What methods does modern geography use. Geography Methods

Methods (methods) of geographical research have been formed over thousands of years. They have evolved along with science. At each stage of the evolution of geographical thought, more and more new methods of understanding the geographical world appeared. The first method by which man learned the world, was descriptive method. The science of geography originally arose as description various localities, their nature, population and human economic activity. This first stage of development is reminiscent of the very name of science - geography. For many centuries, geography remained primarily a descriptive science. During this long time, a huge amount of information about the relief, climate, waters, flora and fauna, population has been accumulated. known to people regions of the earth. Initially, descriptions of the lands were compiled not so much by merchants, warriors, and even people who accidentally found themselves in a foreign land. Most often, descriptions of unknown lands were not only inaccurate and made without any purpose and system, but also fantastic, made on the basis of rumors and legends. The descriptions were either oral or written, but in all cases they were distorted by the people who made the description of the lands (they were subjective).

The main questions that were solved in the description were: what is being described (island, valley, mountains...), what is the subject of description (size, shape, color...) and, of course, where is the subject? The last question is one of the main ones in geography. You already know that primitive people could succinctly and unmistakably show the location of objects using pictographic schemes - “maps”, simple drawings and maps on leather and wood.

cartographic method appeared simultaneously with the emergence of geography. Along with the description of objects on the earth's surface, a special (geographical) way of reflecting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appears. It is no coincidence that N. N. Baransky called the map "the second language of geography." Geographical exploration begins and ends with a map. With the help of the map, you can "embrace" the entire surface of the planet at once.

appeared thousands of years ago forwarding method studying the world. Everything that people learned about new lands, they received during travels, military expeditions. With the help of this method, knowledge about the diversity of the natural and social components of the world was multiplied. Sea expeditions and trips on land still remain one of the main sources of geographic information. The significance of geographical expeditions in the history of mankind is so great that even a whole era in the development of society is called the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries! During the expeditions, various natural phenomena, economy, population of territories. Observation - one of general scientific methods used in physics, chemistry, and biology. For a geographer, the ability not only to see, but also to observe is one of the most important. In the era of scientific and technological revolution, a huge role in geography is played by observation and assessment of the state of environment under the influence of human (anthropogenic) activity, for the purpose of rational use of natural resources and: nature protection - environmental monitoring.

In addition to observation in geography, it is very widely used Method of measurement. This method also belongs to the general scientific. Geographers have been using it since ancient times, although people have been measuring distances between objects on the surface of the Earth long before the advent of science. The pinnacle of the use of this method in ancient times was the measurement by Eratosthenes of the size of the Earth, and quite accurately. Eratosthenes was one of the founders of mathematical geography, the use of quantitative (mathematical) methods in geography. Initially it was a quantitative method of description, later appeared methods of mathematical analysis, revealing a variety of geographic patterns.

Methods of geographical research - ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. Map -; unique source of information! It gives an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: ​​the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of ​​​​the territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource provision, GDP per capita

5) The method of geographical zoning. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material, which is the subject of study.

8) Method of remote observations. Modern aerial and space photography is a great help in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Method of geographical modeling. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems.

2. Scientists say that Antarctica is rich in minerals, but the natural features of this continent make it difficult to develop. What are these features? How does the level of development of science and technology affect the possibilities of using the wealth of Antarctica?

On the territory of Antarctica, according to scientists, there are huge deposits of many minerals. However, their extraction is hampered, first of all, by the huge ice shell, reaching 2.5-4.7 km thickness and the heaviest climatic conditions. Indeed, in the central regions of Antarctica, average temperatures drop below -60 ° C and the strongest winds in the world blow here (up to 80 m / s.). The ice sliding into the sea gradually moves many polar stations to the shores of Antarctica, so the stations periodically have to be moved deep into the mainland.

The development of aviation, technology, the emergence special materials for equipment and clothing of a person that can withstand ultra-low temperatures, helps a person in the exploration and development of the wealth of Antarctica.

3. Determine on the map the factors that influenced the location of ferrous metallurgy enterprises (at the choice of the teacher).

For ferrous metallurgy enterprises, the main placement factors are:

1) The raw material factor is the determining factor for most full-cycle metallurgical plants that consume a huge amount of raw materials and process fuel - coke, so most metallurgical plants were built either near iron ore deposits (Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil, Novotroitsk, Stary Oskol), or near deposits coking coal (Novokuznetsk).

2) The consumer factor is typical for pig metallurgy, which uses scrap metal as raw materials (Moscow, Elektrostal, Vyksa, Kulebaki, Kolpino, Volgograd, Taganrog, Krasnoyarsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur), as well as for the production of pipes (Moscow, Volzhsky, Almetyevsk) .

3) Only the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant has a transport location factor, which uses iron ores from the Kola-Karelsky region and KMA, coking coal from the Pechora and Donetsk basins, and sends finished products - steel and rolled products - to St. Petersburg, Moscow, other machine-building centers and export.

4) The environmental factor in our country was practically not taken into account in the construction of ferrous metallurgy enterprises, which adversely affects the environment and human health.

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§ 3. Classification of methods of geographical research. Traditional Methods

Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:

Ø to deepen and systematize knowledge of traditional methods of geographical research obtained in elementary grades;

Methods(ways) research- these are specific methods of studying geographical objects and phenomena. TO geographical methods(methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.

Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge - forwarding method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence description method. The very name of science geography(from Greek. geo– earth and grapho- I describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, testifies to the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a regional study character, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a complex regional study characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description ( literary works I. A. Bunin, K. G. Paustovsky, M. M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.

With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus arose a very important and necessary geography cartographic method research.

The origins of geographical maps come from graphic images (on a tree, on a rock, on a bone, etc.) intended for orientation in space. Maps were used for navigation purposes, to establish the boundaries of possessions, lands, orientation in the area, etc. In Italy, starting from the 14th century. started making maps coastlines – partholans.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development comparative research method which has been successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Later, on the basis of a comparison of objects and phenomena, a analogy method(from Greek. apology - similarity, correspondence). The analogy method is also widely used by modern geographers. Having noticed the similarity of objects in some way, we can assume that they are similar to each other and to others. The use of analogies will be more reliable if the similarity is established not by external, but by the main (essential) features. For example, in geography, knowledge about the processes occurring in one landscape can be transferred to another. In science, this technique is widely used. Often analogies serve as the basis of scientific hypotheses, without which science cannot develop.

Society gradually began to ask geography questions of a completely different nature, for example, such as: why is the river wide in the plains and narrow in the mountains? How much water flows in it in general and in different time of the year? Why do forests grow in one place and steppes in another? etc. . In search of answers to these and other questions, mathematical and statistical methods geographical research, which can be classified as traditional, since already in the Middle Ages there were geographical works performed using mathematical approaches.

At the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. in connection with the development of chemistry in geographical research began to be actively used laboratory-analytical methods. This made it possible to qualitatively assess the state of natural complexes and resources, and to create an objective database.

Questions and tasks:

1. What methods of studying geographical objects appeared first in the history of science and why?

2. What tasks does the descriptive method solve in geography? What is its current role?

3. What is the essence of the method of observations?

4. Name the activities in which various types of geographical research are widely used.

5. Why is there a need for the integrated use of geographical and non-geographical methods for studying geographical objects? Give examples.

1. Method of Science

Method- a method of achieving the goal, a course of action or a way to achieve a comprehensive reflection of the subject of research, the disclosure of its essence, the knowledge of its laws. Methods mean a set of techniques and methods used in science to obtain new knowledge.

Methodology of science- the whole system of methods, approaches and principles for obtaining new knowledge, their structure, the originality of the logic of research in geography. Depending on the objects of study and the scale of generalizations, there are levels of methodology:

Universal - covers all sciences (dialectical method - a method of knowledge)

General scientific - separately for natural sciences and humanities

Methodology scientific systems- geographical systems of sciences

Methodology of a specific science - methods of geography of the Russian economy

Methodology- a specific implementation of the method, a specially developed technique and procedure for its implementation in the process of organized interaction between the subject and the object of research. The methodology includes a set of methods for obtaining, clarifying or verifying scientific data.

2. Approaches to the study of geography. Approach types

Approaches- a set of techniques and methods for studying geography as a science. These are broader concepts than methods, which are based on principles that allow you to build and target private methods in a certain way.

Kinds:

Chronological - a territorial approach, one of the most important approaches, which aims methods at identifying territorial differences, as well as features of the spatial distribution and interaction of geographical objects. In foreign literature, the concept of geospace or place, district is more often used, in the domestic school - territory. The chronological principle is based on the interconnection of spaces, properties and relations of geographical systems.

Historical - defines the use of methods that detect changes in objects over time. It is associated with the formation of two scientific directions:

Paleogeographical (attached to studies of the prehistoric past of the geographic envelope)

Historical and geographical (correlates with the specifics of the geographical processes of a certain historical period in the development of human society)

Systemic (synergistic) - synergy- a doctrine based on the idea of ​​the systemic nature of the world and scientific knowledge about him. System- a set and combination of interrelated objects (elements) with their inherent properties and relationships that form a certain integrity and are characterized by relative stability. This is the leading direction in the development of all sciences without exception, but in geography its application is most important, because. science itself and its objects of study are systemic. A systematic approach requires adherence to the following principles:

Integrity

Connection

Structure and organization

Control

Hierarchy levels

An example of a systematic approach in geography is a comprehensive study of countries, regions, industries, industries, natural-territorial complex (NTC), territorial production complex (TPC)

Analytical - division of the object of study into its constituent parts, i.e. subdivide the most complex systems into less complex subsystems

Typological - aims methods at highlighting the most significant features, similarities and differences in the studied geographical specifics, primarily uses the comparative geographical method (socio-economic typology of the countries of the world)

Ecological - associated with a massive environmental movement against environmental degradation as a result of anthropogenic activities. In this regard, new scientific directions have recently appeared: geoecology (studies problems associated with habitat degradation as a result of human activities), ecological geography (studies the geographical environment in order to solve environmental problems)

Problematic - aimed at studying the most significant problems of our time: problems of peace and disarmament, environmental problems, demographic problems, problems of using the world's oceans, energy problems, raw materials, food.

3. Modeling method

Modeling is a process of reproducing a model of an object of a phenomenon or process in order to solve the problem with certain methodological techniques to control the results of the study and their implementation. Simulation plays a role necessary tool in geographical science. At the planetary level, there is the following classification of models: simulation, conceptual and intermediate. Simulation models are built to represent the dynamics of changes in phenomena such as climate. Conceptual or methodological models are intended to demonstrate the plausibility of processes and are formed on the basis of a shared understanding of feedbacks. Models of intermediate complexity are needed to simulate interactions among processes in a natural system.

In geography, the following main models are distinguished: verbal, cartographic, structural, graphic, mathematical, natural. Models can also be combined: mathematical-cartographic, mathematical-graphic, etc.

1. verbalmodels represent a description of a geosystem using language tools.

2. Cartographicmodels are geographic maps along with a situation of a certain content and purpose applied to them.

3. Structuralmodels (schemes) are very often used in the classification of objects, systems, processes according to a certain attribute or to transfer the sequence of processes in the study of the genesis, evolution of an object or system

4. Graphicthe model is a graph with the results of research plotted on it in the form of points, lines, and using other display methods.

5. Mathematicalmodels are an abstract description of objects, phenomena or processes using signs (symbols).

6. naturalmodel is an imitation natural object or phenomena in the form of a layout.

Thus, the model serves as a means of knowing the original and reflects its most important properties.

4. Principles and means of geography as a science

According to the principle of origin (historical principle):

Traditionalmethods of geographical research (observation, description): § cartographic method (study of maps, maps) § statistical method (use and processing of statistical data) § historical-geographical method § comparative geographical method (reveals the similarity and difference of geographical objects for their classification and forecasting) Moderngeographical research methods: § aerospace method § modeling method (creation of an analogue of the object under study and its subsequent study) § geographic forecast (prediction of the future state of geosystems) § geoinformation method (creation of databanks based on information obtained from various sources)

According to the principle of use:

Are commongeographic methods: § descriptive § cartographic § comparative geographical § quantitative § aerospace § geoinformational § modeling Privategeographic methods: § physical geography (geochemical, geographical, paleogeographic) § socio-economic geography (specialization, study of production efficiency - Agriculture or industry, many social methods- survey, social poll, interview)

By the principle of being:

empiricalmethods (empiric - visible side) - allowing to gain knowledge with the help of the senses. This is knowledge gained on the basis of experience, otherwise this knowledge is called experienced and practical: § observation - obtaining primary information about the object under study and measuring quantitative indicators, it is considered the most ancient method, correctly built observation requires a plan and bringing the results to formally obtained data. § expeditionary (field) - collection is associated with it scientific facts obtained in the field during the passage of certain routes, compiling profiles and describing key areas § stationary method - the study of changes in phenomena over a long period of time at the same place § aerospace method - use of aerial photographs or satellite imagery § balance methods - calculation methods for analysis, forecasting and planning the development of geosystems § cameral methods - processing the results of observation. experimentalmethods (interdisciplinary) - differ from observation in that they involve a special organization of research situations and the active intervention of the researcher in it. § experiment - reproduction by an object in specially created conditions, carried out to test hypotheses, there are two types: Ø natural experiment - associated with the organization of directed influences on natural systems and the study of the reactions of this system Ø model - carried out on analogues of certain natural systems (models) § mathematical methods - used in all natural and social sciences to obtain quantitative indicators. Most often in geography, the theory of probability and methods of mathematical statistics are used. § geochemical methods § geophysical methods. Theoreticalmethods - involve the mental interaction of the researcher with the model of the object of study under study § induction - the way to build a study by summarizing the available data, the method of ascent from the particular to the general § deduction - a method of ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete § modeling § analogies - identifying similarities in objects and phenomena for subsequent comparison. Methods interpretations and generalizations- characterized by the fact that the subject of the study operates with sign-symbolic representations of the object in the form of terms, concepts, judgments, theories, laws § methods of empirical generalization Ø comparative geographical, perform several functions: determine the area of ​​similar phenomena and objects, delimit similar objects and phenomena, is important and widely applicable in regional studies when analyzing isolines Ø systematization - the ordering of objects and phenomena in any aspect (formal, external, internal), involves the division of the entire set of objects related by a known similarity by ranking. In geography, the most well-known systems are classification, taxonomy (classification by hierarchy), typology (classification based on a qualitative feature), zoning Ø comparative historical method Ø genetic method - involves the study of the origin of an object and phenomenon, based on the sources of development of geographical objects (genesis, i.e. the development of reliefs, soils, landscapes, socio-economic objects) Ø paleogeographic method Ø diocranian method - uses historical factors (the study of historical texts, maps) to determine the general trends in the development of geographical objects for a certain historical time § methods of theoretical generalization are aimed at forming the conceptual apparatus of the theory Ø abstraction: abstraction of distraction - individual aspects of complex objects are known with their subsequent synthesis; abstraction of generalization - forms concepts, laws and theories by eliminating the accidental and non-essential Ø formalization is the essence of generalization, as a result of which a new model of the formal level appears, which reflects only the form of an object or phenomenon, knowledge appears in the idea of ​​symbols: graphs, diagrams, profiles, flowcharts, maps.

5. Description method

The most ancient method, which is associated with the very emergence of geography.

The history of development

1 period Ancient world, Middle Ages, early modern times in geography, empirical description prevails, i.e. what I see and write about. A vivid example of such a description is the descriptions of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Marco Polo. Since the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries, descriptions have changed little, only their factuality has intensified, all travelers and discoverers of new lands are considered outstanding geographers. scientists and naturalists began to participate in round-the-world and other major travels. An example is the works of Tatishchev (Urals), Krasheninnikov 3 period 19 - the first half of the 20th century. Scientific descriptions are becoming widespread, there is a dawn of the use of geographical description. Tien-Shansky, Przhevalsky, Miklukho-Maclay) 4 period second half of the 20th century - our time At this time, there is a gradual loss of mastery of geographical description, this is due to the fact that science requires full-fledged complex data, and the geography of that time is limited to analytical information of individual elements of nature. Baransky noted two reasons for the sharp decline in good geographical descriptions: the transition from a descriptive style to an analytical one and an underestimation of the literary form of geographical descriptions.

Currently, there is a revival of the method of geographical description, which is explained by a new increased interest in regional studies, the development of internal and external tourism. Now all descriptions are carried out in a complex way, this is most evident as a result of the creation of landscape maps. The creation of landscape maps presupposes the characterization of physical-geographical zoning. It is most interesting and revealing to carry out a comprehensive physical and geographical description of the territory at selected observation points; for this, the following plan is used:

The georeferencing of the observation point is set (near landmarks, directions and distances)

Geological and geomorphological observation (geological observations are of an auxiliary nature, layers are distinguished, the nature of occurrence, inclusions, geomorphology - a description of mechanoforms, genetic type of relief: for hilly relief - size, shape, length, heights, exposure, etc., for plains - relative excess, for river valleys - shape, width, depth, etc., in conclusion, the nature of anthropogenic change in relief and transformation is given)

Soil observations (to describe soils, it is necessary to lay soil sections: a pit or a pit, after which a sketch is made and genetic horizons, mechanical composition, moisture content, color, etc. are determined, after which the name of the soil is given)

Geobotanical observations (a geobotanical site is being laid - for a forest 20x20 m, for a meadow - 10x10 m, for a swamp 1x1 m, the species composition, layering, mosaic (horizontal heterogeneity) are described, each plant genus and species, a herbarium is collected, the observation is completed with the name of a plant association according to dominant two or three tiers).

Geoecological observation (studies the anthropogenic impact, their nature and consequences, as well as the boundaries of anthropogenic objects, agricultural land, roads, power lines, garbage dumps, farms, cowsheds, etc., bonfires, and modern adverse processes are determined: soil erosion, waterlogging or flooding, trampling of the vegetation cover, the quality of surface water is assessed by its transparency, color, smell For soils by the presence of oil stains, smell, other vegetation: by drying out and damage to leaves, needles, the appearance of weed species, the depressed state of agricultural crops, in conclusion, a conclusion is made about the geoecological state.

The physiographic description may include other observations: microclimatic, hydrological, hydrochemical

In conclusion, a field map is compiled, which includes a description of several observation points with clarification of the boundaries. It can be compiled in the field, and therefore the legend is finalized and compiled on the spot.

6. Cartographic method

The specific method of geography geography is a territorial science. Baransky spoke about the significance of this method:

The map is the alpha and omega of geography, its beginning and end.

Map - an incentive to fill empty spaces

Map - a means to identify geographical patterns

The map is a necessary intermediary between the extremely limited scope of its direct observation by man and the enormous size of objects of geographical research on the surface of the globe.

Map - the second language of geography

Map - one of the criteria for geographical

The essence of the cartographic method lies in the fact that maps are used to depict phenomena on them. The modern purpose of the cartographic method of physical geography is landscape maps, socio-economic geography - maps that reflect various quantitative characteristics of objects for assessing location factors.

In country studies, a map helps to create an image of a country's territory, i.e. her portrait. This method involves the steps:

Receiving the information

Processing and building maps

Examining the map, analyzing it and extracting information

Using the information received for conclusions, recommendations and forecasts

For a map, it is important not only to draw up correctly, but also to make it work, i.e. gave information. Types of analytical application of the method:

1. Visual analysis of maps

2. Cartometric method measurement of geometric objects: area, distance

3. Geographical analysis (building profiles, graphs, charts)

4. Statistical analysis kart

5. Analysis when converting maps (generalization, projections)

6. Mathematical analysis of maps

7. Comparative geographical method

Traditional historically used since ancient times, currently one of the most common. The history of development:

1. The foundations of the method were laid down in ancient times (Herodotus, Aristotle). In the Middle Ages, due to the social stagnation of science, methods were forgotten.

2. 17th-18th centuries Humboldt laid the foundations for the modern comparative geographic method, applying it to study the relationship between climate and vegetation. His expression accurately characterizes this method: “To compare the distinctive features of individual countries and present in brief the result of these comparisons is a grateful, albeit difficult, task of general geography”

3. In modern times, comparison is one of the universal methods of geography and is a specific logical device.

In the comparative geographical method, two sequential operations are distinguished:

identification operation (finding common features)

discrimination operation (finding different features)

8. Mathematical methods

1.The attitude towards mathematical methods in geography is ambiguous among various researchers. The first experiments in the application of mathematics in geography date back to the time of Eratosthenes, when mathematical geography existed and was used as a term.

1. The Middle Ages and even the times of the Great Geographical Discoveries did not give rise to theories leading to the path of mathematization of geography.

2. Late 50s - 60s. last century - the heyday of mathematization. Many geographers work under the slogan: "Mathematical methods solve everything."

Mathematical methods allow you to create special descriptions of geographical phenomena and processes - their mathematical models. The essence of mathematical modeling lies in the abstract and simplified representation of reality by logical and mathematical formulas that convey in a concentrated form information about the structure, relationships and dynamics of the studied geographical phenomena.

In terms of geography, three types of models can be distinguished:

1. mathematical models that are built without taking into account the spatial coordination of phenomena, and the results, the implementation of which is not subject to mapping;

2. models in which the results are mapped, but the spatial aspect is not taken into account at the stage of implementation of mathematical algorithms;

3. models in which, without taking into account the spatial position of phenomena, it is impossible to implement mathematical calculations.

Simulation modeling has become widespread in geography. Optimization models are also used. The transport problem of linear programming is often used.

9. Aerospace methods

Space methods are methods for studying the structure and development of the geographic environment based on space imagery materials obtained by registering reflected solar and artificial light and the Earth's own radiation from spacecraft. Geographical research using space methods is based on the theory of optical properties natural environment, due to the interaction of solar radiation with the geographic envelope. The interpretation of images is based on the use of correlations between the parameters of geographical objects and their optical characteristics.

Space images of the earth's surface are terrain models that reflect the real geographical situation at the time of shooting. Their most valuable properties are:

1) complex image of the landscape structure, including the main natural and anthropogenic components;

2) wide spectral range of shooting, as mentioned above;

3) high visibility of images;

4) a wide variety of shooting scales;

5) different periodicity of shooting - from tens of minutes to tens of years; multiple coverage by shooting the globe.

Space methods successfully complement traditional ground and air methods. Remote surveying is most widely used in physical geography. In soil science, using satellite images, the spatial differentiation of the soil cover is successfully established and its mapping is carried out, many soil parameters are determined, such as humus content, mechanical composition, salinity, humidity, and temperature. In landscape science, space methods are widely used in the study and mapping of the spatial structure, seasonal rhythms and long-term dynamics of landscapes, and in paleogeographic studies.

9. Geoinformation method

Started developing over 30 years ago. Historically geoinformation systems in their modern development on the basis of information retrieval systems and later cartographic databanks. First, the automatic creation of maps takes place, with the further inclusion of blocks of mathematical and cartographic modeling and automatic reproduction of maps. GIS classification:

1. by territorial coverage (nationwide, regional, etc.)

2. by purpose (multi-purpose, specialized, information guides, for planning, etc.)

3. by thematic orientation (general geographic, sectoral, etc.)

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To study our Earth and obtain information about all geographical objects and processes, several geographical research methods are used. There are quite a few of them, but still the main methods are considered:
1 - Historical method. Nothing comes out of nowhere, everything develops historically. To know geography, it is necessary to know history: the history of the development of mankind, the history of the development of the Earth.
2 - Economic and mathematical method. In geography, the following indicators are calculated: migration balance, resource availability, birth rate, mortality and population density calculations, calculation of natural population growth.
3 - Cartographic method . As the founder of Russian geography N.N. Baransky: "The map is the second language of geography." Indeed, the map provides information that no other method can provide. The location and size of objects, the distribution of various phenomena, a visual representation of mineral deposits - all this is shown on the map.
4 - Comparative geographical. Slower - faster, more - less, higher - lower, profitable - unprofitable: absolutely everything is compared. Comparison helps to more accurately and fully describe the differences and similarities of various geographical objects.
5 - Static method. Static data: the area of ​​the country, height or depth, reserves of natural resources, demographic indicators, population - all this gives a figurative idea of ​​​​a camp or object.
6 -
Method of field research and observations . Observation of phenomena with one's own eyes, collection of materials and samples, description of geographical objects - all this is the subject of study.
7 - Geographic forecast . The goals of geography as a science are not only in describing various phenomena and objects, but also in predicting the consequences of human development. To use natural resources rationally, to solve global problems, to reduce the negative impact of man on nature, to avoid undesirable phenomena - these are the goals of geographical forecasting.
8 - Geographical zoning . With this method of geographical research, natural (physico-geographical) and economic regions are distinguished.
9 - Geographic Modeling . An important method used in the study of geography is the creation of geographic models. A simple example is a globe.
10 - Method of remote observations . The method of remote observation is aerial and space photography.