Atmospheric pollution can cause non-communicable diseases in humans, in addition, they can worsen the sanitary conditions of people's lives and cause economic damage.
Biological effect of atmospheric pollution
Damage to health is the most formidable consequence of air pollution, since most xenobiotics enter the body through the respiratory organs, behind which there is no chemical barrier. In addition, it must be taken into account that a person daily consumes a significant amount of air (an adult - 12 m 3 of air).
The reaction of the body to the impact of atmospheric pollution will depend on individual characteristics, age, gender, health, weather conditions. The most vulnerable are the elderly, children, the sick, people working in hazardous working conditions, smokers.
Atmospheric pollution can have acute and chronic effects.
Acute impact. The acute impact of atmospheric air pollution is manifested only in special situations associated with unfavorable meteorological conditions or with an accident at an enterprise that is a source of air pollution. Acute exposure may be accompanied by an increase in mortality from chronic diseases, general morbidity, the frequency of visits for exacerbation of chronic cardiovascular, pulmonary and allergic diseases, as well as physiological and biochemical changes in the body of a non-specific nature. During periods of a sharp increase in the level of pollution, the severity of these violations increases sharply. The components of air pollution in these cases, as a rule, play the role of not etiological, but provoking factors that contribute to an increase in morbidity.
Chronic exposure
Chronic exposure to air pollution is the most frequent and adverse.
· annoying. The upper respiratory tract may be affected with the development of laryngitis, tracheitis, rhinitis. The lungs are affected - chronic bronchitis, pneumonia with the development of emphysema, respiratory and cardiovascular insufficiency. There is damage to the mucous membrane of the eyes with the occurrence of conjunctivitis, keratitis, as well as skin diseases (dermatitis).
reflex reactions. Atmospheric air pollution can cause various reflex reactions due to irritation of the reflex zones. These reactions are manifested by cough, nausea, headache, the severity of which correlates with the level of air pollution. Reflex reactions affect the regulation of respiration, the activity of the cardiovascular system and other systems. Irritation of the receptors of the nasal mucosa can cause narrowing of the bronchi and glottis, bradycardia, and lead to a decrease in cardiac output. Reflexes from the pharynx can cause a strong contraction of the diaphragm, external intercostal muscles. With irritation of the larynx and trachea, a cough reflex occurs, contraction of the smooth muscles of the bronchi occurs, and irritation of the receptors of the intrapulmonary bronchi can cause hyperpnea, bronchoconstriction, contraction of the muscles of the larynx
Allergenic. There are diseases of the respiratory organs (bronchial asthma, allergic bronchitis), skin (allergodermatoses), mucous membranes of the eyes (allergic conjunctivitis). Described "Yokohama bronchial asthma", at the site of industrial emissions. The occurrence of this disease is due to the action of biphenyls. Organic (BVK), inorganic substances, PAHs act as allergens.
carcinogenic. Carcinogens are 3,4 - benzpyrene, arsenic, asbestos, benzene, nickel and other compounds. When these substances enter the human body, malignant neoplasms of various localization may occur.
teratogenic. Air pollutants can cause birth defects in the fetus.
mutagenic. Generative (occur in germ cells and in this case are transmitted to subsequent generations) and somatic (occur in somatic cells, are inherited during vegetative reproduction and can cause the development of malignant tumors) mutations arise.
Embryogenic. Atmospheric pollution can cause miscarriage and early termination of pregnancy.
general toxic. As a result of exposure to atmospheric pollution in humans, the overall incidence increases, including diseases of the cardiovascular system and gastrointestinal tract, the musculoskeletal system, the endocrine system, and life expectancy decreases.
photosensitizing. Air pollutants increase skin sensitivity to UV radiation. Excessive intake of ultraviolet rays can have a carcinogenic, mutagenic, general toxic effect, cause photophthalmia and photochemical burns.
specific diseases. Fluorosis is described during inhalation intake of fluorine compounds in the population living in the zone of influence of emissions from aluminum and superphosphate plants. The raw materials of these plants (bauxites, nephelines, apatites) contain fluorine compounds, which are present in large quantities in the emissions of enterprises into the atmospheric air.
Measures for the sanitary protection of atmospheric air
1. Legislative
There are a large number of regulations governing the protection of atmospheric air. The Constitution of the Russian Federation proclaims human rights to health protection (Article 41) and to a favorable environment (Article 42). The Federal Law "On the Protection environment» says that every citizen has the right to a favorable environment, to its protection from the negative impact caused by economic and other activities. The Law "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air" regulates the development and implementation of measures to eliminate and prevent air pollution - the construction of gas cleaning and dust collection devices at industrial enterprises and thermal power plants.
2. Technological
Technological measures are the main measures for the protection of atmospheric air, since only they can reduce or completely eliminate the release of harmful substances into the atmosphere at the place of their formation. These activities are directly directed at the source of emissions.
a) A radical measure to reduce emissions is the use of a closed technological process, i.e. this is the complete absence of emissions into the atmosphere of tail gases at the final stages of formation or off-gases (these are gases formed at intermediate stages of production) and their removal through special off-gas chambers. However, at the present stage of scientific and technological progress, there are no examples of the creation of technological processes operating on the principle of completely closed systems.
b) A more promising method is the method of integrated (maximum) use of raw materials, intermediate products and production waste by the type of creation of production with "waste-free" or low-waste technology (in the construction industry - the use of production waste).
c) Non-radical measures that reduce the risk of pollution include:
Replacing harmful substances in production with harmless or less harmful ones (transferring boiler houses from burning solid fuel and fuel oil to gas, replacing gasoline in internal combustion engines with hydrogen and other compounds);
Pre-treatment of fuel or raw materials in order to reduce the content of harmful impurities;
Use of wet technological processes for the processing of dusty materials instead of dry ones;
Sealing of technological equipment, apparatus;
The use of hydro- and pneumatic transport in the transportation of dusty materials;
Replacement of discontinuous processes with continuous ones (the continuity of the process excludes burst emissions of pollution).
3. Sanitary
The purpose of sanitary measures is to extract or neutralize the components of emissions that are in gaseous, liquid or solid form from organized stationary sources. For this, various gas and dust trapping installations are used.
Types of gas and dust collecting installations:
a) to remove suspended particles;
b) to remove gaseous and vaporous substances.
a) Structures for the removal of suspended solids include:
Dust settling chambers, dust collectors, cyclones, multi-cyclones for coarse dust removal. Dust particles are removed by mechanical force;
Filters that trap dust when passing through one or another filter material (fabric, fibrous, granular). A feature of electrostatic precipitators is that dust retention occurs under the action of electrostatic forces. Electrostatic precipitators are especially effective in capturing fine dust.
Wet cleaning devices (scrubbers, wet dust collectors). Dust particles are separated from the gas by washing with a liquid, preferably water.
b) For the purification of industrial emissions into the atmosphere from gas components, absorption by liquid and solid is used, catalytic conversion of harmful gaseous components of the emission into harmless compounds. The choice of method depends on the characteristics of the technology.
4. Architectural planning
This group of activities includes:
Functional zoning of the city territory, that is, the allocation of functional zones - residential, industrial, external transport, suburban, utility and warehouse;
Rational planning of the territory of the residential area;
Prohibition of the construction of enterprises that pollute the air in the residential area of the settlement and their placement in the industrial area, taking into account the prevailing wind direction in the area;
Creation of sanitary protection zones. The SPZ is the area around an industrial enterprise or other facility that is a source of environmental pollution, the size of which ensures that the levels of exposure to industrial hazards in a residential area are reduced to the maximum permissible values.
Depending on the expected nature and distance of pollution spread, the SPZ can have different lengths (class 1 - 1000 m, class 2 - 500 m, class 3 - 300 m, class 4 - 100 m, class 5 - 50 m). Under certain conditions, it is possible to reduce or increase the size of the SPZ.
Rational building of streets, arrangement of transport interchanges on the main highways with the construction of tunnels;
Landscaping of the city. Green spaces play the role of a kind of filters, affect the dispersion of industrial emissions in the atmosphere, changing the wind regime and the circulation of air masses.
The choice of a land plot for the construction of an enterprise, taking into account the terrain, air climatic conditions and other factors.
5. Administrative
Rational distribution of traffic flows according to their intensity, composition, time and direction of movement;
Restriction of movement within the residential area of the city of heavy vehicles;
Monitoring the condition of road surfaces and the timeliness of their repair and cleaning;
System for monitoring the technical condition of vehicles.
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The impact of air on health and the human body
In our difficult time of stress, heavy loads, constantly deteriorating environmental situation, the quality of the air we breathe is of particular importance. Air quality, its impact on our health directly depends on the amount of oxygen in it. But it is constantly changing.
About the state of the air in big cities, about the harmful substances that pollute it, about the effect of air on health and the human body, we will tell you on our website www.rasteniya-lecarstvennie.ru.
About 30% of urban residents have health problems, and one of the main reasons for this is the air with a low oxygen content. To determine the level of blood oxygen saturation, you need to measure it using a special device - a pulse oximeter.
Such a device is simply necessary for people with lung disease to determine in time that they need medical help.
How does indoor air affect health?
As we have said, the oxygen content of the air we breathe is constantly changing. For example, on the sea coast, its amount averages 21.9%. The volume of oxygen in a large city is already 20.8%. And even less indoors, since the already insufficient amount of oxygen is reduced due to the breathing of people in the room.
Inside residential and public buildings, even very small sources of pollution create high concentrations of it, since the volume of air there is small.
Modern man spends most of his time indoors. Therefore, not even a large number of toxic substances (for example, polluted air from the street, finishing polymeric materials, incomplete combustion of domestic gas) can affect his health, performance.
In addition, the atmosphere with toxic substances affects a person, combined with other factors: air temperature, humidity, radioactive background, etc. In case of non-observance of hygiene, sanitary requirements(ventilation, wet cleaning, ionization, air conditioning) the internal environment of rooms where people are located can become hazardous to health.
Also, the chemical composition of the indoor air atmosphere significantly depends on the quality of the ambient air. Dust, exhaust gases, toxic substances from the outside penetrate into the room.
To protect yourself from this, you should use an air conditioning, ionization, purification system to purify the atmosphere of enclosed spaces. spend more often wet cleaning, do not use cheap materials hazardous to health when finishing.
How does city air affect health?
Human health is greatly affected by a large number of harmful substances in urban air. It contains a large amount carbon monoxide(SO) - up to 80%, which "provides" us with vehicles. This harmful substance is very insidious, odorless, colorless and very poisonous.
Carbon monoxide, getting into the lungs, binds to blood hemoglobin, prevents the supply of oxygen to tissues, organs, causing oxygen starvation, weakens thought processes. Sometimes it can cause loss of consciousness, and with strong concentration, it can cause death.
In addition to carbon monoxide, urban air contains about 15 other substances hazardous to health. Among them are acetaldehyde, benzene, cadmium, nickel. The urban atmosphere also contains selenium, zinc, copper, lead, and styrene. High concentration of formaldehyde, acrolein, xylene, toluene. Their danger is such that these harmful substances the human body only accumulates, which is why their concentration increases. After a while, they already become dangerous to humans.
These harmful chemicals are often responsible for hypertension, coronary heart disease, and kidney failure. There is also a high concentration of harmful substances around industrial enterprises, plants, factories. Studies have shown that half of the exacerbation of chronic diseases of people living near enterprises is caused by bad, dirty air.
The situation is much better in rural areas, “sleeping urban areas”, where there are no enterprises, power plants nearby, and there is also a small concentration of vehicles.
Residents of big cities are saved by powerful air conditioners that clean the air masses from dust, dirt, soot. But, you should be aware that passing through the filter, the cooling-heating system also cleans the air of useful ions. Therefore, as an addition to the air conditioner, you should have an ionizer.
Most people need oxygen:
* Children, they need twice as much as seven adults.
* Pregnant women - they spend oxygen on themselves and on their unborn child.
* Elderly people, as well as people with poor health. They need oxygen to improve their well-being, prevent the exacerbation of diseases.
* Athletes need oxygen to enhance physical activity, accelerate muscle recovery after sports stress.
* Schoolchildren, students, everyone involved in mental work to enhance concentration, reduce fatigue.
The effect of air on the human body is obvious. favorable conditions air environment – the most important factor maintaining human health and performance. Therefore, try to provide best cleaning air in the room. Also, try to leave the city as soon as possible. Go to the forest, to the reservoir, walk in parks, squares.
Breathe the clean, healthy air you need to stay healthy. Be healthy!
Atmospheric air: its pollution
Atmospheric air pollution by road transport emissions
The car is this “symbol” of the 20th century. in the industrialized countries of the West, where public transport is poorly developed, it is increasingly becoming a real disaster. Tens of millions of private cars filled the streets of cities and highways, every now and then there are many kilometers of "traffic jams", expensive fuel is burned to no avail, the air is poisoned by poisonous exhaust gases. In many cities, they exceed the total emissions into the atmosphere of industrial enterprises. The total capacity of automobile engines in the USSR significantly exceeds the installed capacity of all thermal power plants in the country. Accordingly, cars “eat up” much more fuel than thermal power plants, and if it is possible to increase the efficiency of automobile engines at least a little, this will result in millions of savings.
Automobile exhaust gases are a mixture of approximately 200 substances. They contain hydrocarbons - unburned or incompletely burned fuel components, the proportion of which increases sharply if the engine is running at low speeds or at the time of increasing speed at the start, i.e. during traffic jams and at a red traffic light. It is at this moment, when the accelerator is pressed, that the most unburned particles are released: about 10 times more than during normal engine operation. The unburned gases also include ordinary carbon monoxide, which is formed in one quantity or another everywhere where something is burned. The exhaust gases of an engine running on normal gasoline and in normal mode contain an average of 2.7% carbon monoxide. With a decrease in speed, this share increases to 3.9%, and at low speed, up to 6.9%.
Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and most other engine gases are heavier than air, so they all accumulate near the ground. Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from carrying oxygen to the tissues of the body. Exhaust gases also contain aldehydes, which have a pungent odor and irritant effect. These include acroleins and formaldehyde; the latter has a particularly strong effect. Automobile emissions also contain nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen dioxide plays an important role in the formation of hydrocarbon conversion products in the atmospheric air. The exhaust gases contain undecomposed fuel hydrocarbons. Among them, a special place is occupied by unsaturated hydrocarbons of the ethylene series, in particular, hexene and pentene. Due to incomplete combustion of fuel in a car engine, part of the hydrocarbons turns into soot containing resinous substances. Especially a lot of soot and resins are formed when technical failure motor and at times when the driver, forcing the operation of the engine, reduces the ratio of air and fuel, trying to get the so-called "rich mixture". In these cases, a visible tail of smoke trails behind the machine, which contains polycyclic hydrocarbons and, in particular, benzo(a)pyrene.
1 liter of gasoline may contain about 1 g of tetraethyl lead, which breaks down and is released as lead compounds. There is no lead in emissions from diesel vehicles. Tetraethyl lead has been used in the USA since 1923 as an additive to gasoline. Since that time, the release of lead into the environment has been continuously increasing. The annual per capita consumption of lead for gasoline in the US is about 800 g. Lead levels close to toxic levels have been observed in traffic police officers and in those who are constantly exposed to car exhaust. Studies have shown that pigeons living in Philadelphia contain 10 times more lead than pigeons living in rural areas. Lead is one of the main poisoners of the environment; and it is supplied mainly by modern high compression engines produced by the automotive industry.
The contradictions of which the car is “woven” are perhaps not as sharply revealed in anything as in the matter of protecting nature. On the one hand, he made our life easier, on the other hand, he poisoned it. In the most direct and sad sense.
One passenger car annually absorbs more than 4 tons of oxygen from the atmosphere, emitting about 800 kg of carbon monoxide, about 40 kg of nitrogen oxides and almost 200 kg of various hydrocarbons with exhaust gases.
Exhaust gases of cars, air pollution
In connection with a sharp increase in the number of cars, the problem of combating atmospheric pollution by exhaust gases of internal combustion engines has become acute. Currently, 40-60% of air pollution is caused by cars. On average, emissions per car are, kg / year, carbon monoxide 135, nitrogen oxides 25, hydrocarbons 20, sulfur dioxide 4, particulate matter 1.2, benzpyrene 7-10. It is expected that by 2000 the number of cars in the world will be about 0.5 billion. Accordingly, they will emit into the atmosphere per year tons of carbon monoxide 7.7-10, nitrogen oxides 1.4-10, hydrocarbons 1.15-10 , sulfur dioxide 2.15-10 , particulate matter 7-10 , benzpyrene 40. Therefore, the fight against atmospheric pollution will become even more urgent. There are several ways to solve this problem. One of the most promising of them is the creation of electric vehicles.
Harmful emissions. It is well established that internal combustion engines, especially automobile carburetor engines, are the main sources of pollution. Exhaust gases from gasoline-powered vehicles, unlike LPG-fuelled vehicles, contain lead compounds. Anti-knock additives such as tetraethyl lead are the cheapest means of adapting conventional gasolines to modern high compression engines. After combustion, the lead-containing components of these additives are released into the atmosphere. If catalytic cleaning filters are used, the lead compounds absorbed by them deactivate the catalyst, as a result of which not only lead, but also carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons are emitted along with the exhaust gases in an amount depending on the conditions and standards for operating engines, as well as on conditions cleaning and a number of other factors. The concentration of contaminants in exhaust gases from both gasoline and LPG engines is quantified by the method now well known as the California test cycle. During most of the experiments, it was found that the transition of engines from gasoline to LPG leads to a decrease in the amount of carbon monoxide emissions by 5 times and unburned hydrocarbons by 2 times.
To reduce air pollution with exhaust gases containing lead, it is proposed to place porous polypropylene fibers or fabric based on them in an inert atmosphere at 1000 °C into the muffler of a car. The fibers adsorb up to 53% of the lead contained in the exhaust gases.
In connection with the increase in the number of cars in cities, the problem of atmospheric pollution with exhaust gases is becoming more and more acute. On average, about 1 kg of exhaust gases are emitted per day, containing oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, various (hydrocarbons and lead compounds.
As we can see, a catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, providing an easier way for it to proceed, but is itself not consumed in the reaction. This does not mean that the catalyst does not take part in the reaction. The FeBr3 molecule plays an important role in the multistage mechanism of the benzene bromination reaction discussed above. But at the end of the reaction, ReBr3 is regenerated in its original form. This is a general and characteristic property of any catalyst. A mixture of H2 and O2 gases may remain unchanged at room temperature for years without any noticeable reaction, but the addition of a small amount of platinum black causes an instantaneous explosion. Platinum black has the same effect on gaseous butane or alcohol vapor mixed with oxygen. (Some time ago, gas lighters using platinum black instead of a wheel and flint appeared on the market, but they quickly became unusable due to poisoning of the catalyst surface with impurities in butane gas. Tetraethyl lead also poisons catalysts that reduce automobile exhaust pollution, and therefore Vehicles fitted with such catalytic converters must use tetraethyl lead-free gasoline.)
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The impact of exhaust gases on human health
Car exhaust pipe
Outboard motors exhaust gases into the water, on many models through the propeller hub
Nitrogen oxides are the most dangerous, about 10 times more dangerous than carbon monoxide, the share of toxicity of aldehydes is relatively small and amounts to 4-5% of the total toxicity of exhaust gases. The toxicity of various hydrocarbons varies greatly. Unsaturated hydrocarbons in the presence of nitrogen dioxide are photochemically oxidized, forming toxic oxygen-containing compounds - components of smog.
The quality of afterburning on modern catalysts is such that the proportion of CO after the catalyst is usually less than 0.1%.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in gases are strong carcinogens. Among them, benzpyrene is the most studied, in addition to it, anthracene derivatives were found:
1,2-benzanthracene
1,2,6,7-dibenzanthracene
5,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene
In addition, when using sulphurous gasolines, sulfur oxides can be included in the exhaust gases, when using leaded gasolines - lead (Tetraethyl lead), bromine, chlorine, and their compounds. It is believed that aerosols of lead halides can undergo catalytic and photochemical transformations, participating in the formation of smog.
Prolonged contact with an environment poisoned by car exhaust gases causes a general weakening of the body - immunodeficiency. In addition, the gases themselves can cause various diseases. For example, respiratory failure, sinusitis, laryngotracheitis, bronchitis, bronchopneumonia, lung cancer. Exhaust gases also cause atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels. Indirectly through pulmonary pathology, various disorders of the cardiovascular system can also occur.
IMPORTANT!!!
Preventive measures to protect the human body from the harmful effects of the environment in an industrial city
Outdoor air pollution
Atmospheric air in industrial cities is polluted by emissions from thermal power plants, non-ferrous metallurgy, rare earth and other industries, as well as an increasing number of vehicles.
The nature and degree of impact of pollutants are different and are determined by their toxicity and excess of the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) established for these substances.
Characteristics of the main pollutants emitted into the atmosphere:
1. Nitrogen dioxide is a substance of hazard class 2. In acute nitrogen dioxide poisoning, pulmonary edema may develop. Signs of chronic poisoning - headaches, insomnia, damage to the mucous membranes.
Nitrogen dioxide is involved in photochemical reactions with hydrocarbons in car exhaust gases with the formation of acutely toxic organic substances and ozone, products of photochemical smog.
2. Sulfur dioxide is a substance of the 3rd hazard class. Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric anhydride in combination with suspended particles and moisture have a harmful effect on humans, living organisms and material values. Sulfur dioxide mixed with particulate matter and sulfuric acid leads to increased symptoms of breathing difficulties and lung disease.
3. Hydrogen fluoride is a substance of hazard class 2. In acute poisoning, irritation of the mucous membranes of the larynx and bronchi, eyes, salivation, nosebleeds occur; in severe cases - pulmonary edema, damage to the central nervous system, in chronic - conjunctivitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, pneumosclerosis, fluorosis. Characterized by skin lesions such as eczema.
4. Benz (a) pyrene - a substance of hazard class 1, present in car exhaust gases, is a very strong carcinogen, causes cancer in several locations, including the skin, lungs, and intestines. The main pollutant is motor vehicles, as well as CHP and heating of the private sector.
5. Lead is a hazard class 1 substance that negatively affects the following organ systems: hematopoietic, nervous, gastrointestinal and renal.
It is known that the half-life of its biological decay in the body as a whole is 5 years, and in human bones - 10 years.
6. Arsenic is a hazard class 2 substance that affects the nervous system. Chronic arsenic poisoning leads to loss of appetite and weight loss, gastrointestinal disorders, peripheral neurosis, conjunctivitis, hyperkeratosis, and skin melanoma. The latter occurs with prolonged exposure to arsenic and can lead to the development of skin cancer.
7. Natural gas radon is a product of the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. Entry into the human body occurs through air and water, excess doses of radon cause a risk of cancer. The main ways of getting radon into buildings are from soil through cracks and crevices, from walls and building structures, as well as with water from underground sources.
1. From the harmful effects of atmospheric air pollution during the onset of adverse weather conditions (NMU) for the dispersion of pollutants, it is recommended:
Limit physical activity and stay outdoors;
Close windows and doors. Carry out daily wet cleaning of the premises;
In cases of increased concentration of harmful substances in the atmospheric air (based on reports of NMU), it is advisable to use cotton-gauze bandages, respirators or handkerchiefs when moving outdoors;
During the NMU period, pay special attention to compliance with the rules for the improvement of the city (do not burn garbage, etc.);
Increase fluid intake, drink boiled, purified or alkaline mineral water without gas, or tea, and often rinse your mouth with a weak solution of baking soda, take a shower more often;
Include foods containing pectin in the diet: boiled beets, beetroot juice, apples, fruit jelly, marmalade, as well as vitamin drinks based on rose hips, cranberries, rhubarb, herbal decoctions, natural juices. Eat more vegetables and fruits rich in natural fiber and pectins in the form of salads and mashed potatoes;
Increase in the diet of children whole milk, fermented milk products, fresh cottage cheese, meat, liver (foods high in iron);
To remove toxic substances and cleanse the body, use natural sorbents such as Tagansorbent, Indigel, Tagangel-Aya, activated charcoal;
Restrict the use of personal vehicles within the city during the NMU period;
For NMU periods, if possible, go to a suburban or park area.
Regularly ventilate the premises on the first floors and in the basements;
In the bathroom and kitchen rooms, have a working ventilation system or an exhaust hood;
Keep water from underground sources used for drinking in an open container before use.
Clean air consists of a mixture of gases: nitrogen (by volume) accounts for 78%, oxygen - 21%. In addition, argon, water vapor, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, hydrogen and a number of other gases enter the air mixture in small concentrations. The air of megacities contains additional impurities that enter the atmosphere from different sources pollution.
There are two types of air pollution: natural and artificial. The last group is often called anthropogenic or man-made pollution.
To natural springs pollution include dust storms, green spaces during flowering, forest and steppe fires, volcanic eruptions.
Pollutants from natural sources include various plant and volcanic dusts, suspended solids and gases from forest and steppe fires, and soil erosion products. Natural sources of pollution are localized in a certain area, and their polluting effect is short-lived. The level of atmospheric pollution by natural sources is considered as background. It changes little over time.
Anthropogenic sources pollution enters the atmosphere with emissions from industrial enterprises and vehicles. They are of great variety. According to statistics, 37% of pollution comes from motor vehicles, 32% from industry and 31% from other sources.
The degree of atmospheric pollution is characterized by the amount of emissions pollutants (pollutants), their chemical composition and depends on the height at which emissions are made, on climatic conditions, transport and dispersion.
Numerous studies have confirmed the connection of a wide range of diseases with air pollution, but it should be noted that air emissions are a mixture of various pollutants, so only in rare cases it is possible to associate a certain disease with a specific pollutant. Identified effects may result from exposure to one or more air pollutants.
The earliest evidence that air pollution is detrimental to human health came from London, UK, in 1952. As a result of a special meteorological situation in London, several thousand people died.
The cold layer of air was trapped under the layer of warm air and could not rise up. This phenomenon, known as temperature inversion, results in the formation of a blanket that traps polluted air close to the earth's surface. The temperature inversion continued for four days in December. Due to the cold weather, the population of London burned huge amounts of coal, which led to the formation of a radiation fog throughout the city. Approximately 4,000 people are known to have died from smog, and many more from severe breathing difficulties.
How does air pollution affect us?
Air pollution affects people in different ways. Many factors such as health status, age, lung capacity and time spent in a polluted environment can affect the effect that pollutants have on health.
Large particles of pollutants can adversely affect the upper respiratory tract, while smaller particles can enter the small airways and alveoli of the lungs.
People exposed to air pollutants may experience both short-term and long-term effects, depending on the factors at play. Pollution in cities is driving an increase in emergency room visits and hospital admissions for lung, heart and stroke problems.
Previous studies have examined the effects of air pollution mainly on the lungs, as the site of primary contact of pollutants with the human body. However, there is a growing body of evidence that shows the negative effect of air pollution on the heart.
The following symptoms and diseases are associated with air pollution:
- chronic cough,
- mucus secretion,
- lung infections,
- lungs' cancer,
- heart disease,
- heart attack.
Other studies have also linked the effects of motor vehicle pollutants to fetal growth retardation and preterm birth.
The impact of particulate matter on health
As shown by previous studies, fine particles play an important role in lung damage, since penetrating into the small airways and alveoli, they can irreversibly damage them.
Fine particles are also suspended in the air for a longer time and are transported over longer distances. It is more likely that they travel directly from the lungs to the blood and other parts of the body, which can affect the heart.
At all stages of its development, man was closely connected with the outside world. But since the emergence of a highly industrial society, the dangerous human intervention in nature has increased dramatically, the scope of this intervention has expanded, it has become more diverse, and now threatens to become a global danger to humanity.
Man has to intervene more and more in the economy of the biosphere - that part of our planet in which life exists. The Earth's biosphere is currently undergoing an increasing anthropogenic impact. At the same time, several of the most significant processes can be distinguished, none of which improves the ecological situation on the planet.
The most large-scale and significant is the chemical pollution of the environment by substances of a chemical nature unusual for it. Among them are gaseous and aerosol pollutants of industrial and household origin. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also progressing. There is no doubt about the importance of chemical contamination of the soil with pesticides and its increased acidity, leading to the collapse of the ecosystem. In general, all the considered factors, which can be attributed to the polluting effect, have a significant impact on the processes occurring in the biosphere.
The saying “necessary as air” is not accidental. Popular wisdom is not wrong. A person can live without food for 5 weeks, without water - 5 days, without air - no more than 5 minutes. In most of the world, the air is heavy. What it is clogged with cannot be felt in the palm of your hand, cannot be seen with the eye. However, up to 100 kg of pollutants fall on the heads of citizens every year. These are solid particles (dust, ash, soot), aerosols, exhaust gases, vapors, smoke, etc. Many substances react with each other in the atmosphere, forming new, often even more toxic compounds.
Among the substances that cause chemical pollution of urban air, the most common oxides of nitrogen, sulfur (sulfur dioxide), carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide), hydrocarbons, heavy metals.
Air pollution adversely affects human health, animals and plants. For example, mechanical particles, smoke and soot in the air cause lung diseases. Carbon monoxide contained in the exhaust emissions of cars, in tobacco smoke, leads to oxygen starvation of the body, since it binds blood hemoglobin. Exhaust gases contain lead compounds that cause general intoxication of the body.
As for the soil, it can be noted that the northern taiga soils are relatively young and undeveloped; therefore, partial mechanical destruction does not significantly affect their fertility in relation to woody vegetation. But cutting off the humus horizon or filling the soil causes the death of the rhizomes of the berry shrubs of lingonberries and blueberries. And since these species reproduce mainly by rhizomes, they disappear on pipeline routes and roads. Their place is taken by economically less valuable cereals and sedges, which cause natural sodding of the soil and hinder the natural renewal of conifers. This trend is typical for our city: acidic soil in its initial composition is already infertile (considering the poor soil microflora and the species composition of soil animals), and is also contaminated with toxic substances coming from the air and melt water. Soils in the city in most cases are mixed and bulk with a high degree of compaction. Dangerous and secondary salinization that occurs when using salt mixtures against road icing, and urbanization processes, and the use of mineral fertilizers.
Of course, by means of chemical analysis methods, it is possible to establish the presence of harmful substances in the environment, even in the smallest quantities. However, this is not enough to determine the qualitative impact of these substances on humans and the environment, and even more so, long-term consequences. In addition, it is possible to only partially assess the threat from pollutants contained in the atmosphere, water, soil, considering the effect of only individual substances without their possible interaction with other substances. Therefore, the quality control of the components of nature should be monitored at an earlier stage in order to prevent danger. The plant world around us is more sensitive and informative than any electronic devices. This purpose can be served by specially selected plant species kept under appropriate conditions, the so-called phytoindicators, which provide early recognition possible danger for the atmosphere and soil of the city, emanating from harmful substances.
Main pollutants
Man has been polluting the atmosphere for thousands of years, but the consequences of the use of fire, which he used throughout this period, were insignificant. I had to put up with the fact that the smoke interfered with breathing, and the soot fell like a black cover on the ceiling and walls of the dwelling. The resulting heat was more important for a person than clean air and not sooty cave walls. This initial air pollution was not a problem, for people then lived in small groups, occupying a vast untouched natural environment. And even a significant concentration of people in a relatively small area, as was the case in classical antiquity, was not yet accompanied by serious consequences.
This was the case until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Only in the last century has the development of industry "gifted" us with such production processes, the consequences of which at first man could not yet imagine. Million-strong cities arose, the growth of which cannot be stopped. All this is the result of great inventions and conquests of man.
Basically, there are three main sources of air pollution: industry, domestic boilers, transport. The share of each of these sources in air pollution varies greatly from place to place. It is now generally accepted that industrial production pollutes the air the most. Sources of pollution - thermal power plants, household boilers, which, together with smoke, emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air; metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants. Harmful gases enter the air as a result of fuel combustion for industrial needs, home heating, transport, combustion and processing of household and industrial waste. Atmospheric pollutants are divided into primary, entering directly into the atmosphere, and secondary, resulting from the transformation of the latter. So, sulfur dioxide entering the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfuric anhydride, which interacts with water vapor and forms droplets of sulfuric acid. When sulfuric anhydride reacts with ammonia, ammonium sulfate crystals are formed. Here are some of the pollutants: a) Carbon monoxide. It is obtained by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous substances. It enters the air during the combustion of solid waste, with exhaust gases and emissions from industrial enterprises. At least 1250 million tons of this gas enters the atmosphere every year. m. Carbon monoxide is a compound that actively reacts with the constituent parts of the atmosphere and contributes to an increase in temperature on the planet, and the creation of a greenhouse effect.
b) Sulfur dioxide. It is emitted during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel or the processing of sulfurous ores (up to 170 million tons per year). Part of the sulfur compounds is released during the combustion of organic residues in mining dumps. In the United States alone, the total amount of sulfur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere amounted to 65% of the global emission.
c) Sulfuric anhydride. It is formed during the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. The end product of the reaction is an aerosol or solution of sulfuric acid in rainwater, which acidifies the soil and exacerbates human respiratory diseases. The precipitation of sulfuric acid aerosol from smoke flares of chemical enterprises is observed at low cloudiness and high air humidity. Leaf blades of plants growing at a distance of less than 11 km. from such enterprises, is usually densely dotted with small necrotic spots formed at the sites of sedimentation of droplets of sulfuric acid. Pyrometallurgical enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as thermal power plants annually emit tens of millions of tons of sulfuric anhydride into the atmosphere.
d) Hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide. They enter the atmosphere separately or together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises for the manufacture of artificial fiber, sugar, coke, oil refineries, and oil fields. In the atmosphere, when interacting with other pollutants, they undergo slow oxidation to sulfuric anhydride.
e) Nitrogen oxides. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, and celluloid. The amount of nitrogen oxides entering the atmosphere is 20 million tons per year.
f) Fluorine compounds. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing aluminum, enamels, glass, ceramics, steel, and phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds - hydrogen fluoride or dust of sodium and calcium fluoride. The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect. Fluorine derivatives are strong insecticides.
g) Chlorine compounds. They enter the atmosphere from chemical enterprises producing hydrochloric acid, chlorine-containing pesticides, organic dyes, hydrolytic alcohol, bleach, soda. In the atmosphere, they are found as an admixture of chlorine molecules and vapors of hydrochloric acid. The toxicity of chlorine is determined by the type of compounds and their concentration. In the metallurgical industry, during the smelting of pig iron and during its processing into steel, various metals and toxic gases are released into the atmosphere.
h) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric anhydride (SO3). In combination with suspended particles and moisture, they have the most harmful effect on humans, living organisms and material values. SO2 is a colorless and non-combustible gas, the smell of which begins to be felt at its concentration in the air of 0.3-1.0 million, and at a concentration of more than 3 million it has a sharp irritating odor. It is one of the most common air pollutants. It is widely found as a product of the metallurgical and chemical industries, an intermediate in the production of sulfuric acid, and the main component of emissions from thermal power plants and numerous boilers operating on sour fuels, especially coal. Sulfur dioxide is one of the main components involved in the formation of acid rain. It is colorless, poisonous, carcinogenic, has a pungent odor. Sulfur dioxide in a mixture with solid particles and sulfuric acid already at an average annual content of 0.04-0.09 million and a smoke concentration of 150-200 µg/m3 leads to an increase in the symptoms of shortness of breath and lung diseases. So, with an average daily SO2 content of 0.2-0.5 million and a smoke concentration of 500-750 µg/m3, there is a sharp increase in the number of patients and deaths.
Low concentrations of SO2 irritate the mucous membranes when exposed to the body, while higher concentrations cause inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, bronchi, and sometimes lead to nosebleeds. Prolonged contact causes vomiting. Acute poisoning with a fatal outcome is possible. It was sulfur dioxide that was the main active component of the famous London smog of 1952, when a large number of people died.
The maximum allowable concentration of SO2 is 10 mg/m3. odor threshold - 3-6 mg/m3. First aid for sulfur dioxide poisoning - Fresh air, freedom of breathing, oxygen inhalations, rinsing the eyes, nose, rinsing the nasopharynx with a 2% soda solution.
Within the boundaries of our city, emissions into the atmosphere are carried out by the boiler house and vehicles. This is mainly carbon dioxide, lead compounds, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides (sulfur dioxide), carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide), hydrocarbons, heavy metals. The deposits practically do not pollute the atmosphere. This is confirmed by the data.
But the presence of far from all pollutants can be determined using phytoindication. However, this method provides an earlier, in comparison with the instrumental, recognition of the possibilities of danger posed by harmful substances. The specificity of this method is the selection of plants - indicators that have characteristic sensitive properties when in contact with harmful substances. Bioindication methods, taking into account the climatic and geographical features of the region, can be successfully applied as an integral part of industrial industrial environmental monitoring.
The problem of controlling the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises (MPC)
The priority in the development of maximum permissible concentrations in the air belongs to the USSR. MPC - such concentrations that affect a person and his offspring by direct or indirect exposure, do not worsen their performance, well-being, as well as sanitary and living conditions for people.
The generalization of all information on MPC, received by all departments, is carried out in the MGO - the Main Geophysical Observatory. In order to determine the values of air from the results of observations, the measured values of concentrations are compared with the maximum one-time maximum allowable concentration and the number of cases when the MPC was exceeded, as well as how many times the largest value was higher than the MPC, is determined. The average value of the concentration for a month or a year is compared with the long-term MPC - a medium-stable MPC. The state of air pollution by several substances observed in the atmosphere of the city is assessed using a complex indicator - the air pollution index (API). To do this, the MPC normalized to the corresponding value and the average concentrations of various substances with the help of simple calculations lead to the value of the concentrations of sulfur dioxide, and then summed up.
The degree of air pollution by the main pollutants is directly dependent on the industrial development of the city. The highest maximum concentrations are typical for cities with a population of more than 500 thousand people. residents. Air pollution with specific substances depends on the type of industry developed in the city. If enterprises of several industries are located in a large city, then a very high level air pollution, but the problem of reducing emissions is still unresolved.
MPC (maximum permissible concentration) of certain harmful substances. MPC, developed and approved by the legislation of our country, is the maximum level of a given substance that a person can tolerate without harm to health.
Within the boundaries of our city and beyond (at the fields), sulfur dioxide emissions from production (0.002-0.006) do not exceed the MPC (0.5), emissions of total hydrocarbons (less than 1) do not exceed the MPC (1) . According to UNIR, the concentration of mass emissions of CO, NO, NO2 from boilers (steam and hot water boilers) does not exceed the MPE.
2. 3. Atmospheric pollution by emissions from mobile sources (vehicles)
The main contributors to air pollution are gasoline-powered vehicles (about 75% in the US), followed by airplanes (about 5%), diesel-powered cars (about 4%), tractors and agricultural vehicles (about 4%) , rail and water transport (approximately 2%). The main atmospheric pollutants emitted by mobile sources (the total number of such substances exceeds 40%) include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (about 19%) and nitrogen oxides (about 9%). Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) enter the atmosphere only with exhaust gases, while incompletely burned hydrocarbons (HnCm) enter both with exhaust gases (this is approximately 60% of the total mass of emitted hydrocarbons) and from crankcase (about 20%), fuel tank (about 10%) and carburetor (about 10%); solid impurities come mainly with exhaust gases (90%) and from the crankcase (10%).
The largest amount of pollutants is emitted during vehicle acceleration, especially at fast speeds, as well as when driving at low speeds (from the most economical range). The relative share (of the total mass of emissions) of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide is the highest during braking and idling, the share of nitrogen oxides is highest during acceleration. From these data it follows that cars pollute the air especially strongly during frequent stops and when driving at low speed.
Green wave traffic systems being created in cities, which significantly reduce the number of stops at intersections, are designed to reduce air pollution in cities. Big influence the quality and quantity of emissions of impurities is affected by the engine operation mode, in particular, the ratio between the masses of fuel and air, the moment of ignition, fuel quality, the ratio of the surface of the combustion chamber to its volume, etc. With an increase in the ratio of the mass of air and fuel entering the combustion chamber, emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are reduced, but emissions of nitrogen oxides are increased.
Despite the fact that diesel engines are more economical, they emit no more substances such as CO, HnCm, NOx than gasoline engines, they emit significantly more smoke (mainly unburned carbon), which also has bad smell created by some unburned hydrocarbons. In combination with the noise generated, diesel engines not only pollute the environment more, but also affect human health to a much greater extent than gasoline engines.
The main sources of air pollution in cities are vehicles and industrial enterprises. While industrial plants in the city are steadily reducing the amount of harmful emissions, the car park is a real disaster. The solution of this problem will help the transfer of transport to high-quality gasoline, competent organization of traffic.
Lead ions accumulate in plants, but do not appear externally, because the ions bind to oxalic acid, forming oxalates. In our work, we used phytoindication by external changes (macroscopic features) of plants.
2. 4. The impact of air pollution on humans, flora and fauna
All air pollutants, to a greater or lesser extent, have a negative impact on human health. These substances enter the human body mainly through the respiratory system. The respiratory organs suffer from pollution directly, since about 50% of impurity particles with a radius of 0.01-0.1 microns that penetrate the lungs are deposited in them.
Particles penetrating the body cause a toxic effect, since they are: a) toxic (poisonous) in their chemical or physical nature; b) interfere with one or more of the mechanisms by which the respiratory (respiratory) tract is normally cleared; c) serve as a carrier of a poisonous substance absorbed by the body.
3. INVESTIGATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE USING
INDICATOR PLANTS
(PHYTOINDICATION OF AIR COMPOSITION)
3. 1. On the methods of phytoindication of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems
One of the most important areas of environmental monitoring today is phytoindication. Phytoindication is one of the methods of bioindication, i.e. assessment of the state of the environment by the reaction of plants. The qualitative and quantitative composition of the atmosphere affects the life and development of all living organisms. The presence of harmful gaseous substances in the air has a different effect on plants.
The bioindication method as a tool for monitoring the state of the environment has become widespread in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, and Central Europe in recent years. The need for bioindication is clear in terms of monitoring the ecosystem as a whole. Phytoindication methods are of particular importance within the city and its environs. Plants are used as phytoindicators, and a whole complex of their macroscopic features is studied.
On the basis of theoretical analysis and our own, we have made an attempt to describe some of the original methods of phytoindication of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems available in school conditions using the example of changes in the external characteristics of plants.
Regardless of species, in plants, the following morphological changes can be detected in the process of indication
Chlorosis is a pale coloration of the leaves between the veins, observed in plants on dumps left after the extraction of heavy metals, or pine needles with little exposure to gas emissions;
Redness - spots on the leaves (accumulation of anthocyanin);
Yellowing of the edges and areas of the leaves (in deciduous trees under the influence of chlorides);
Browning or bronzing (in deciduous trees, this is often an indicator of the initial stage of severe necrotic damage, in conifers, it serves for further reconnaissance of smoke damage zones);
Necrosis - the death of tissue areas - an important symptom in the indication (including: punctate, interveinal, marginal, etc.);
Leaf fall - deformation - usually occurs after necrosis (for example, a decrease in the lifespan of needles, shedding, leaf fall in lindens and chestnuts under the influence of salt to accelerate the melting of ice or in shrubs under the influence of sulfur oxide);
Changes in the size of plant organs, fertility.
In order to determine what these morphological changes in plant-phytoindicators testify to, we used some methods.
When examining damage to pine needles, shoot growth, apical necrosis and needle life span are considered important parameters. One of the positive aspects in favor of this method is the ability to conduct surveys all year round, including in the city.
In the study area, either young trees were selected at a distance of 10–20 m from each other, or side shoots in the fourth whorl from the top of very tall pines. The survey revealed two important bioindicative indicators: the class of damage and drying of the needles and the life span of the needles. As a result of the express assessment, the degree of air pollution was determined.
The described technique was based on the studies of S. V. Alekseev, A. M. Becker.
To determine the class of damage and drying out of the needles, the apical part of the pine trunk was the object of consideration. According to the condition of the needles of the central shoot section (second from the top) of the previous year, the needle damage class was determined on a scale.
Needle damage class:
I - needles without spots;
II - needles with a small number of small spots;
III - needles with a large number of black and yellow spots, some of them are large, the entire width of the needles.
Needle drying class:
I - no dry areas;
II - shrunken tip, 2 - 5 mm;
III - 1/3 of the needles have dried up;
IV - all needles are yellow or half dry.
We assessed the life span of needles based on the condition of the apical part of the trunk. The increase was taken over the past few years, and it is believed that one whorl is formed for each year of life. To obtain the results, it was necessary to determine the total age of the needles - the number of sections of the trunk with completely preserved needles, plus the proportion of preserved needles in the next section. For example, if the apical part and two sections between the whorls completely retained their needles, and the next part retained half of the needles, then the result would be 3.5 (3 + 0, 5 = 3.5).
Having determined the class of damage and the life span of the needles, it was possible to estimate the class of air pollution according to the table
As a result of our studies of pine needles for the class of damage and drying out of the needles, it turned out that there are a small number of trees in the city that have drying out of the tips of the needles. Basically, it was needles of 3-4 years of age, the needles were without spots, but some showed drying of the tip. It is concluded that the air in the city is clean.
Using this bioindication technique for a number of years, it is possible to obtain reliable information about gas and smoke pollution both in the city itself and its environs.
Other plant objects for bioindication of pollution in terrestrial ecosystems can be:
➢ watercress as a test object for assessing soil and air pollution;
➢ lichen vegetation - when mapping the area according to their species diversity;
Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution and die at high levels of carbon monoxide, sulfur compounds, nitrogen and fluorine. The degree of sensitivity in different species is not the same. Therefore, they can be used as living indicators of environmental cleanliness. This method The study is called lichen indication.
There are two ways to apply the lichen indication method: active and passive. In the case of the active method, leaf lichens of the Hypohymnia type are exhibited on special boards according to the observation grid, and later damage to the body of lichens by harmful substances is determined (the example was taken from data on determining the degree of air pollution near an aluminum metallurgical plant by the bioindication method. This allows us to draw direct conclusions about the existing In the city of Kogalym, Parmelia swollen and Xanthoria walla were found, but in small quantities.Outside the city, these types of lichens were found in large quantities, and with intact bodies.
In the case of the passive method, lichen mapping is used. Already in the middle of the 19th century, such a phenomenon was observed that, due to air pollution with harmful substances, lichens disappeared from cities. Lichens can be used for differentiated display as areas of air pollution on large spaces and sources of pollution operating in small areas. We have carried out an assessment of air pollution using indicator lichens. We estimated the degree of air pollution in the city by the abundance of various lichens.
In our case, we collected different kinds lichens both on the territory of the city and on the territory adjacent to the city. The results were entered in a separate table.
We noted weak pollution in the city and did not mark the pollution zone outside the city. This is evidenced by the found species of lichens. The slow growth of lichens, the sparseness of the crowns of urban trees, in contrast to the forest, and the effect of direct sunlight on tree trunks were also taken into account.
And yet, phytoindicator plants told us about the weak air pollution in the city. But what? In order to determine what gas polluted the atmosphere, we used table number 4. It turned out that the ends of the needles acquire a brown tint when the atmosphere is polluted with sulfur dioxide (from the boiler room), and at higher concentrations, the death of lichens occurs.
For comparison, we conducted experimental work, which showed us the following results: indeed, there were discolored petals of garden flowers (petunia), but a small number of them were noticed, because the vegetative processes and flowering processes in our area are short, and the concentration of sulfur dioxide is not critical .
As for experiment No. 2 “Acid rains and plants”, judging by the herbarium samples we collected, there were leaves with necrotic spots, but the spots passed along the edge of the leaf (chlorosis), and under the action of acid rains, brown necrotic spots appear all over the leaf blade .
3. 2. Soil study using indicator plants - acidophiles and calcephobes
(phytoindication of soil composition)
In progress historical development plant species or communities have evolved associated with certain habitat conditions so strongly that ecological conditions can be recognized by the presence of these plant species or their communities. In this regard, groups of plants associated with the presence of chemical elements in the composition of the soil have been identified:
➢ nitrophils (white gauze, stinging nettle, narrow-leaved fireweed, etc.);
➢ calcephiles (Siberian larch, muzzle, lady's slipper, etc.);
➢ calcephobes (heather, sphagnum mosses, cotton grass, reed reed, flattened club moss, club moss, horsetails, ferns).
In the course of the study, we found that soils poor in nitrogen were formed on the territory of the city. This conclusion was made thanks to the species of the following plants noted by us: narrow-leaved fireweed, meadow clover, reed reed grass, maned barley. And in the forest areas adjacent to the city there are a lot of calcephobe plants. These are species of horsetails, ferns, mosses, cotton grass. The presented plant species are presented in a herbarium folder.
Soil acidity is determined by the presence of the following groups of plants:
Acidophilic - soil acidity from 3.8 to 6.7 (sowing oats, sowing rye, European week-grass, sticking out white, maned barley, etc.);
Neutrophilic - soil acidity from 6.7 to 7.0 (combined hedgehog, steppe timothy grass, common oregano, six-petal meadowsweet, etc.);
Basophilic - from 7.0 to 7.5 (meadow clover, horned bird, meadow timothy grass, awnless bonfire, etc.).
The presence of acidic soils of an acidophilic level is evidenced by such plant species as red clover, barley, which we found in the city. At a short distance from the city, such soils are evidenced by species of sedges, marsh cranberries, podbel. These are species that have historically developed in wet and swampy areas, excluding the presence of calcium in the soil, preferring only acidic, peaty soils.
Another method tested by us is the study of the state of birches as indicators of soil salinity in urban conditions. Such phytoindication is carried out from the beginning of July to August. Downy birch is found on the streets and in the forested area of the city. Damage to birch foliage under the action of salt used to melt ice manifests itself as follows: bright yellow, unevenly located marginal zones appear, then the leaf edge dies off, and the yellow zone moves from the edge to the middle and base of the leaf.
We have carried out research on the leaves of downy birch, as well as mountain ash. As a result of the study, marginal chlorosis of the leaves, dot inclusions were found. This indicates a 2 degree of damage (minor). The result of this manifestation is the introduction of salt to melt the ice.
An analysis of the species composition of the flora in the context of determining the chemical elements and soil acidity in the context of environmental monitoring acts as an accessible and simplest method phytoindications.
In conclusion, we note that plants are important objects of bioindication of ecosystem pollution, and the study of their morphological features in recognizing the ecological situation is especially effective and accessible within the city and its environs.
4. Conclusions and forecasts:
1. On the territory of the city, the method of phytoindication and lichenoindication revealed slight air pollution.
2. On the territory of the city acidic soils were revealed by the phytoindication method. In the presence of acidic soils, to improve fertility, use liming by weight (calculated method), add dolomite flour.
3. On the territory of the city, slight pollution (salinization) of the soil with salt mixtures against road icing was revealed.
4. One of the complex problems of industry is the assessment of the complex impact of various pollutants and their compounds on the environment. In this regard, it is extremely important to assess the health of ecosystems and individual species using bioindicators. We can recommend the following as bioindicators to monitor air pollution at industrial facilities and in urban areas:
➢ Leafy lichen Hypohymnia swollen, which is most sensitive to acid pollutants, sulfur dioxide, heavy metals.
➢ Condition of pine needles for bioindication of gas and smoke pollution.
5. As bioindicators that allow assessing soil acidity and monitoring soil pollution at industrial facilities and in urban areas, we can recommend:
➢ Urban plant species: red clover, maned barley to determine acidic soils of acidophilic level. At a short distance from the city, such soils are evidenced by species of sedges, marsh cranberries, podbel.
➢ Downy birch as a bioindicator of anthropogenic soil salinity.
5. The widespread use of the bioindication method by enterprises will make it possible to more quickly and reliably assess the quality of the natural environment and, in combination with instrumental methods, become an essential link in the system of industrial environmental monitoring (EM) of industrial facilities.
When implementing industrial environmental monitoring systems, it is important to take into account economic factors. The cost of instruments and apparatus for TEM for only one linear compressor station is 560 thousand rubles
Clean air is necessary for a person to maintain and maintain normal health. For a long time, the issue of its pollution was not given the necessary attention. However, with the development of industry, the growth of transport per capita, the atmosphere in cities is rapidly polluted, people breathe air poisoned by various toxic chemical compounds.
Therefore, this problem concerns directly each of us. Indeed, according to the World Health Organization, air pollution and human health are directly related - the atmosphere filled with chemical waste is one of the main factors in the development of many dangerous diseases.
The impact of air pollution on human health
Doctors have long identified a connection between the atmosphere of large cities filled with harmful substances and an increase in the number of diseases of the respiratory system. A city dweller daily inhales a huge amount of gases, dust, particulate matter. They directly come into contact with the surface of the lungs, and many times faster than through the stomach, they penetrate the body, and act several tens of times stronger.
Therefore, the development of asthma, the appearance of allergies are directly associated with the inhalation of air, which contains sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust, as well as hydrocarbons, which contain chlorine and fluorine.
Chronic diseases of the upper respiratory tract, some skin diseases may appear due to the presence of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. The appearance of angina pectoris is also associated with this chemical compound.
The presence of high iron content in the air is one of the reasons for the development of urolithiasis, and the presence of copper contributes to obesity, leads to pathologies of the musculoskeletal system.
Air pollution is called one of the significant factors in the development of cardiovascular diseases, the occurrence of a stroke. The most dangerous for humans are nitrogen dioxide, as well as fine dust. These harmful compounds, even in relatively low concentrations, increase the risk of early death in people before the age of forty.
Industrial enterprises are often located near large and small cities, heating systems burning coal. Their emissions into the atmosphere, together with car exhausts, saturate the city air with the smallest harmful particles, which, when constantly inhaled, provoke excessive thickening of the blood. This, in turn, leads to the formation of blood clots in the cavity of blood vessels, significantly increasing the risk of developing hypertension.
In addition, regular inhalation of air filled with various harmful substances provokes nervous disorders, reduces efficiency, has a negative effect on the immune system, and weakens the body as a whole.
According to statistics, approximately five percent of all hospitalizations in megacities occur precisely because there is a direct impact of air pollution on human health.
It is impossible not to note the extremely negative impact of various harmful substances in the atmosphere on the health of newborns.
In addition, many substances affect the intrauterine development of the fetus.
In particular, if a pregnant woman regularly inhales air in which the content of ozone and carbon monoxide is increased, the likelihood of having a child with malformations - cleft lip, cleft palate, or various defects in the heart valve increases.
This is especially dangerous at the very beginning of pregnancy - the first three months.
Fighting air pollution or how to protect the air from pollution ...
In our country, a lot of work is being done to purify the atmosphere and prevent its pollution. Thus, with the adoption of the Law on the Protection of Atmospheric Air, various measures are being taken, in particular, to prevent urban air pollution by car.
In addition, landscaping measures are being taken, as green spaces help maintain the purity of the atmosphere - saturate it with oxygen, clean it of dust and particulate matter (harmful substances settle on the leaves). Especially good, in this sense, poplar and lilac.
In order to maintain the purity of the air and prevent its pollution, in many cities the streets are watered in the summer. Abundant watering with water does not allow dust particles to rise into the air.
It is forbidden by law to burn garbage, dry grass, fallen leaves in parks and gardens, since when they are burned, many harmful and sometimes toxic substances are released into the atmosphere.
In order to reduce the impact of polluted atmosphere on health, urban residents are advised to travel outside the city more often, engage in feasible sports, and drink more clean, filtered water.
In order to purify the air, air conditioners are installed in many public places - hospitals, large stores, theaters, concert halls, etc. In educational institutions, kindergartens, wet cleaning is carried out several times a day, play rooms, bedrooms, and classrooms are ventilated more often.
Experts recommend that urban residents, pregnant women, as well as those who suffer from various diseases of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, go out into nature more often, especially on hot, dry days, and spend their holidays outside the city.
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