is not too high, and the motivation of the manager's work activity will weaken.

If at least one of the three listed factors slightly affects motivation, then motivation will be weak, and labor results will be low.

Because people have different needs, they value rewards differently. Therefore, the management of the organization must match the proposed remuneration with the needs of employees and bring them into line. Often employees are rewarded before they have a chance to evaluate it. This can lead to their demotivation.
For effective motivation, the manager must establish a firm relationship between the results achieved and the reward. Subordinates should be rewarded only for effective work.
Managers must set a high but realistic level of performance expected of subordinates and instill in them that they can achieve them if they put in the effort. If the manager's level of expectation is high, the performance of subordinates is likely to be excellent. If his level of expectations is not too high, then performance is likely to be poor.
Employees will be able to achieve the level of performance required to receive tangible remuneration if the level of authority delegated to them, their professional skills are sufficient to complete the task.
It is necessary to assist subordinates in their awareness of the reality of tasks and ways to complete them, the value of the remuneration received for this. Such assistance increases the labor efforts of workers.

Evaluating W. Vroom's expectancy theory, we come to the following general conclusions: its value lies primarily in proving that in the process of forming motives, employees not only correlate the goals of the organization and individual tasks with their own needs and determine their personal attractiveness, but also evaluate the means, tools and the likelihood of achieving these goals. That is why it is not enough just to offer employees strong incentives, it is important to indicate to them the means and opportunities for achieving goals.

The motivational theory of expectations, a great contribution to the development of which was made by V. Vroom, is one of the most famous theories of the motivation process.

According to the motivational theory of expectations, it is not the needs of people themselves that have a motivational effect, but the thought process in which the individual evaluates the reality of achieving the goal and receiving the desired reward.

The theory of expectations asserts the dependence of the efforts that an individual undertakes on his awareness of the reality of achieving the goal and the desirability of achieving it.

A classic example: a university student preparing for an exam. Suppose this is the last exam, all the previous ones were passed with excellent marks, and the student knows that if he passes this exam with excellent marks, he will receive an increased scholarship for the next semester. Student motivation is influenced by:

faith in one’s own strength, that is, in the reality of getting an “excellent” mark in the upcoming exam, because he was able to pass all the previous ones with the desired result;
the desirability of receiving an increased scholarship.

If a student were not sure that he would be able to get an "A" on an exam, or that an excellent grade would earn him a higher scholarship, he would not have the motivation to conscientiously prepare for the upcoming exam.

So, the motivational theory of expectations considers two types of expectations of an individual that affect the effectiveness of his activity:

The first type of expectation is related to the question: Will the efforts made ensure a high level of performance of work tasks? In order for expectations to be met, the individual must have the appropriate abilities, experience in similar activities, as well as necessary tools, equipment and opportunities to do the job. In the example of the student, the expectation of this type would be high enough if he was sure that the enhanced preparation would allow him to get an “excellent” mark on the last exam. If a student believes that he has neither the appropriate abilities nor training opportunities, he is unlikely to strive for an excellent mark;
The second type of expectation is related to the answer to the question: Will the effective activity lead to the desired results? For example, a person wants to receive some benefit related to his work. In order to receive the desired reward, he must achieve a certain level of performance of work tasks. If this expectation is high, the individual will be motivated to hard work. If he is sure that working until the “seventh sweat” will not allow him to get the desired benefits, the motivation will be much lower.

The degree of motivation is also influenced by the value or attractiveness for the individual of the results obtained. If the results that can be achieved by good work and significant efforts are not of interest to a person, his motivation is at a low level. On the contrary, results that are valuable to the individual create strong motivation.

Publications

Brandin V.A. Personnel as an interested party in the enterprise management system
The role of personnel in the efficiency of the enterprise is considered. Personnel motivation is considered as one of the main components of management.

Motivation and reward
Selection of materials on the motivation and material stimulation of the labor of personnel.

Gromova D. Motivation of personnel in the conditions of anti-crisis management and restructuring
Approaches to the motivation of personnel at JSC Volgograd Tractor Plant at various stages (anti-crisis management, restructuring, implementation of reforms) of the activity of this enterprise are considered.

Volgina O.N. Features and mechanisms of labor motivation in financial and credit organizations
Both existing principles and new approaches to strengthening labor motivation and the most efficient use of the potential of employees of financial and credit organizations (on the example of a commercial bank) are considered and analyzed.

Related sections and other sites

VRUM Victor is a Canadian psychologist.

Born on 08/09/1932.

Received a bachelor's degree from McGill University (1953).

Master of Science at McGill University (1955)

doctorate from the University of Michigan (1958).

Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan from 1958 to 1959. Winner of the Ford Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Competition (1958).

Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania (1960-1963).

Received a Ford Foundation Fellowship in 1961.

Associate Professor of Postgraduate Studies industrial control Institute of Technology Carnegie (1963-1966).

Professor of Psychology and Industrial Leadership at Carnegie Mellon University (1966-1972).

Winner of the McKinsey Foundation Research Competition (1967).

Fulbright Scholarship Recipient.

Recipient of the James McKean Cattell Award of the American Psychological Association (1970),

the Yale Alumni Association's Pedagogy Achievement Award (1994).

Professor of Administrative Sciences and Psychology at Yale University (1972-1973).

President of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (1980-1981).

He is currently Professor of Psychology and Industrial Administration at Yale University. In 1964, the fundamental work Work and Motivation (Vroom V. H. Work and Motivation. N. Y., 1964.) appeared, and in 1965 the book Motivation in Management (Vroom V. H. Motivation in Management . N. Y ., 1965), which played an exceptionally important role in the development of the theory and practice of modern management.

Vroom developed his theory of valency, the instrumentality of expectations, which then became extremely influential in organizational psychology. This theory states that people behave in a particular way when they expect that their efforts will most likely lead to the desired result.

According to its author, the study of motivation becomes necessary when studying such problems as the choice of the sphere of professional employment, labor mobility, job satisfaction, and ensuring a high level of productivity. He based his theory on the concept choice. The fundamental difference between his concept, as well as theories of this class in general, is expressed in the fact that a person's behavior is not determined once and for all by a rigid scheme of his needs. An individual can choose a strategy of behavior among a variety of alternative options. That is why the phenomenon of choice plays a decisive role. A person chooses the course of action that promises him the best results. Motivated behavior is rational in the sense that a person finds the best means to achieve their own goals.

In order to understand this theory, you need to know some important terms.

The first one is expectation, which, according to Vroom, is "the belief in the probability that a particular action will be followed by a particular result."

Valence is the attraction, or perceived value, that a person ascribes to each particular outcome. In turn, the value of valence is determined by the extent to which the result obtained becomes means to get something of some value.

For example, a worker may want to work hard because he believes that hard work will pay more (high expectation). The valence of higher earnings is determined by whether the money received allows, presumably, to buy a new car, which the worker and his family so badly need. Therefore, motivational pressure on a person, prompting him to perform a certain action or choose a certain alternative, is equal to the perceived probability (expectation) that this action will lead to the desired result, multiplied by the perceived value (valency) of this result.

Motivational theory of expectations by V. Vroom

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So in general terms, the formula of motivation according to the theory of expectations looks like:

Motivation = Cost - Outcome x Outcome - Reward x Reward Value.

The theory of expectations is based on the position that the presence of an active need is not the only and necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal.

A person must also hope that the type of behavior he has chosen will actually lead to the satisfaction or acquisition of the desired good.

Expectations can be thought of as an assessment by a given person of the likelihood of a certain event. Most people, for example, expect that graduating from college will get them better jobs and that if they work hard, they can move up the corporate ladder. Analyzing the motivation of labor activity, the expectation theory identifies three important relationships: labor costs - results; results - reward and valence (satisfaction with this reward). Expectations for the first link (3-P) is the ratio between the effort expended and the results obtained. For example, a factory worker may expect that if he produces a higher quality product with a minimum amount of waste, then this will allow him to increase his skill level. People, of course, may not expect that their efforts will lead to the desired result. If they feel that there is no direct connection between the efforts expended and the results achieved, then, according to the theory of expectation, their motivation will weaken. The lack of relationship may be due to the worker's incorrect self-assessment, his poor professional training, or due to the fact that he was not given enough rights and opportunities to complete the task.

Expectations for results - rewards (R-B) - these are the expectations of a certain remuneration or encouragement in response to the achieved results of work. The worker mentioned in the first case may expect that, having increased his rank, he will receive a higher wage or become a foreman.

In this connection, as well as in the previous one, if a person does not feel a clear connection between the results achieved and the desired reward, the motivation for work will weaken. If a person is confident that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable effort he cannot achieve these results, then the motivation of his work will also be weak.

The third factor - valency (the value of the reward or reward) - is the perceived degree of relative satisfaction or dissatisfaction arising from the receipt of a certain reward. Since different people have different needs and desires for rewards, the specific reward offered in response to the results achieved may not be of any value to them. The worker, of whom we have spoken in previous cases, may receive an increase in wages, while he expected to become a foreman, which would give him the opportunity for self-expression and recognition of his merits. If the valency is low, i.e. the value of the remuneration received for a person is not too great, then the theory of expectations predicts that the motivation for labor activity in this case will also weaken. If the value of any of these three important factors for determining motivation is small, then motivation will be weak and labor results will be low.

Expectancy is measured from zero to one, just like any other probability value. The closer the expected probability of achieving the result is to one, the more the person is convinced that his actions will lead to the desired result. If expectations are zero, then he regards his chances as negligible, believing that no action will help him achieve the desired outcome. The motivational force that determines a person's choice is expressed by Vroom through the following relationship: strength, to get a person to perform a certain action is a monotonically increasing function of the algebraic sum of the products of the valences of all outcomes and the strength of the expectation that the action will lead to the achievement of these outcomes.

Positive motivation occurs when an action is expected to produce desirable consequences, while negative motivation occurs when an action is expected to produce unpleasant results. In order to predict the behavior of an individual, it is necessary to know the valence of the results for him at a given point in time and the degree of his confidence (subjective probability) that certain actions will lead to certain results. Their multiplicative ratio is the force that induces a person to perform (not to perform) one or another action.

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Motivational theory of expectations by V. Vroom

– the degree of motivation of employees of the organization to work (or any other activity) depends on their ideas about their abilities to perform the tasks they face and the reality of achieving the goal.

brief information on the term

The motivational theory of expectations, a great contribution to the development of which was made by V. Vroom, is one of the most famous theories of the motivation process.

The theory of expectations asserts the dependence of the efforts that an individual undertakes on his awareness of the reality of achieving the goal and the desirability of achieving it.

faith in one’s own strength, that is, in the reality of getting an “excellent” mark in the upcoming exam, because he was able to pass all the previous ones with the desired result;

the desirability of receiving an increased scholarship.

So, the motivational theory of expectations considers two types of expectations of an individual that affect the effectiveness of his activity:

The first type of expectation is related to the question: Will the efforts made ensure a high level of performance of work tasks? In order for expectations to be met, the individual must have the appropriate abilities, experience in similar activities, as well as the necessary tools, equipment and capabilities to perform the work. In the example of the student, the expectation of this type would be high enough if he was sure that intensive preparation would allow him to get an “excellent” mark on the last exam. If a student believes that he has neither the appropriate abilities nor training opportunities, he is unlikely to strive for an excellent mark;

The second type of expectation is related to the answer to the question: Will the effective activity lead to the desired results? For example, a person wants to receive some benefit related to his work. In order to receive the desired reward, he must achieve a certain level of performance of work tasks. If this expectation is high, the individual will be motivated to work hard. If he is sure that working until the “seventh sweat” will not allow him to get the desired benefits, the motivation will be much lower.

Vroom's expectancy theory is hard to understand. Reading his book "Work and Motivation" will help little in understanding his ideas, since much attention is paid to the mathematical characteristics of various dimensions. Nevertheless, we can draw four important conclusions from Vroom's book that managers can use as a guide.

First, the expectation of reward is more significant than is often believed. People make choices based on what they think will happen in the future rather than on past events.

Second, remuneration should be closely and unambiguously linked to such activities as are necessary for the organization. Those behaviors that are seen as beneficial to the organization should be rewarded openly, regularly and generously.

Thirdly, people value rewards differently (Mayo's thesis of individual differences), so that when distributing rewards according to the results obtained by the organization, one should take into account the desires of each individual employee (Mitchell).

And finally, fourthly, the reward should be equivalent to the effort expended on the performance of the work task.

In 1995 Victor Vroom proposed a number of ideas for transforming expectations theory. These proposals are not a detailed theory, but directions for creating a "modern theory of expectations" that will be consistent with the latest scientific findings. Among these proposals are:

1. situational theory, according to which the level of perception of alternatives will not be fixed (as in existing theory expectations), but will vary. At one end, there may be behavior influenced by strong emotions or habits, where actions are largely independent of goals and information. At the other end, there may be fairly simple choice problems in which the alternatives are clear and all information about them is available. In this case, the level of perception of information by the individual approaches that which is represented by the theory of expectations. Although, of course, this level will depend on the limiting factors and deviations set by the proponents of the prospect theory.

2. Inclusion of mechanisms for the emergence of motives. Valency does not have the same properties as profitability. The valency of the results varies directly depending on the situation. Inclusion in expectancy theory of mechanisms that link valency and factors environment environment, can bring this theory closer to goal-setting research.

3. A Closer Look at Intrinsic Motivation. The valence of an outcome, such as the successful completion of a task or job, is seen in expectancy theory as a quantity that depends on ideas about the circumstances of achieving other outcomes (such as a higher salary or self-esteem) and the significance of these outcomes. A distinction is made between intrinsic motivation, in which the valence of results depends on processes that influence from within, and extrinsic motivation, in which the valence of results can be reduced to the expected actions of others and the rewards and punishments of what is not under control.

When the last question is carefully worked out, it becomes clear that expectancy theory deals with extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.

Expectation theory in management practice

For managers who seek to increase the motivation of the workforce, expectations theory presents various possibilities for this.

Quite often, rewards are offered before they are evaluated by employees. Since different people have different needs, they evaluate the specific reward differently. Therefore, the management of the organization must match the proposed remuneration with the needs of employees and bring them into line and give remuneration only for effective work.

What a person values depends on his needs. In order for a person to be motivated for a certain activity, it is necessary to reward his achievements in this activity with what he values, and the reward should be related to the achievement of the organization's goal.

The goal is usually associated with the direct or indirect satisfaction of a need. The strength of the direction of activity towards achieving the goal depends in part on the extent to which the person feels rewarded for achieving the goal.

The strength of the desire for a reward or other goal (in other words, performance motivation) depends on:

reward values ("desirability")

achievability of reward (the reality of receiving reward, "value of expectations").

In order for a person to be motivated for a certain activity, it is necessary to reward his achievements in this activity with what he values, and the reward should be related to the achievement of the organization's goal.

The leadership of the organization must formulate a high, but realistic level of results expected from subordinates, and instill in them that they can achieve them if they put in the effort. How employees evaluate their strengths largely depends on what management expects from them.

If the manager's level of expectations is high, the performance of subordinates is likely to be high too. If his expectations are not too high, then performance is likely to be poor. The powerful influence exerted by the expectations of one person on the behavior of another has long been recognized by psychologists, educators and managers.

If expectations are not met, obstacles to achieving the goal give rise to a feeling of futility of efforts. The greater the importance (value) of an unachieved goal for a person, the greater the sense of futility. The next time, perhaps, the level of the goal will be slightly lowered, and if the goal is not achieved several times, the assessment of the reality of its achievement will decrease and, as mentioned above, the motivation will decrease. The feeling of futility reduces motivation, and low motivation reduces the performance contribution, complicates the achievement of the goal.

It should be remembered that employees will be able to achieve the level of performance required to receive valuable remuneration if the delegated authority and their professional skills are sufficient for the task.

Expectancy theory is not easy to apply in practice. It is abstract and complex in one respect, but it is quite concrete and simple in another: we all recognize the importance of the expected outcome in shaping our behavior, and expectancy theory allows us to apply everything we know about ourselves to the motivation of those with whom we work.

Consequences of the Vroom Model for Organizational Behavior. Vroom's theory differs from content theories in that it describes the state of cognitive variables that reflect individual differences in work motivation. She does not try to explain what the content of motivation is and what individual differences are. Each person is characterized by a unique combination of valencies, instrumentality, and expectations. Therefore, Vroom's theory only points to the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they relate to each other. It does not provide concrete suggestions about what motivates members of an organization, as the models of Maslow, Herzberg, and Alderfer do.

Although the Vroom model does not directly contribute to the methods of personnel motivation, it is of some value for understanding organizational behavior. This theory helps to clarify the relationship between personal goals and organizational goals. Suppose, for example, that a specific production rate is defined for workers. By measuring the performance of each of them, management can determine how significant different individual goals are (second level results - for example, money, security, recognition); how the organization's goals (level one outcomes, such as output rates) can be used as a means to achieve personal goals; what are the expectations of employees regarding how much their efforts and abilities will contribute to the achievement of the organization's goal. If their return is below the norm, this may indicate that employees do not particularly value the results of the second level or they do not see how the results of the first level will achieve the results of the second level; or they think that their efforts will not lead to the achievement of the results of the first level. Vroom believes that any of these options alone or in combination with the others leads to low level motivation to do the job. The model is designed to help managers understand and analyze employee motivation and identify relevant variables; it does not provide concrete solutions to motivational problems. In addition to the existing problems of practical application, this model, like early economic theory, assumes that people are rational and their behavior can be logically calculated. Such an assumption is probably too idealistic.

The value of the Vroom model. The main reason why the Vroom model has become a significant modern model of work motivation and has given rise to a lot of research papers is most likely that it does not resort to simplifications. Content theories oversimplify human motivation.

On the one hand, they remain exceptionally popular because their ideas are easy to understand and apply to situations faced by practical managers. On the other hand, the VIE theory recognizes the complexity of work motivation, but at the same time it is difficult to understand and apply. Thus, from a theoretical point of view, VIE helps managers to understand the complexity of the motivation process, although it does not contribute to solving practical problems.

This theory was developed in the 1930s. Kurt Lewin, W. Vroom, and L. Porter and E. Lawler.

In accordance with their concept, the process of motivation according to the theory of expectation consists of the interaction of three blocks:

- efforts;

- execution;

- result.

At the same time, efforts are considered as a consequence and even the result of motivation, performance - as a consequence of the interaction of efforts, personal capabilities and the state of the environment, and the result as a function that depends on performance and on the degree of desire to obtain results of a certain type.

The result in expectation theory is considered at two levels. The results of the first level are the actual results of the work, the implementation of actions. They are expressed in terms of the quality and quantity of the product produced, the amount of time spent, the amount of time lost, etc. Second-level results are the consequences for a person that follow from the results of the first level and are associated with possible rewards or punishments that will follow from the management. and environment based on their evaluation of the results of the first level. In practice, one of the forms of the results of the second level can be an increase or decrease in pay, promotion or demotion, positive or negative reaction of the team, etc.

Performance reflects the extent to which each specific result is desirable for a person, how attractive it is for him or, conversely, unattractive, that is, performance reflects the priorities for a person of certain results. If the result is highly valued by a person, then it has a positive direction, but if the result is denied by a person, then it has a negative direction.

In expectancy theory, it is believed that a number of preconditions must be met in order for the motivation process to take place.

These conditions are:

The employees have a sufficiently high degree of expectation of the results of the first level;

The presence of a sufficiently high degree of expectation of the results of the second level and the total non-negative valency of the results of the second level.

Thus, expectancy theory is based on the assumption that people act in response to consequences. It follows that the theory is designed to answer the question why a person makes a particular choice, faced with several alternatives, and how much he strives to achieve an outcome in accordance with his choice.

113. The theory of justice (equality) J. Stacy Adams

One of the constant aspirations of people is the desire to receive a fair assessment of their actions. At the same time, justice is associated with equality, in comparing attitudes towards others and evaluating their actions. If a person believes that he is approached in the same way as others, without discrimination, evaluating his actions from the same positions as the actions of others, then, having felt the fairness of the attitude, he feels satisfied. If equality is violated, if individual members of the organization receive undeservedly high marks and rewards, then the person feels offended, and this leads to dissatisfaction. At the same time, dissatisfaction can occur even when a person receives a high remuneration in relation to the costs of his labor.

One of the theories of the motivational process, the theory of equality, is based on the influence of this factor. The founder of the theory is Stacey Adams, who, after conducting research at General Electric, formulated its provisions. The main position of the theory of equality is that in the process of work a person compares how his actions were evaluated with how the actions of others were evaluated. And on the basis of this comparison, depending on whether he is satisfied with his comparative assessment or not, a person modifies his behavior.

It follows that it was created in the 60s. 20th century S. Adams, the theory aims to receive a decent reward for the work and effort expended by the employee

Adams formulated the following principles for improving the efficiency of managing an organization in the face of staff inequality:

Monitoring staff perceptions of personal contribution and remuneration received;

Expressing the personal contribution of the individual employee to the overall work and the corresponding remuneration in an understandable form;

Mandatory encouragement of the best employees;

The theory of equality operates in the following main categories:

An individual is a person who evaluates actions from the standpoint of justice and injustice;

Compared persons - individuals and groups of people in relation to which the individual compares the assessment of his actions;

Perceived costs of others - an individual's idea of the total amount of costs, the contribution made by the compared persons;

The rate is the ratio of perceived costs to perceived rewards.