Social studies. Methods of social research

G. M. Andreeva proposes to divide all methods of social psychology into two main groups: research methods and methods of influence. Research Methods characterize social psychology as a fundamental science, and methods of influence represent practical social psychology.

The general classification of the methods used in social psychology, compiled taking into account the remarks made in the previous paragraph of this chapter, is as follows.
All methods are divided into two main groups: theoretical and empirical.

Theoretical methods are used in the development and justification of scientific theories. They are common to social psychology and other, both psychological and non-psychological sciences. Such methods include:
survey and analytical;
critical;
constructive.

The essence of the review-analytical method is that, using it, the scientist studies the literature on the issue of interest to him, reviews and analyzes the data obtained by other scientists, available in the published scientific literature, in order to systematically describe them and present the state of affairs in this area. scientific knowledge. At the same time, he does not conduct a critical analysis of what other scientists have done, and instead of what has already been done, nothing new is proposed, with the possible exception of a new classification of already known phenomena.

The critical method is manifested in the fact that what has been done in science is subjected to critical analysis in order to identify the shortcomings in the research. Bottom line critical analysis becomes a reasoned list of comments on the research, to the facts (patterns) established in them, and their general critical assessment.

The constructive method consists in the fact that the scientist himself offers a new solution to a problem and its theoretical and / or experimental justification.

Empirical methods used in social psychology include the following:
1) methods of observation;
2) survey methods;
3) methods of analysis of documents and products of activity of a single person or social groups;
4) experimental methods;
5) mathematical methods.

Let us briefly characterize some of them.
The essence of observation methods is that when using them, the researcher receives basic information about the phenomenon under study by observing it. This group of methods includes:
open observation;
covert surveillance;
free observation;
standardized observation;
third-party observation (observation from the side, or external observation);
included surveillance.

The specificity of open observation lies in the fact that, using it, the researcher conducts his observation without hiding, openly (obviously), and people whose behavior and relationships are being analyzed, as a rule, know that they are being observed. So, for example, you can monitor people communicating with each other, a group of people in the process of their joint work, the behavior of people in a crowd.

A feature of covert surveillance is that the people whose behavior is being studied are unaware that they are being observed. Thus, for example, covert observation can be organized and carried out in socio-psychological studies of the behavior of children, who, under conditions of direct observation of them, may not behave quite naturally and constrainedly. However, the application this method in relation to adults has certain ethical and legal restrictions. In most cases, such observation can be carried out only with the voluntary consent of the subjects.

Standardized observation involves a preconceived plan or program of observation, which clearly defines what to observe, how to observe, how to record, how to process and interpret the results of observation.

An example of a standardized observation used to study small groups is the category system method (categorical system method), proposed by the American social psychologist R. Bales. It is based on the following system of 12 categories, according to which the behavior of group members is recorded and described during the observation:
1) shows solidarity;
2) relieves stress;
3) expresses consent;
4) makes a proposal;
5) expresses an opinion;
6) orients others;
7) asks to be informed;
8) asks to express an opinion;
9) asks to make a proposal;
10) expresses disagreement;
11) creates tension;
12) shows antagonism.

Free is called such observation, during which there is no pre-thought-out program or scheme. In this case, all issues related to the organization and conduct of observation are freely and arbitrarily resolved by the observer in the course of the experiment.

Third-party (observation from the outside, or external observation) is such an observation in which the researcher himself does not participate in the process that is being observed. He is watching from the sidelines.

Included is called such observation, in which the observer personally participates in the process, the course of which he is following. This method is used in cases where it is impossible to observe what is happening from the outside (for example, in social groups closed from strangers), or when third-party observation changes the phenomenon itself.

Interrogation methods are called such methods in which basic information about the phenomena being studied is obtained as a result of interviewing people or analyzing their answers to oral or written questions. In social psychology, the following types of survey are most often used:
oral questioning;
written survey;
free survey;
standardized survey;
open survey;
closed survey;
questionnaire survey.

In an oral survey, questions and answers are received orally.
In a written survey, the same is done in writing.

There are also combined options application of this method, when, for example, questions or answers to them are asked and received in various forms, oral and written at the same time.

Free and standardized surveys are not much different from free and standardized observation, except that the material for analysis in this case is people's answers to the questions they ask.

An open survey is a survey in which respondents can press any answers to the questions they are asked, and neither the form of the answer, nor the time spent on it, are regulated.

Covered is a survey in which there are standard, pre-set possible answers to the questions asked, and the subjects only choose one of them. For example, for each of the questions, the subject may be asked to answer one of the following options: “yes”, “no”, or “I don’t know”.

A questionnaire is a survey in which, in addition to direct answers to questions asked regarding the problem under study, the subject is required to provide some socio-demographic information about himself, such as profession, age, gender, and others. Such information is obtained from the answers to additional questions contained in the questionnaire.

Methods for analyzing documents or products of human activity are methods for studying texts (documents) related to people or groups of people. This refers to texts or documents compiled by them themselves or containing information about them. It is assumed that through such documents it is possible to reveal the social psychology of the respective people or social groups.

Content analysis is a method of a special, purposeful, standardized and meaningful study of texts (documents), in the process of which signs are distinguished and evaluated that characterize the psychology of the person who created this text (document) or the one who is mentioned in it. In the course of content analysis in the text (document), analytical, meaningful "units" are distinguished - words, phrases or sentences that carry certain information about the person or social group being studied. Then the number of such units in the studied text (document) is counted and the corresponding socio-psychological interpretation is proposed.

Experimental methods are methods that involve the organization or use of an unusual (experimental) situation for the study of socio-psychological phenomena. This situation can be created in the laboratory, and then the experiment is called "laboratory". It can develop on its own real life, and in this case the experiment is called "natural". Finally, the psychologist himself can create an unusual situation in real life. And in this case, the experiment will be called "field". The most reliable knowledge about a socio-psychological phenomenon that corresponds to reality can be obtained in natural or field experiments.

Mathematical research methods are methods that allow one to represent the phenomena studied in social psychology in numerical form or to make appropriate quantitative (mathematical) calculations. These methods are common to all areas of psychology and are divided into two main groups:
1) methods of mathematical statistics;
2) methods of mathematical modeling.

With the help of methods of mathematical statistics, a quantitative processing of the data obtained during the study is carried out in order to detect the mathematical relationships and patterns in them.

Through the methods of mathematical modeling, the phenomena studied in social psychology are presented in the form mathematical models- formulas and expressions.

In domestic scientific and educational literature, in Russian textbooks and manuals on social work, the classification of methods is carried out according to the traditional paradigm of social work, which has been formed within the framework of sociology, pedagogy, psychology, management, economics: sociological, pedagogical, psychological, organizational, economic methods .

Sociological methods stand out as the sociological foundations of social work; pedagogical - as a socio-pedagogical basis for the activities of social services; psychological - as a psychological support of social work, the content and methods of psychosocial practice. The authors of the textbook "Fundamentals of Social Work" highlight the sociological, political science, pedagogical, psychological foundations of social work. Allocate methods of individual social work, methods of social work with a group, methods of social work in a microsocial environment. In the textbook "Social work" under the general editorship of Professor V.I. Kurbatov, pedagogical, sociological, psychological methods social work.

In the practice of social work, methods of social influence on a person are used, which were formed as methods of purely social work, as a result of its theory and practice. Most of them are borrowed from the experience of social work in the United States and developed countries of Western Europe. The best of them are adapted to the domestic system of social protection of the population and social support different target groups and categories of citizens. These methods are classified in terms of:

· Subject-subject or subject-object relations (team, group work of specialists, social work specialists, volunteers and work with clients);

· The number of clients who are objects of social impact (individual, group, community, mass work);

Taking into account these approaches and cross-cultural traditions of social work in Ukraine, the methods of social work in our manual are presented as follows: sociological, psychological, organizational, and current approaches to the definition of social work methods are also studied.

Sociological methods of social work

Sociology in social work is considered from the point of view of sociological support for the activities of organizations and institutions in the social sphere. At the level of social work as a science, theoretical sociology is used, revealing the universal patterns and principles of building various social systems, generalizing and structuring empirical data within individual branches of sociological knowledge. At the level of social work practice, empirical sociology is used, which establishes and generalizes social facts.

Methods of collecting sociological information are used in social work for research:

· Social interaction and social ties of individuals and social groups within the relevant social institutions;

Social changes and social processes, the source of which are social movements, which can escalate tension and conflicts in society, and on the other hand, be a means and tool for overcoming them; reflect social isolation, marginality, change in social status, personal disorder, loss of family ties and mobility of the individual;

Features of the functioning of social institutions of society and social organizations involved in social work: family, school, social services, rehabilitation centers, departments of social protection of the population, cultural institutions, social funds, etc.;

· Personalities in the system of social relations: needs, value orientations, motives, social attitudes, socialization of the individual, social status, social roles, social activity, etc.;

Gender sociology: the study of the differentiation of male and female roles, gender differences, the functioning of married couples

· Influence of state policy on the life of citizens: analysis of the political process and its material basis, sociological analysis of the mechanism of power within social work, studies of political stratification;

· Sociology of law: the social nature of lawful and unlawful behavior;

· Public opinion regarding the social status of citizens, their interests, requests, needs for social services;

· Structures, functions, causes and mechanisms of social conflict, prevention and resolution of conflicts;

· Interaction of bodies and institutions of the education system and social services, institutions of social protection of the population within the framework of the sociology of education;

· Sociology of the city and the countryside, the impact of urbanization on the organization;

· Social problems of various target groups of clients and categories of the population.

Sociological methods of social work - methods that are used to collect, process and analyze sociological data in the framework of social work.

Methodology - a consistent and interconnected set of techniques, operations associated with a specific method.

Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method.

In the conduct of sociological research, there are four consecutive, logically and meaningfully interconnected stages:

1. Preparatory, consists in the development of a program and tools - questionnaires, interview forms, forms for recording the results of observation, analysis of documents, and the like.

2. Collection of primary sociological information. Occurs with the help of a survey, observation, analysis of documents, experiment.

3. Compilation and processing of the collected information.

4. Analysis of the processed information, preparation of a report, formulation of conclusions, development of recommendations.

Object of sociological research- a certain social reality that requires purposeful study (social communities, subjects, processes in their specific, relatively complete states and interactions).

Subject of sociological research- the most significant from a theoretical or practical point of view features, aspects of the object that need to be investigated.

The specificity of each of the stages is determined by a specific type of sociological research. In accordance with the established criteria, the most important of them are: the purpose of the study, the depth of the necessary analysis, the method of collecting primary sociological information, the object of the study, the timing of its implementation, the relationship between the customer and the contractor, the sphere of social reality that is being studied.

Fundamental sociological research in social work aimed at establishing and analyzing social trends, patterns of social development and related to solving complex problems of citizens and society as a whole. Fundamental sociological research is carried out in social work at the level of state institutions, such as the Ukrainian State Center for Social Services for Youth, the State Committee for Family and Youth Affairs, the Ministry of Social Policy and Labor, etc.

Applied research is aimed at studying a specific society (district, microdistrict, city, region, region), specific objects (pensioners, disabled people, orphans, low-income people, youth affected by the Chernobyl ABS, refugees released from places of deprivation of liberty, etc.), solution certain social problems (homelessness, poverty, alcoholism, drug addiction, deviance, vagrancy, etc.).

Exploratory, descriptive, analytical studies that illuminate the depth of the data under study and are used depending on the purpose and objectives of the study.

Exploratory research - in terms of its parameters, it is the simplest, it solves tasks that are simple in content. They are used when the problem, object or subject of research is little studied or not studied at all. For example, studying the problems of families raising a disabled child with a rare pathology, a certain social group or community, foster families, deinstitutionalization processes. Such studies are used as a preliminary stage of a deeper large-scale study, focusing them on collecting information about the object and subject of research, clarifying hypotheses, etc.

Descriptive studies create a relatively holistic view of the phenomena and processes under study: a study of the system of social services for young people, the functioning of the structure of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. The object of analysis is a large community of people - workers in the field of social services and users of social services with certain social, professional and demographic characteristics.

Analytical studies not only describe social phenomena and their components, but also establish the causes of their occurrence, mechanisms of functioning, identify the factors that ensure them. They are used to analyze various social problems, the functioning of various social groups, the level of life of citizens.

Exploratory, descriptive, analytical research is carried out by order of organizations and institutions of the social sphere by social agencies, institutions and other organizations and institutions that carry out sociological research.

One-time and repeated studies highlight the ways of studying an object (in statics or dynamics). A one-time study informs about the state of the object, its quantitative and qualitative characteristics at the time of the study, reflects a "momentary cut" of a social phenomenon. Data reflecting changes in the object, their directions and trends, can only be obtained with the help of repeated studies (panel, trend, cohort). Panel studies examine changes in the same object over a certain period of time, while maintaining the same sample is mandatory. Trending - explore changes over time on the same object without sampling. Cohort - explore specific social aggregates - cohorts for a certain time.

Important for social work are monographic studies aimed at studying a particular social phenomenon or process at one object, which is a representative of a whole class of such objects. In continuous studies, all units of the object are examined without exception. In social work, selective studies are most often used, which examine not all research units, but part of them, the purpose of which is to draw conclusions on the phenomenon under study as a whole.

A special place is given to pilot sociological studies, which allow assessing the quality of the tools (questionnaires, questionnaires, observation protocols, procedures, document analysis, etc.) and making the necessary adjustments to it.

In social work, methods of collecting primary social information are used - document analysis and sociological observation. Analysis of documents allows the social worker to formulate the problem, object, subject, goals, objectives and hypotheses of the phenomenon under study; compare the empirical data obtained during the study with indicators from other studies; obtain information about a particular social problem; make a description of the social processes that occur at the societal, group, individual levels, identify trends and develop forecasts for their further development; obtain information about the activities of the main social institutions of society - the family, education, the media; to study public opinion and the social well-being of the population, its individual strata and specific people. Analysis of documents allows you to see different sides social life, helps to learn about the norms and values ​​inherent in a certain society in a certain historical period; find the information necessary to describe certain social structures; makes it possible to track the dynamics of interaction between different social groups and individuals, and the like.

Document- fastener established way with the help of a special information carrier of facts, phenomena, processes of objective reality and mental activity of a person.

Important for social workers are official documents - laws, government regulations, regulations, national programs and projects relating to the issues of social protection of the population and social support for certain target groups and categories of the population. Official documents reflect and illuminate collective opinions regarding certain political, socio-economic phenomena, events, processes. Separate official documents, such as government and industry reports, inform about the state of affairs in the social sphere, designed to regulate relations between individuals, groups, communities, social institutions etc.

Statistical documents contain certain generalizations regarding the most important indicators of the functioning of society, its individual parts. Based on statistical data, a social worker has the opportunity to obtain information about the population in the territory of the social service in which he works, the level of social stratification, the characteristics of the infrastructure of the district, microdistrict, city, etc., the age composition of the population, gender differences, etc. Such documents can be the subject of independent analysis, since they allow you to explore a certain process or phenomenon in dynamics, find out their trends, supplement the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, enrich it with a historical context. Statistical data contribute to the outline of the conceptual framework, the implementation of a specific research project. Statistical materials can be used not only to quantify some qualitatively established parameters or illustrations, but also to prove put forward hypotheses on any other grounds. A careful and comprehensive analysis of statistical materials provides a basis for deep, qualitatively new social conclusions and generalizations.

At the micro level of social work, it is essential to study informal documents, which are an important source of information about the features of the client's social problem, his living conditions, and biographical data. The fate of a person, his future life often depends on how correctly executed and adequately interpreted by a social worker personal documents. Unofficial documents (autobiographies, diaries, letters, literary revisions, etc.) enrich with information about the value orientation of a person, the motives of his behavior, the level of socialization, individualization, adaptation, satisfaction of needs in various spheres of life.

Iconographic documents, such as films and photographic documents, works of fine art - paintings, engravings, sculptures, are used primarily to supplement professional knowledge about a certain social and social phenomenon, and as "human studies documents", that is, documents that make it possible to draw up assessment of the identity of their authors.

Phonetic documents are often used in conjunction with other sociological methods. For example, during a focus group, a discussion on a particular problem is recorded on audio media. Phonetic documents in modern conditions of life is an important tool for analyzing information received during conferences, round tables, trainings, seminars and other events that are organized by institutions in the sphere of social protection of the population. The most interesting phonetic documents for their linguistic analysis information: knowledge of the features of the language largely contributes to the study of the structure and culture of thinking of various segments of the population. For a social worker, it may be interesting to compare different local dialects, literary and folk languages, different speech features that are characteristic of certain social groups.

It is divided into two types:

• self-control- the application of sanctions, committed by the person himself, aimed at himself;
• external control- a set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws.

External control is:

• informal - based on the approval or condemnation of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as public opinion, which is expressed through customs and traditions or the media;
• formal - based on the approval or condemnation of official authorities and administration.

V modern society, in a complex society, in a country of many millions, it is impossible to maintain order and stability by informal methods, since informal control is limited to a small group of people, which is why it is called local. On the contrary, formal control operates throughout the country. It is carried out by agents of formal control - persons specially trained and paid for performing control functions, bearers of social statuses and roles - judges, law enforcement officers, social workers, church ministers, etc. In traditional society, social control rested on unwritten rules. For example, in a traditional rural community, there were no written norms; v single system social control was organically woven into the church.

In modern society, the basis of social control is the norms fixed in documents - instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Formal control is carried out by such institutions of modern society as the courts, education, the army, production, the media, political parties, and the government. The school controls us through examination grades, the government through the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state through the police, secret service, state television channels, press and radio.

Depending on the sanctions applied, the methods of control are:

• straight hard; tool - political repression;
• indirect rigid; the instrument is the economic sanctions of the international community;
• straight soft; the instrument is the operation of the constitution and the criminal code;
• indirect soft; tool is the media.

Organizations control:

• general (if the manager gives a subordinate a task and does not control the progress of its implementation);
• detailed (if the manager intervenes in every action, corrects, etc.); such control is also called supervision.

Supervision is carried out not only at the micro level, but also at the macro level.

At the macro level, the state acts as the subject exercising supervision - police stations, the informant service, prison guards, escort troops, courts, censorship.

An organization and society as a whole can be overwhelmed by a huge number of norms. In such cases, the population refuses to comply with the norms, and the authorities are not able to control every little thing. However, it has long been noted that the worse the laws are enforced, the more of them are published. The population is protected from regulatory overloads by their non-fulfillment. If most of the people for whom a particular rule is intended manage to circumvent it, then the rule is dead.

People will necessarily disobey the rules or circumvent the law:

• if this norm is unprofitable for them, contradicts their interests, causes more harm than good;
• if there is no strict and unconditional mechanism for all citizens to control the implementation of the law.

Mutually beneficial orders, laws, regulations and social norms in general are convenient in that they are executed voluntarily and do not require the maintenance of an additional staff of controllers.

Each norm must be covered by an appropriate number of sanctions and agents of control.

Responsibility to the implementation of the law arises from citizens, provided that they:

• equal before the law, regardless of status differences;
• interested in the operation of this law.

The American sociologist of Austrian origin P. Berger proposed the concept of social control, the essence of which is as follows (Fig. 1). A person stands in the center of divergent concentric circles representing different types, types and forms of social control. Each circle is a new control system.

Circle 1 - outer - political and legal system, represented by the powerful apparatus of the state. In addition to our will, the state:

• levies taxes;
• calls for military service;
• makes you obey your rules and regulations;
• if he deems it necessary, he will deprive him of his liberty and even his life.

A circle 2 - morality, customs and mores. Everyone follows our morality:

• morality police - can put you in jail;
• parents, relatives - use informal sanctions such as condemnation;
• friends - will not forgive betrayal or meanness and may part with you.

A circle 3 - professional system. At work, a person is constrained: by a mass of restrictions, instructions, professional duties, business obligations that have a controlling effect. Immorality is punished by dismissal from work, eccentricity by the loss of chances to find a new job.

Rice. 1. Illustration to the concept of P. Berger

The control of the professional system is of great importance, since the profession and position decide what an individual can and cannot do in non-productive life, which organizations will accept him as a member, what his circle of acquaintances will be, in which area he will allow himself to live, etc. .

A circle 4 - social environment, namely: distant and close, unfamiliar and familiar people. The environment makes its own demands on a person, unwritten laws, for example: the manner of dressing and speaking, aesthetic tastes, political and religious beliefs, even the manner of behaving at the table (an ill-mannered person will not be invited to visit or those who appreciate good manners will refuse from the house).

Circle 5 - closest to the individual - private life. The circle of family and personal friends also forms a system of social control. Social pressure on the individual does not weaken here, but, on the contrary, increases. It is in this circle that the individual establishes the most important social bonds. Disapproval, loss of prestige, ridicule or contempt in the circle of loved ones have a much greater psychological weight than the same sanctions emanating from strangers or strangers.

The core of private life is the intimate relationship between husband and wife. It is in intimate relationships that a person seeks support for the most important feelings that make up the Self-image. To stake these connections is to risk losing yourself.

Thus, a person must: yield, obey, please, by virtue of his position, everyone - from the federal tax service to his own wife (husband).

Society, with all its bulk, suppresses the individual.

It is impossible to live in society and be free from it.

Social assistance: what is it?

Definition 1

Social assistance is one of the forms of organizational and legal measures that are aimed at supporting certain categories of the population who find themselves in a difficult life situation regarding the lack of sufficient income to lead a full-fledged life.

The most common is state social assistance. It is one of the types of social assistance provided in our country at the legislative level. State social assistance is provided to low-income families, as well as to certain categories of citizens in the form of social payments: pensions, allowances, subsidies, benefits. In addition, social assistance from the state can be provided in the form of different kind social services, as well as in the form of vital goods that are aimed at maintaining the life of citizens (food, clothing, medicines).

At its core, social assistance acts as the most important area of ​​activity that is carried out in a modern state. It is possible in cooperation with government organizations, public services and funds.

Remark 1

In Russia today, the main state organization that provides social assistance is the department of social protection of the executive committee (district or city executive committee). Of course, each region has its own specific norms and rules for the provision of social assistance, but all of them are directly subordinate to the same legislation.

Forms of social assistance

Directions and forms of providing social assistance to poor citizens are quite diverse. All of them are subject to the tasks that need to be solved to reduce the level of poverty in the country:

1. Establishing accelerated growth wages various categories of the population;
2. Formation and strengthening of the middle class, its stability;
3. Reducing inter-regional inequality (especially in the incomes of the population living in countryside with the incomes of the population that lives in large cities and metropolitan areas);
4. Development of comprehensive, federal and regional programs aimed at reducing poverty, improving the level and quality of life of the population.

Forms of social assistance can be of two types: direct and indirect. Direct forms of social assistance include state social assistance (providing social benefits, additional payments to pensions, subsidies and benefits to those categories of the population that are among the most needy and less prosperous); cash payments that can be provided in the form of social benefits, lump sum payments. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that these payments, like other forms of social assistance, are free of charge.

Also, direct forms of social assistance include in-kind assistance (in the form of fuel, clothing, food and necessary medical aid for seriously ill patients), social benefit(gratuitous provision of a sum of money at the expense of a specific budget or a certain budget system that operates on the territory of the Russian Federation), subsidy (full or partial payment for social services provided that are necessary for a citizen and his family in a certain period of time), social supplement to a pension ( can be provided both as a cash payment and in kind, in accordance with federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation).

Indirect forms of social assistance can be as follows:

• Uniform sets of consumption both for the Russian Federation and depending on the level of income of individual regions;
• Average prices for the Russian Federation and regions, which demonstrate a noticeable inequality and differentiation of the population and its standard of living;
• Index of consumer cents and tariffs for goods and paid social services provided to the population. This index characterizes the change in time of the general price level, as well as tariffs for goods and services;
• Living wage, as well as the consumer basket. The living wage is an estimate of the minimum consumer basket, as well as mandatory payments and fees (for example, payment of monthly utilities). The consumer basket is a set of food products and non-food products and services that are necessary to ensure the full life of a citizen, as well as to maintain his health;
• Reducing the tax rate for certain categories of citizens (the poor, pensioners, the disabled, orphans, families with many children).

Basic methods of social assistance

The methods of social assistance are identical to the methods of social work, since both of these areas have a common goal - the provision of assistance to certain categories of the population, their provision and protection. Firstly, the motivational characteristic of the totality of methods of influencing a person and a social group that needs social assistance is very important. By providing it, there is an opportunity to open a new activity for a person, which will allow him to provide for himself and his loved ones without resorting to social support and protection services.

Secondly, the methods of social assistance are heterogeneous, as they differ in the following areas:

• Socio-economic methods of social assistance;
• Organizational-distributive methods of social assistance;
• Psychological and pedagogical methods of social assistance.

Thanks to these methods, there is an impact on the material, national, family and other interests and needs of a citizen. Material and social motivation for citizens who are in need is realized in the form of in-kind or monetary assistance, the establishment of benefits and the payment of lump sums, compensations, as well as the organization of patronage and consumer services for a certain category of persons.

Any person, unless he has accepted asceticism and does not live the life of a hermit, is part of society. He interacts with other people and fulfills his social role. And, as a rule, the communication of different people with each other is always different. All people are different and they can belong to different social groups, occupy different social positions, have different status, etc. Many factors influence the communication and relationships of people, and our task, as people striving for self-development and a better understanding of human nature, is to understand what these factors are and what are the general features of the interaction of people and their behavior. And in this topic we will be helped to understand social psychology, to which we dedicate the next lesson of our course.

In the presented lesson, we will understand what is applied social psychology, knowledge from the field of which we can successfully apply in practice. We will find out what the relationships between people are based on, we will figure out what the tasks and problems of social psychology are, we will talk about its subject, object and methods. And we will begin with an explanation of the very concept of social psychology.

The concept of social psychology

This is a branch of psychology that is devoted to the study of human behavior in society and various groups, his perception of other people, communication with them and influencing them. Knowledge of the basics of social psychology is very important for the psychologically correct education of a person and the organization of interaction between the individual and the team.

Social psychology is a science that is at the intersection of psychology and sociology, and therefore studies social psychology aspects that are characteristic of both of these sciences. To be more specific, we can say that social psychology studies:

• Social psychology of personality
• Social psychology of groups of people and communication
• social relations
• Forms of spiritual activity

Social psychology has its own sections:

According to Galina Andreeva- a person whose name is associated with the development of social psychology in the USSR, this science is divided into three main sections:

• Social psychology of groups
• Social psychology of communication
• Social psychology of personality

Proceeding from this, it is possible to describe the range of problems of social psychology.

Problems, subject and object of social psychology

Social psychology, considering mainly the personality in society, sets itself the task of determining under what conditions the personality assimilates social influences and under what conditions it realizes its social essence. It reveals how social-typical features are formed, why in some cases they appear, while in others some new ones have appeared. When studying, the system of interpersonal relations, behavioral and emotional regulation. In addition, the behavior and activities of the individual are considered in specific social groups, the contribution of an individual to the activities of the entire group and the reasons that affect the magnitude and value of this contribution are studied. The main guideline in the study of personality for social psychology is the relationship between the individual and the group.

The subject of social psychology- these are the patterns of occurrence, functioning and manifestation of socio-psychological phenomena at the micro, medium and macro levels, as well as in different areas and conditions. But this is more about the theoretical side of science. If we talk about the practical side of social psychology, then its subject will be a set of patterns of psychodiagnostics, counseling and the use of psychotechnologies in the field of socio-psychological phenomena.

TO objects of social psychology carriers of socio-psychological phenomena themselves include:

• Personality in a group and system of relations
• Human-to-human interaction (relatives, colleagues, partners, etc.)
• Small group (family, class, group of friends, working shift etc.)
• Interaction of a person with a group (leaders and followers, bosses and subordinates, teachers and students, etc.)
• Interaction of groups of people (competitions, debates, conflicts, etc.)
• Big social group(ethnos, social stratum, political party, religious denomination, etc.)

To better understand what social psychology is about and what it studies, you can ask questions such as why do some students in the classroom behave in one way and others in another? How does it affect the formation of a person’s personality, for example, whether his parents are alcoholics or parents are athletes? Or why do some people tend to give instructions while others tend to follow them? If you are interested in knowing the psychological details of human communication or the interaction of groups of people with each other, then social psychology will satisfy your needs in this matter in the best possible way.

And, of course, in order for the study of the subject and object of social psychology to be the most effective, and for research to give maximum results, social psychology, like any other science, must have a certain set of methods in its arsenal. We will talk about them below.

Methods of social psychology

Generally, about specific methods social psychology cannot be said to be independent of the general methods of psychology. Therefore, the use of any method should be determined by the specifics of the presented science, i.e. any method must be applied in a certain "methodological key".

The methods of social psychology themselves have their own classification and are divided into four groups:

• Methods of empirical research (observation, experiment, instrumental methods, sociometry, document analysis, tests, survey, group personality assessment);
• Modeling method;
• Methods of administrative and educational influence;
• Methods of socio-psychological influence.

Let's look at each group of methods briefly.

Methods of empirical research

observation method. Observation in social psychology means the collection of information, which is carried out through direct, purposeful and systematic perception and registration of socio-psychological phenomena in laboratory or natural conditions. The main material on the issue of observation is contained in our second lesson, from which you can learn about what types of observation exist and how they are characterized.

You can learn about how the observation method works by testing it on your own experience. For example, you would like to know what is most interesting for your growing child in the process ordinary life. To find out, you just need to observe him, his behavior, mood, emotions, reactions. Most of all, attention should be paid to speech acts, their direction and content, physical actions and their expressiveness. Observation will help you identify some individual interesting features in your child or, conversely, see that any tendencies are being consolidated. The main task during the organization of observation is to determine exactly what you want to see and record, as well as the ability to identify factors that influence this. If necessary, observation can be carried out systematically, using certain schemes for it, evaluating the results according to any systems.

Document analysis method- this is one of the varieties of ways to analyze the products of human activity. A document is any information recorded on any medium (paper, film, hard disk, etc.). The analysis of documents makes it possible to draw up a fairly accurate psychological description of a person's personality. This method is very popular among psychologists and ordinary people. For example, many parents, noticing some deviations in the development of their children and trying to find out their cause, turn to psychologists for help. And those, in turn, ask the parents to bring the drawings that their children have drawn. Based on the analysis of these drawings, psychologists come to an opinion and give appropriate recommendations to parents. There is another example: as you know, many people keep diaries. Based on the study of these diaries, experienced professionals can make a psychological portrait of their owners and even determine what factors influenced the fact that a person's personality was formed in a particular way.

Poll method, and in particular, interviews and questionnaires, are widespread in modern society. And not only in psychological circles. Interviews are taken from people from completely different social strata in order to obtain various kinds of information. Questionnaires are conducted in a similar way. If, for example, you are the head of a department in an organization and are looking for ways to improve the performance of your department or make the team environment more friendly, you can conduct a survey among your subordinates, having previously compiled a list of questions. And a subspecies of the interview can be safely called an interview when applying for a job. As an employer, you can create a list of questions that will give you an objective “picture” of the applicant to help you make the right decision. If you are an applicant applying for a serious (and not only) position, then this is an occasion to prepare for an interview, for which today there are many useful information in the Internet.

Method of sociometry refers to methods of socio-psychological study of the structure of small groups and a person as a member of a group. With the help of this method, the relationship of people among themselves and within the group is studied. Sociometric studies can be individual and group, and their results are usually presented in the form of sociometric matrices or sociograms.

Group personality assessment method (GOL) is to obtain the characteristics of a person in a particular group, based on a survey of members of this group relative to each other. Using this method, experts assess the level of expression of a person's psychological qualities, which are manifested in his appearance, activity and interaction with others.

test method. Like some other methods of psychology, tests have already been considered by us in one of the first lessons and you can get acquainted with the concept of “tests” in detail there. Therefore, we will touch only on general issues. Tests are short, standardized and, in most cases, time-limited tests. With the help of tests in social psychology, differences between people and groups of people are determined. During the execution of tests, the subject (or a group of them) performs certain tasks or selects answers to questions from a list. Data processing and analysis are performed in relation to a certain "key". The results are expressed in test terms.

Scales, measuring social attitudes, are among the tests that still receive special attention. Scales of social attitudes are used for a variety of purposes, but most often they are used to characterize the following areas: public opinion, the consumer market, the choice of effective advertising, people's attitudes towards work, problems, other people, etc.

Experiment. Another method of psychology, which we touched upon in the lesson "Methods of Psychology". The experiment implies the creation by the researcher of certain conditions of interaction between the subject (or a group of them) and certain situations in order to restore the patterns of this interaction. An experiment is good because it allows you to simulate phenomena and conditions for research and influence them, measure the reactions of the subjects and reproduce the results.

Modeling

In the previous lesson, we already touched on the modeling method in psychology and you can familiarize yourself with it by clicking on the link. It is only worth noting that in social psychology modeling develops in two directions.

First- this is a technical imitation of the processes, mechanisms and results of mental activity, i.e. mental modeling.

Second- this is the organization and reproduction of any activity, by artificially creating the environment for this activity, i.e. psychological modeling.

The modeling method makes it possible to obtain a wide variety of reliable socio-psychological information about a person or a group of people. For example, in order to find out how the employees of your organization will act in an extreme situation, be under the influence of a panic state or act together, simulate a fire situation: turn on the alarm, notify employees about the fire and observe what is happening. The data obtained will allow you to determine whether it is worth paying attention to work with employees on behavior in the workplace in emergency situations, to understand who is the leader and who is the follower, and also learn about those qualities and character traits of your subordinates that you might , did not know.

Methods of managerial and educational influence

Management and educational methods mean a set of actions (mental or practical) and techniques, by performing which you can achieve the desired results. This is a kind of system of principles that gives an orientation to the organization of productive activity.

The influence of upbringing methods is manifested through the direct impact of one person on another (persuasion, demand, threat, encouragement, punishment, example, authority, etc.), the creation of special conditions and situations that force a person to express himself (express an opinion, do some action). Also, the influence is exerted through public opinion and joint activities, the transfer of information, training, education, upbringing.

Among the methods of managerial and educational influence are:

• Beliefs that form certain mental manifestations (views, concepts, ideas);
• Exercises that organize activities and stimulate positive motives;
• Evaluation and self-assessment, which determine actions that stimulate activity and assist in the regulation of behavior

An excellent example of managerial and educational influence is the upbringing of a child by his parents. It is through upbringing that the main features and properties of his personality are born and formed in a person. It is not difficult to guess that if you want your child to grow up independent, self-confident and successful person, which has a set positive qualities(responsibility, purposefulness, stress resistance, positive thinking, etc.), then it should be properly educated. In the process of education, it is important to conduct confidential conversations, be able to direct the child's activities and behavior, encourage success and make it clear when any offense has been committed. You need to give strong arguments, arguments, examples. Set as an example authoritative people, outstanding personalities. It is also important to always try to give a correct assessment of the behavior, actions, actions and results of your child, to form an adequate self-esteem in him. These are, of course, just a few examples. But it is important to understand that only in the case of the correct managerial and educational influence on a person’s personality, it becomes possible to exert a positive and constructive influence on him.

And the last group of methods of social psychology are methods of socio-psychological influence.

Methods of socio-psychological influence

Methods of socio-psychological influence are a set of techniques that affect the needs, interests, inclinations of a person, his attitudes, self-esteem, emotional state, as well as socio-psychological attitudes of groups of people.

With the help of methods of socio-psychological influence, it is possible to influence the needs of people and their motivation, change their desires, aspirations, emotions, mood, behavior. Skillfully using these methods, you can change people's views, opinions and attitudes, as well as create new ones. By providing the right socio-psychological impact on a person, it is possible to ensure the most favorable position of a person in society, make his personality more resistant to the influence of various factors, form a healthy worldview and attitude towards people, the world, and life. Sometimes methods of socio-psychological influence are used to destroy existing personality traits, stop any activity, motivate them to search for new goals, etc.

As we can see, the methods of social psychology are one of the most difficult topics in psychological science. To understand these methods in detail, you need to spend more than one month studying them. But, despite this, one exact conclusion can be drawn: taking into account all the methodological difficulties, in any socio-psychological research there must be the ability to clearly identify and delimit the tasks to be solved, choose an object, formulate the problem under study, clarify the concepts used and systematize the entire range of methods used for research. methods. This is the only way to make socio-psychological research as accurate and productive as possible.

But in order for you to be able to start implementing the acquired knowledge into your life right now, without doing in-depth study specialized materials, you should know several important laws and patterns of social psychology that affect a person's life in society and his interaction with this society and other people.

People always perceive people around them in one way or another.

Usually we attribute to the people with whom we come into contact certain properties that are related to social stereotypes. Stereotypes can be attributed to people on an anthropological basis, that is, on the basis of the characteristics of the race to which the person belongs. There are also social stereotypes - these are images attributed to people holding certain positions, having different statuses, etc. Stereotypes can also be emotional, i.e. associated with the physiological properties of people.

Therefore, when communicating with different people, you must understand that your perception of them may be subconsciously based on stereotypes. So, for example, a handsome person may turn out to be the one with whom it is better not to mess with, and an unattractive outwardly person can amaze you with the beauty and depth of his soul. If you are prejudiced against people of a certain race, this does not mean at all that they are as you think they are. After all, people of any skin color, gender, religion, worldview can be both good and bad. It is important to learn to perceive people not based on stereotypes, but only on personal experience. As the saying goes, don't judge by clothes, judge by your mind.

People easily assign the social roles imposed on them.

A person who is in constant interaction with society builds his behavior according to the social role assigned to him by this society. This can be easily seen in the example of a person who was suddenly promoted: he becomes very important, serious, communicates with people from high, those who were on an equal footing with him yesterday are no longer a match for him, etc. Social roles imposed by society can make a person weak-willed, powerless to change something. People who are affected in this way can “sink” to the worst deeds (even murders) or raise themselves to heights.

It must always be remembered that the social roles imposed by society have a strong influence on a person. To be able not to "bend" under pressure social role and remain yourself, you must be a strong personality, have an inner core, have beliefs, values ​​and principles.

The best interlocutor is the one who knows how to listen.

Conversation is an integral part of human communication. Meeting with other people, we start a conversation: about how someone is doing, about news, about changes, interesting events. The conversation can be friendly, businesslike, intimate, formal, or noncommittal. But many people, if you pay attention to this, much more like to talk than to listen. In almost every company there is a person who constantly interrupts, wants to speak out, put in his word, does not listen to anyone. Agree, this is not very pleasant. But it is a pronounced need for conversation. In other people, it may be less pronounced, but, in any case, it always exists.

If a person is given the opportunity to speak incessantly, then after saying goodbye to you, he will experience only the most pleasant emotions from communication. If you constantly talk, then he will most likely become bored, he will nod his head, yawn, and communication with you will become an unbearable burden for him. A strong personality is a person who is able to control his emotions and desires. And the best interlocutor is the one who knows how to listen and not say a word, even if you really want to. Take this into service and practice - you will see how pleasant it will be for people to communicate with you. In addition, it will be an exercise in your self-control, self-discipline and mindfulness.

People's attitudes affect their perception of reality and others.

If a person has a pre-formed predisposition to react to something in a certain way, then he will do it in accordance with it. Here, for example, you should meet with some person and you were told something very bad about him in advance. When you meet, you will experience acute dislike for this person, unwillingness to communicate, negativity and rejection, even if this person is actually very good. Anyone, even the same person, can appear before you in a completely different light, if before that you will be given a certain attitude towards his perception.

You should not take on faith everything that you hear, see, learn from someone else. The main thing is always to trust only personal experience and check everything yourself, taking into account, of course, everything that you have learned, but not based on it. Only personal experience will allow you to find out reliable information and make objective judgments about other people, events, situations, things, etc. In this case, the saying is ideal: “Trust, but verify!”.

People's behavior often depends on how others perceive them.

In psychology, this is called reflection. This is true, of course, not for everyone, but for many. There are people who are completely dependent on how others perceive them. A hypertrophied sense of the importance of someone else's opinion leads to the fact that a person begins to feel constant discomfort, emotional stress, dependence on another person, inability to defend one's position, express one's opinion, and many other rather discomfort. Moreover, these feelings can manifest themselves in different ways: from small mood swings during the day to prolonged and deep depressions.

To avoid such situations, you need to understand that someone else's opinion is just someone else's opinion. No wonder successful people say that someone else's opinion will never feed you and your loved ones, will not buy you clothes, will not bring success and happiness. Quite the contrary, almost always someone else's opinion makes people give up, stop striving for something, develop and grow. How others perceive you is their own business. You do not have to adapt to anyone and always remain yourself.

People tend to judge others and justify themselves.

Situations in life are different, as are the people who find themselves in them. But the reactions evoked in people who find themselves in these situations can be perceived by us in completely different ways. For example, if you are standing in line to make a purchase and there is a person in front of you who buys something for a very long time, this causes negative emotions in you, you can begin to express dissatisfaction, rush the person in front, etc. At the same time, if for some reason you are delayed at the checkout, and the person behind you starts to reprimand something to you, you will begin to make quite reasonable arguments about why you are standing for so long. And you will be right. People find themselves in situations like this almost every day.

A significant plus for you in terms of your development will be mastering the skill of critically assessing the situation and the people who find themselves in it (others and yourself). Whenever you feel that you begin to experience negative emotions due to some circumstances, irritation, a desire to express dissatisfaction towards another person, abstract for a while. Take a look at the situation from the outside, critically evaluate yourself and others, think about whether the other is to blame for the current situation and how you would behave and feel in his place. Most likely, you will notice that your reaction is not entirely correct and you should behave more calmly, more tactfully, more consciously. If you make this practice systematic, life will become much more pleasant, you will be less irritated, you will begin to experience more positive emotions, become more positive, etc.

People often identify with other people.

In social psychology, this is called identification. Very often, our identification with others occurs during our communication with someone: a person tells us a story or describes a situation in which he was a participant, but we subconsciously put ourselves in his place in order to feel what he felt. Also, identification can occur while watching a movie, reading a book, or the like. We identify with the main character or other participants. Thus, we dive deeper into the information that we study (watch, read), understand the motives of people's actions, evaluate ourselves with them.

Identification can be done consciously. This helps a lot in non-standard, difficult life situations, and in the process of ordinary life. For example, if in some situation you find it difficult to make the right decision, you don’t know how best to proceed, remember the hero of your favorite book, film, a person who is an authority for you, and think about how he would act in your place, what he said or did. An appropriate image will immediately appear in your imagination, which will prompt you to the right decision.

People form their first impression of a person within the first five minutes.

This fact has long been proven by psychologists. We make the first impression of another person during the first 3-5 minutes of communication with him. While first impressions can be misleading, this point should be given special attention. When meeting a person for the first time, we look at his appearance, posture, behavior, speech, emotional state. Also, the first impression is influenced by whether we feel that a person is superior to us in some parameters, how attractive his appearance is, what attitude a person shows towards us. Other people make impressions of us according to the same criteria.

You need to be able to make a first impression. And for this it is necessary to take into account all the above factors of its formation. Therefore, whenever you know that you are planning the first meeting with a person (interview, meeting in a friendly company, date, etc.), you must prepare for this: look neat, behave confidently, be able to find something to say, observe manners propriety and rules of etiquette, to speak clearly, etc. Remember that the first impression is the foundation for building all future relationships.

A person attracts into his life that which corresponds to his thoughts.

It has been called variously: the law of attraction, "like attracts like" or "we are what we think". The meaning is this: in the course of a person’s life, such people meet and such events occur that are in resonance with him: they correspond to his thoughts, expectations, beliefs. If a person radiates negativity, then in his life there is more trouble, he is accompanied by failures, bad people meet. If positive vibrations come from a person, then his life will be filled, for the most part, with good news, good events, pleasant people.

Many successful people and spiritual figures say that everything in life depends on how we think. Therefore, if you want your life to change for the better, more positive events happen, good people meet, etc., then, first of all, you should pay attention to the way you think. Reshape it in the right way: from negative to positive, from the position of the victim to the position of the winner, from the feeling of failure to the feeling of success. Don't expect instant change, but try to be positive - after a while you will notice changes.

Often what happens in a person's life is what he expects.

You have probably noticed this pattern more than once: what you fear most of all happens with enviable regularity. But the point here is not at all that it is something bad, but how strong an emotional coloring you give it. If you constantly think about something, worry about it, expect something, then there is a high probability that it will happen. Whatever your expectations can have an impact on the people around you. But negative emotions (fear, fear, apprehensions), as you know, take possession of people's consciousness to a much greater extent than positive ones. Therefore, what we do not want happens more often than what we want.

Rebuild - stop thinking about what you fear and expect it, start expecting only the best from life and those around you! But here the main thing is not to overdo it, so as not to experience feelings of disappointment. Get in the habit of expecting the best, but don't idealize your expectations. Step away from the negative and tune in to the positive, but always remain realistic and take a sober look at the world.

There are a lot of patterns that operate in communication between people, because psychology is a science with a huge number of features. To make your life better, and communication with other people and interaction with society more pleasant and effective, you need to develop attentiveness to everything that happens around you: people's behavior, their reactions, the reasons for certain situations and events. No theory will change you and your life by itself. Only practical use new knowledge, honing your communication skills and training in personal qualities can influence you and change what you want to change.

As for the person himself in social psychology, it can be stated with confidence that the person, as a mature personality, plays the main role here. It is social and psychological characteristics that allow such a science as social psychology to exist at all. And the knowledge about it that we now have, we want to deepen and strive to put into practice, give us the opportunity to identify, realize and understand the factors that affect the development of the individual, the specifics of the interaction of people among themselves and in groups (as well as these groups). And this already allows us to make our lives, both individuals and parts of society, more comfortable and conscious, and the results of our actions and actions are better and more effective. It is for these reasons that we must master the basics of social (and not only) psychology and make their use a part of our daily lives.

Literature

For those who have a desire to dive deeper into the study of the topic of social psychology, below we present a small but very good list of literature that it makes sense to refer to.

• Ageev B.C. Intergroup interaction: socio-psychological problems. M., 1990
• Andreeva G.M. Social psychology M., 2003
• Bityanova M.R. Social psychology M., 2002
• Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of a person by a person M. Moscow State University, 1982
• Bodalev A.A. Personality and communication M., 1995
• Dontsov A.I. Psychology of the team M., 1984
• Leontiev A.A. Psychology of communication M., 1998
• Kolomensky Ya.L. "Differentiation of social psychology and some problems of developmental psychology" - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000
• Myasishchev V.N. Psychology of relations Moscow-Voronezh, 1995
• Fundamentals of socio-psychological theory / Ed. A.A. Bodaleva, A.N. Sukhova M., 1995
• Parygin B.D. Social psychology M., 1999
• Psychology of personality and lifestyle / Ed. ed. E.V. Shorokhova M. Nauka, 1987
• Rean A.A., Kolomensky Ya.L. Social pedagogical psychology SPb., 1998
• Robert M., Tilman F. Psychology of the individual and the group M., 1988
• Sekun V.I. Psychology of activity. Minsk, 1996
• Semenov V.E. The method of studying documents in socio-psychological research L., 1983
• Modern foreign social psychology Texts / Ed. G.M. Andreeva et al. M., 1984
• Social psychology / Ed. A.N. Sukhova, A.A. Derkach M., 2001
• Social psychology and social practice / Ed. E.V. Shorokhova, V.P. Levkovich. M., 1985
• Social psychology of classes / Ed. G.G. Diligensky M., 1985
• Spivak D.L. Altered States of Mass Consciousness St. Petersburg, 1996
• Stankin M.I. Psychology of communication Course of lectures M., 1996
• Stefanenko T.G., Shlyagina E.I., Enikolopov S.N. Methods of ethnopsychological research. M., 1993
• Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology. Issue. 1. M., 1998
• Sukharev V., Sukharev M. Psychology of peoples and nations. M., 1997
• Freud 3. Group psychology and analysis of "EGO" M., 1991
• Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education M., 1996
• Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology in Western Europe M, 1985

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.