In the vocabulary of almost every person there are several thousand words. This number essentially depends on his level of education, erudition and general development. According to statistics, the average volume vocabulary an adult is within ten to twelve thousand words.
A characteristic feature of educated people is the correct and appropriate use of their linguistic reserve. The key to competent operation of words and concepts is an appeal to the origins of word formation, as well as the search for reliable, undistorted information.
This article will consider the origin and meaning of the concept of "method", "system of methods", their types and areas of application.
Definition of the term
The word "method" has Greek roots. Literally translated, it means "the path, following the path." An extended interpretation of the concept includes a set of actions, a sequence of steps or a set of techniques that are aimed at achieving a very specific task. That is, a set of targeted activities is a method. The definition may change slightly when clarifications are made regarding the types and specifics of activities, but, in general, the essence remains unchanged.
Varieties of methods
The study of existing methods, their variations and areas of application led to the creation of a classification. Given the ultimate goal, as well as the features of the actions taken, the main methods are distinguished as follows:
- Analytical.
- Deductive.
- Dialectical.
- Inductive.
- Intuitive.
- Scientific.
- Generalized.
- Experimental.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "methods" and "forms", since the former characterize the totality of activities and actions, and the latter - how this happens. More illustratively, the difference can be depicted by the example of the learning process. There are quite a lot of methods that guide teachers and they also have their own classification, but among the main ones one can single out passive, active and interactive.
At the same time, the form of organization of training can be daytime, evening, correspondence, stationary.
Analytical and Features
The word "analytics", from which the name of the corresponding method comes, means "the art of analysis". This term implies the division of the object under consideration into its constituent elements, their study, measurement, study. Analytical methods of work involve the collection and processing of information received as a result of the use of other techniques.
Today, most analytical operations are performed using computers. Their capabilities of simultaneous parallel, rather than sequential processing of the source data allow you to perform analytical actions at superspeed. This approach is used in most areas of scientific, economic, industrial activity to achieve various goals.
Deduction and deductive methods
You can understand what it is when you familiarize yourself with its definition. According to the dictionary, making predictions, inferences or conclusions about particular situations or about the characteristics of individual elements of the system. The deductive method is based on the study of the general patterns of a phenomenon or system. In other words, it is the study of the general for the knowledge of the particular.
Deductive methods are used:
- in scientific activity.
- In criminology.
- When learning.
- In economics, statistics, accounting.
- For legal practice.
- As an aspect of medical research, as well as in many other important areas of human activity.
Considering the features of the deductive method, it should be noted that its effective application is possible only if there are reliable and verified initial data. Since the logical conclusion is based on the analysis of premises, their content is of paramount importance.
What is the method of induction
In contrast to the deductive method described earlier, induction is the generation of a logical conclusion based on the transition from particular to general propositions. Inductive reasoning connects the input data with the conclusion, guided not only by strict but also with the help of some factual, psychological or mathematical representations. An integral component of such methods are the general patterns inherent in all phenomena in nature.
There is a concept of complete and incomplete induction. In the first case, establishing a causal relationship involves processing a finite number of particular premises or cases. For a reasonable conclusion, it is necessary that the cases considered cover all possible aspects of the phenomenon.
The concept of "incomplete induction" consists in putting forward an assumption or hypothesis based on the study (observation) of selected special cases. Naturally, such hypotheses need to be confirmed.
Most often, the method of mathematical induction is used to prove them. With its help, it becomes possible to carry out complete induction for an infinite countable set of objects.
What method is called dialectical
Summarizing several definitions, we can say that the dialectical method is a method used to prove a position or statement when considering and comparing two radically opposite views. The study of diametrically different points of view allows you to get a true picture of the whole.
Understanding what the dialectic method is helps to restore the sequence of events in forensic science, jurisprudence and psychotherapy. Dialectics is also widely used in the scientific and economic fields of activity. In economics, this method involves the study of economic processes, as well as their patterns during development and movement. Such an approach makes it possible to establish the interdependence of economic phenomena, as well as the features of their interaction. The dialectical method is effective for identifying existing contradictions and inconsistencies. It is also indispensable in the search for compromise solutions to meet the needs of the warring parties.
The role of intuitive methods in the process of human activity
The exact opposite of analytical methods of decision making and the formation of logical conclusions is intuition. According to the definition, intuitive problem solving methods are a mental activity of a person aimed at subconscious processing of initial data and issuing a quick result. As a rule, the process of generating an output is influenced by previous experience, insight, "flair", empathy and imagination of a person.
Intuitive methods are not some kind of supernatural, superintelligent or bypassing sensations, thinking and ideas. By and large, they are the result of their own different type thinking. Formation of the method occurs when data processing and individual stages of the analysis process are performed almost unconsciously, but the result is extremely clear. Often, the result of intuitive methods is more successful than a random set of actions, but less effective than using analytical and scientific methods.
Scientific method and its specifics
The scientific method is a set of methods used to acquire new knowledge and develop algorithms for solving scientific problems. It is a set of techniques used to study phenomena, streamline, systematize and correct acquired or existing knowledge. The formation of conclusions and conclusions occurs when using the actual data obtained as a result of empirical research. The main base used for data mining includes:
- Experiments.
- Measurements.
- Observations.
On their basis, theories are built and hypothetical assumptions are put forward, which become the basis for constructing a mathematical description (model of the object under study).
The scientific method is characterized by objectivity and the complete exclusion of subjective interpretation of the results. This condition is obligatory for the methods used in every science. It is categorically unacceptable to accept on faith any statements, even those coming from recognized authorities in this field. There is a concept of independent verification. It would not have been possible without the documentation of observations, as well as the availability source materials, intermediate and final results for review by other scientists.
This approach ensures that additional confirmation is obtained when experiments are successfully reproduced or a critical assessment of the degree of adequacy of the experiment and the result relative to the theory being tested.
The concept of "generalized method"
The use of generalized methods allows the application of some systems designed to achieve a specific goal in other areas.
Generalized methods may have different origins (most often they are analytical or scientific), but through logical operations after the elimination of specific features, they acquire a new meaning. These methods have a broader scope and less specific content.
Conclusion
General information about what the method is allows you to better navigate when reading specialized literature, studying instructions and recommendations. Acquaintance with this concept is of particular importance for participants in the educational process.
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The auditor chooses a specific method of analysis based on the tasks of the audit, his experience and professional qualifications, the scope and composition of the information base of financial analysis.
The choice of a particular method of analysis depends on the chemical nature of the components of the mixture and is the task of analytical chemistry. In this case, each reactor is equivalent to a separate sample.
Before considering specific methods of analysis, it is necessary to make some remarks related to any analytical technique.
These differences are of a fundamental nature; therefore, indicator electrodes are discussed in more detail when considering specific methods of analysis.
Development of the main directions and programs of work in the field of creation and improvement theoretical foundations and specific methods of analysis, as well as in the field of analytical instrumentation, taking into account the need to focus on the elimination of weak (in terms of accuracy) links in the analytical service system.
We now compare the Rayleigh-Ritz principle described above with another variational principle and see which particular method of analysis leads to Padé approximants as a solution to the variational problem. The problem of bound states can be reformulated as a question about the strength of the potential, which corresponds to some fixed energy of the bound state.
Before proceeding to the procedure for analyzing systems with several deposited elements, let us consider the question of the content of the initial information and the following specific method of analysis for systems of various types used in the processes of deposition from the gaseous phase. In table. 1 shows the classification of all possible systems, based on taking into account the specifics of the gas phase and the condensed phase deposited from it.
An objective judgment on the degree of purity of carbon electrodes can only be obtained on the basis of a quantitative spectrochemical analysis of the electrode material, and it should be emphasized that different methods for assessing the amount of contamination in coals are not equivalent. The suitability of a batch of electrodes for use in a particular method of analysis is checked by setting up a blank experiment under the conditions adopted in the selected method. A simple way to assess the quality of the electrodes is to take a photograph of the spectrum of the 10 A DC arc between the fresh fractures of the carbon rod.
It is proportional to the ratio of signal to noise and can be a quantitative measure of the approximation of the particular analysis method under consideration to the ideal one, which uses strictly monochromatic radiation.
The table consists of two sections: microcrystalloscopy and absorptiometry. The reactions given in each section are described in sufficient detail to select a particular method of analysis. The reagents are listed in the order they were added during the analysis.
He improved many methods, and rejected some and replaced them with better ones. Each chapter in More's textbook is named after the scientist who developed a particular method of analysis. For example, in the chapter of Gay-Lussac, apidimetry and alkalimetry are described, the chapter of Marguerite (Mohr distorted his last name, by the way) is devoted to permapganate t-rpi. In the chapter More placed materials relating to the system arsenic acid - iodine. Mohr was the first to use this system, but the origin of such captivity is partly due to Bunsen, whose work he touches on very briefly. Mohr describes volumetric methods in great detail and gives the results of the determinations carried out in various conditions. At the end of the book, he classifies the methods, referring them to various elements, gives an assessment to each of the methods, and advises what should be followed when choosing one or another method. There are very few references to the literature in the textbook, so Mohr is often credited with what other scholars have developed. For example, he is considered the author of the back titration method, it is believed that he proposed sodium hydroxide as a standard solution and introduced normal solutions into practice, although the latter were known before. True, we must pay tribute, after the publication of Mohr's book, normal solutions began to be used much more often.
Method concept
Management training, due to the specifics of the latter as a predominantly practical activity, differs to a large extent from the existing processes of knowledge transfer in the traditional fields of natural sciences and the humanities. This difference concerns the main thing - the goals of education. The fundamental idea of the considered method in relation to management training is based on the belief that management is more behavior, skills and abilities than just knowledge. The best way the development of these qualities is achieved by training through action modeling (like an athlete or an artist). With the comprehension of managerial skills[I], the role of these factors increases dramatically, which in due time caused the creation and development of another conceptual framework in relation to methods of teaching management.
Today it is recognized that practical learning (experiential learning) has become such a conceptual basis, based on the assumption that skills, abilities and adequate behavior in general are most effectively formed in the course of gaining experience with its subsequent comprehension, theorization and testing in practice. It is more than understandable that management training within the "spiral" of practicing learning is best done by directly involving the trainee in practical activities in the workplace as a manager. However, it is difficult for
imagine that in reality there are objects of business activity, firms or companies that are willing to take on the role of training laboratories or "nurseries" for the education of certified managers.
The wisdom of life did not allow this to happen in reality, but the tasks themselves remained. It is known that the demand for people with managerial abilities, if not growing, then definitely not decreasing. The traditional place for training such people, as they were at the beginning of the century, has remained to this day business schools and similar institutions. However, it was possible to satisfy the existing demand for “people of action” only with the increasing introduction and development of the method of specific situations (case-method, ISS) - a teaching method that made it possible to largely implement the concept of practicing learning in class conditions.
It is impossible to talk about the ISS without talking about the most specific situation (case, CS). And in fact, the definition of the concept of ISS usually begins with a definition of what is a particular situation? In its most general form, the CS is a description of the actual events that took place in the process of doing business in words, figures and images. This is, as it were, a “cut” of this process, fixing its dynamics within certain time limits, putting the student before choosing ways to solve problems and a course of subsequent actions. At the same time, it is expected that after studying the situation, the listener will come to his individual conclusion, and after discussing the CS in the group and in the class, he will make the necessary changes to it. By its nature, the CS is the better, the more real the situation is for the listener who studies it. CS as a teaching method is based on recreating a real business situation through metaphors and modeling. At the same time, each CS is the result of real events and thus serves as a metaphor for a certain set of problems. The situations faced in the life of leaders may differ from the metaphors that convey their meaning. However, metaphors connected in a certain way together make up the CS that can reflect the most general in management.
In contrast to traditional learning, there are a number of important shifts in the approach to this process within the framework of practical learning. So, if in traditional learning the main responsibility for the results lies with the teacher, then learning transfers this responsibility to the student as a person. If traditional learning is primarily a cognitive process
Som, then learning is mainly focused on specific actions and behavioral processes. The traditional analysis of facts and abstract concepts translates into the acquisition of skills and abilities, and ultimately into new behavior. The minimum personal involvement of the student in the framework of traditional learning is replaced by physical and psychological involvement with taking responsibility for the course and results of the classes. In general, practicing learning is learning that requires commitment to actively use all available opportunities for learning and to apply their results in your everyday thinking and behavior.
An attempt is made below to describe how the learning process is built using the method of specific situations when it comes to discussing real events. At the same time, the following questions are considered: where and how did MKQ arise and develop; what does the ISS give when teaching management; what requirements the method imposes on the CS; what is CS; what CS are; how CS is integrated into the educational process.
General scientific methods include the following: scientific observation, scientific experiment, scientific measurement, scientific description of objects and subjects of knowledge (qualitative and quantitative), scientific analysis, scientific synthesis, scientific modeling (empirical and mental), scientific abstraction, scientific generalization, scientific induction, scientific hypothesis, scientific explanation, scientific prediction, scientific proof (empirical and theoretical), scientific deduction (logical or mathematical proof), construction of scientific facts and scientific laws, idealization, thought experiment, interpretation (sensual, empirical, theoretical, metatheoretical), confirmation, refutation, method of scientific principles (foundations), system method, method of scientific reduction, scientific understanding, scientific reflection, scientific criticism, method of finding and establishing the causes of phenomena, description of the laws of connection of states cognizable object, genetic method, constructive genetic method, scientific conventions, scientific consensus, dialectical method, general scientific, practical and philosophical substantiation of fundamental concepts and theories. Let us characterize the content and essence general scientific methods scientific knowledge in alphabetical order.
Abstraction is a method of scientific knowledge, consisting in the implementation of three cognitive operations: 1) conscious abstraction from some properties of the object being known (as either irrelevant in this context, or already known to science), 2) fixing other properties of this object as important or new, 3) assigning to these properties the status of objects ("light", "length", "mass", etc.).
The axiomatic method is a method for constructing a scientific theory, which consists in dividing the entire set of its true statements into two subsets, one of which (the smaller one) is considered as more fundamental and is used as the basis of the theory for the subsequent logical derivation of all other true statements of the theory; the first set is called axioms, their logical consequences - theorems. The axiomatic method is very widely used in the construction of theories in mathematics and logic, less often in the construction of theories in natural sciences(mechanics, optics, etc.), quite rarely - in the social and human sciences (the ethics of Spinoza). The first scientific theory constructed by the axiomatic method was the geometry of Euclid.
Analysis - the mental division of an object into its constituent parts, properties, features, relationships, their subsequent study both separately (for example, the study of the intensity of some property or the spatial and structural characteristics of the object), and in the form of their various combinations (combinations). For example, an analysis of the chemical structure of a certain substance, or an analysis of the operation of individual parts of a certain technical system, or analysis of the behavior of some living organism, etc.
Analogy is a method of scientific knowledge, when, on the basis of the similarity of two or more objects according to certain inherent properties, a conclusion is made about the possible similarity of these objects in other respects. To obtain reliable conclusions by analogy or increase the likelihood of such conclusions, they strive to ensure that the compared objects are similar in essential properties, and that the relationship between already known properties and the new proposed property is necessary or highly probable. Thus, based on the analogy of the effects of a number of pharmaceuticals on animals and humans, a conclusion is made about the applicability of many other drugs for human treatment after their successful use in the treatment of animals.
Verification is the scientific verification of statements and theories for their empirical validity; is carried out by direct (for protocol, single statements) and indirect (for general statements and theories in general) comparison of the meanings of concepts and judgments with sensory and empirical scientific information.
Climbing from the abstract to the concrete is a method of constructing scientific theories in a synthetic way, from simple and content-poor concepts and statements of the theory to more and more complex and meaningful ones, by constructively adding more and more new content to the original concepts of the theory. This new content of the concept can be obtained both with the help of an empirical or historical study of the object under study, and as a result of a theoretical and methodological analysis of the content of the categories used to describe it. The application of this method is often used in conjunction with the dialectical method of cognition. In this case, it is necessary to carry out the following cognitive operations: 1) find and fix the original contradiction of the object being cognized, 2) establish and describe the sequence and stages of development of the original contradiction, 3) describe the specific forms of the original contradiction at each stage, 4) fix the new dialectical contradictions that arise in an object, etc. The main mechanism for the development of the basic contradiction is the gradual and inevitable accumulation in the content of the object of quantitative changes in its properties (both due to the internal logic of its development, and due to its interaction with external conditions). Upon reaching a certain limit of quantitative changes, the object either collapses or passes into a new qualitative state. The process of development of any object can continue for an arbitrarily long time, if the object (system) will not only be preserved, but also increase its adaptive potential. The scheme of the dialectical method of cognition was basically developed by Hegel. Subsequently, it was improved in Marxist philosophy, where it was supplemented by the requirement to take into account the role of practice as a criterion for the truth of theories about developing social objects. A vivid example of the successful use of the combination of the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete with the dialectical method was the construction of the political economy theory of capitalism by K. Marx.
Genetic method - a method consisting in the study of the origin (genesis) of the phenomenon under study, the causes of its occurrence, the main stages of the evolution of the phenomenon, the regular change of its states. The genetic method is widely used both in the natural sciences (paleontology, geography, geology, biology, soil science, etc.) and in the social sciences and humanities (history, archeology, economics, political science, sociology, cultural studies, linguistics, etc.).
Hypothesis- a scientific assumption, which is not an empirical statement (description) of the real state of affairs or an analytical statement, but, as a rule, a general statement (empirical or theoretical), the truth or usefulness of which requires further proof. Most often, the functions of hypotheses at the initial stage of scientific knowledge are scientific laws, axioms of the theory, equations of the theory, principles, scientific models, scientific theories in general. As the history of science has shown, a hypothesis is an inevitable and basic form of the development of scientific knowledge. However, the absolutization of its role in scientific knowledge leads to probabilism and relativism in understanding the nature and essence of scientific knowledge (St. Jevons, G. Reichenbach, K. Popper and others).
The gynothetico-deductive method is a method of constructing scientific theories, when, on the basis of a small number of facts, some hypothesis is first put forward to explain them, and then not only known facts, but also new empirical consequences are deductively derived from it, the truth of which is subsequently verified with the help of observations and experiments. Many adherents of the hypothetical-deductive method of developing scientific knowledge (primarily logical positivists) absolutized its role in scientific knowledge, believing that the relationship between theory and facts is the main one in the dynamics of scientific knowledge, the processes of discovery and substantiation of scientific laws and theories.
Deduction - 1) a conclusion from general scientific knowledge to less general, to private and individual statements of science; 2) the necessary logical following of some statements from others in accordance with the rules of logic, regardless of the degree of generality of the premises and the conclusion of the conclusion.
Deductive scientific method- method of unfolding the content of scientific knowledge based on logical conclusions; one of the variants of the deductive method is the axiomatic method; another option is the derivation from the laws and principles of scientific theories with the help of their empirical interpretation of experimentally verified consequences.
The dialectical method is a method of describing the development of any object or system in accordance with the laws of dialectics. Dialectics is a philosophical doctrine of the development of phenomena, the source of which is the presence of contradictions in the object and the desire of the system to resolve them while maintaining its integrity. The founder of the dialectical theory of development is G. Hegel. He was the first to formulate all the basic laws of dialectics: 1) the law of unity and struggle of opposites, 2) the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, 3) the law of dialectical negation and 4) the doctrine of the cycle "thesis - antithesis - synthesis" as the main form of internal development any phenomenon or system. Most often, the dialectical method is used in the social sciences, less often in the natural sciences and technical sciences, and very rarely in mathematics.
Measurement - a method for determining the quantitative parameters of the object under study based on its comparison with another object (material or ideal) taken as a standard (meter, gram, second, etc.). From the point of view of set theory, measurement is the operation of establishing a correspondence between the elements of two sets, one of which characterizes the intensity (value) of a certain property (length, body weight, etc.), established using a certain quantization standard, and the other set is a series of numbers (for example, natural numbers). The result of establishing a certain correspondence between these two sets is recorded in the form of statements about the magnitude of the measured properties, the numerical value of these quantities in certain units of measurement (5 kg, 3 cm, 5 A, 320 V, etc.). The most important means scientific measurement are instruments and one or another system of units of measurement conventionally accepted by the scientific community. The theoretical study of the process of scientific measurement, its various kinds, means and methods deals with a special science - metrology.
Induction- one of the main methods of scientific knowledge in all fields of science and at all levels of scientific knowledge, which is characterized by the movement of cognitive thought from individual and particular knowledge to general, as well as from less general knowledge to a more general one. This movement is based on inductive conclusions of four logical forms: enumerative induction, eliminative induction, induction as reverse deduction, mathematical induction.
Interpretation- identification of the meanings of terms of one level or type of scientific knowledge with the meanings of terms of other levels or types of scientific knowledge, for example, the empirical terms of a certain discipline with its theoretical terms, or the interpretation of physical concepts using mathematical (mathematical physics), or biological concepts using social ( sociobiology), etc. The philosophical meaning of the method of interpretation is that thanks to interpretation, i.e. with the help of a partial reduction of some types of knowledge to others, it is possible, firstly, to connect the various levels and types of scientific knowledge with each other and thereby ensure the unity of scientific knowledge. Secondly, it is only through interpretation that one kind of knowledge can be verified with the help of others (for example, theoretical knowledge with the help of empirical knowledge, empirical knowledge with the help of observational and experimental data, physical knowledge with the help of mathematical knowledge, and vice versa, etc.).
Intuition- the ability of a scientist to rely on all the resources of his available explicit and implicit knowledge when putting forward new ideas, assessing the cognitive situation and making decisions. The necessary conditions for the effective use of intuition as a means of scientific knowledge are the following: an increased interest of a scientist in a scientific problem and finding its solution, developed combinatorial abilities and a productive imagination of a scientist, as well as his cognitive will.
historical method- a method of scientific knowledge, consisting in describing the time sequence of a certain series of past events or phenomena, a clear and, if possible, complete description of them, establishing the conditions and causes of their occurrence, as well as the circumstances that influenced their functioning and dynamics. The historical method is used in describing natural phenomena, but especially social, events of human history, including the history of science and scientific knowledge.
Classification- a way of structuring a certain set of objects, dissecting it into certain subsets by articulation, highlighting a certain feature (or some of their combination) of the objects of this set as essential. This kind of feature is called the basis of classification. The classification of a set of cognizable objects is one of the important methods of cognition in all sciences. Well-known examples of empirical classifications in science are all known natural classifications species of animals and plants (C. Linnaeus, J. Buffon, J.-B. Lamarck and others). At the level of theoretical knowledge in science, classification is also used as an important method. For example, this is a socio-economic classification of societies (K. Marx and others) or various classifications of the phenomena of consciousness and the spiritual world (Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, F. Aquinas, I. Kant, G. Hegel, E. Husserl and others).
Conventions (scientific) - one of the ways in science to develop agreements between scientists on the meaning and meaning of the scientific concepts used, methods of research and processing of empirical data, standards and units of measurement, etc.
Consensus (scientific) - a way to achieve agreement among members of the scientific community regarding the relevance, novelty, validity, practical significance and objective truth of scientific concepts and theories, priority areas scientific research. Unlike the method of scientific conventions, the development of a scientific consensus takes a very significant period of time and is the result of lengthy cognitive negotiations, discussions, serious criticism and the use of a variety of empirical, theoretical, methodological and practical arguments in defense or refutation of scientific concepts. A significant role in achieving scientific consensus among members of the scientific community is played by the position and influence of recognized leaders in science.
Design (mental) is the activity of thinking aimed at creating abstract or ideal objects and models that describe them. The constructive activity of thinking has a relatively independent character not only in relation to sensory cognition and its results, but also in relation to methods of empirical cognition, such as, for example, abstraction and generalization. Mental design is a creative and synthetic method of thinking that obeys its own logic, the task of creating evidence-based knowledge systems that have explanatory, organizing and predictive power. Theoretical constructs must necessarily not only coincide with objective, sensual and empirical reality, but also differ significantly from them. The most important operations of the mental design method are definitions, conventions, logical conclusions, idealizations, etc.
Modeling is a method of studying objects by transferring knowledge gained in the process of building and studying a model of an object to its original. The simulation method has become especially widespread in modern science. This happened due to a number of reasons: 1) the fundamental impossibility of conducting direct experiments with objects of a number of sciences (for example, cosmology, geology, etc.), 2) the sharply increased complexity of cognizable systems and objects in natural and technical sciences, 3) the economic inexpediency of conducting a number of real experiments due to their extreme high cost (natural, social and technical sciences), 4) the danger of violating ethical standards in the experimental study of a number of objects (medicine, humanities) or environmental requirements (technical and technological sciences). The efficiency and heuristics of applying the modeling method implies the presence of a deep similarity (similarity) between the object model and its original, which is expressed in the establishment of isomorphism or homomorphism between the model and the original. There are two main types of modeling: 1) physical modeling, when some other material object or process acts as a model of the object under study (in particular, it can be just a reduced material copy of the object under study), 2) theoretical modeling, when a certain sign (in particular, mathematical or computer) model of an object.
Observation- the main method of sensory cognition in science. This is the process of obtaining sensory information about the object of scientific knowledge, conditioned by a specific goal and initial knowledge. Scientific observation is always determined by the instrumental base of observation, as well as by the cognitive and (or) practical interest of the researcher. Scientific observation differs from ordinary sensory perception by a clearly defined goal, systematic, use of instruments and other means of fixing and quantifying sensory information about the object of study. The results of scientific observation suggest the possibility of their repeated repetition (reproduction) by different researchers, at different times and in different places. These results should have the character of accurate and unambiguous information about the object of study. Compliance with these requirements is a necessary and sufficient condition for the objective nature of the received sensory information.
Generalization- a method of mental transition from individual and particular knowledge to general, from less general concepts and judgments to more general concepts or judgments. The basis of generalization is the identification of individual objects, phenomena, processes, their properties and relations according to some attribute (the basis of generalization) and their combination on this basis into a single class as elements of the latter. There are two main logical generalization operations for empirical knowledge:
1) for empirical concepts, this is an abstraction from some part of their content as insignificant for the purposes of generalization (due to which there is a decrease in the content and an increase in the volume of new, more general concepts created on their basis); 2) for empirical judgments, the method of their generalization is induction as a conclusion from individual and particular judgments in the premises of induction to a general judgment or conclusion in its conclusion (for example, a conclusion from stating a certain property in some objects of a certain class to the presence of this property in all objects of a given class ).
Rationale- the method of scientific knowledge, which includes a system of cognitive procedures, which have as their common goal the establishment of the correspondence of different structural units of knowledge (facts, laws, theories) to the criteria of scientific knowledge accepted in the scientific community. For sensory and empirical scientific knowledge, these are: 1) the ability of any researcher to reproduce observational and experimental data in order to verify their objectivity, certainty, and accuracy;
- 2) verification of empirical facts and laws for their empirical significance and confirmation by observational and experimental data;
- 3) establishing the correspondence of empirical facts and laws to generally accepted concepts and theories; 4) demonstration of the practical (technical and technological) significance of the available facts and empirical laws. The scientific substantiation of theoretical knowledge involves: 1) demonstrating the possibility of its consistent entry into the existing array of theoretical knowledge (this applies to both particular theoretical laws and theoretical constructs, and general theoretical principles and individual theories in general; 2) empirical interpretation of the theory and its verification for compliance some array of empirical knowledge; 3) metatheoretical interpretation of the theory and demonstration of its compliance with general scientific and philosophical knowledge; 4) demonstration of the usefulness of a particular theory for the development of scientific knowledge and its practical application. For the elements of the metatheoretical level of scientific knowledge (metateories, general scientific and philosophical principles and categories), their scientific justification is as follows: 1) showing the possibility of including general scientific and philosophical knowledge in the system; 2) demonstration of the possibility of their fruitful (heuristic) use for the interpretation, substantiation and development of scientific theories; 3) determination of their ideological and methodological potential.
Explanation- bringing some scientific fact or event under a certain scientific law or theory, deducing the explained facts and events as logical consequences of some scientific law or theory.
Definition- a method of cognition, consisting in a clear fixation of the meaning and meaning of the terms and concepts used in science. Exist different types definitions used in science: 1) ostensive (through a sensual indication of the meaning of the term), 2) generic (through an indication of the genus for a given concept as a certain type of a given genus (“Bronze is an alloy of iron and copper”)), 3) explicit ( first and second cases) and implicit (for example, axiomatic). So, for example, the term "probability" in the mathematical calculus of probabilities is defined implicitly, through a list of axioms that include this term. There are also subject and operational definitions, etc. From a logical point of view, all definitions are not judgments, but conventional statements (conventions) about the meaning in which a certain term is used or will be used in some scientific reasoning or theory. Therefore, to any definitions, although they have a logical form "BUT is B”, the characteristic of truth in its classical sense is not applicable - as the correspondence of the content of some statement to the objective state of affairs. Using definitions - necessary condition uniqueness and certainty of scientific knowledge, these are its most important features.
Refutation- establishment of a logical contradiction between a certain unit of scientific knowledge (protocol statement, fact, law, theory, etc.) and other units of scientific knowledge accepted as true (protocol sentences, facts, laws, theories or their consequences). A particular case of scientific refutation is the empirical refutation of a theory, which takes place when a logical contradiction is found between the empirical consequences of a theory and known empirical facts. Karl Popper suggested calling this kind of scientific refutation a "falsification" of a scientific theory.
Understanding - interpretation, interpretation, evaluation of any fragment of being (material or ideal) from the standpoint of some cognitive reference system, taken as true or preferred. The scientific understanding of a phenomenon is a synonym for its scientific interpretation, finding its meaning from the positions and in terms of a certain scientific theory or other elements of the structure of scientific knowledge (scientific facts, laws, principles). Along with the change in the system of scientific knowledge, the scientific understanding of the same phenomena and events, their so-called “true” meaning and significance, often also changes.
Practice (scientific) - methods of material activity in the spider: experiment, measurement, cognitive technologies, experimental design and engineering, innovation. Any kind of scientific practice always has as its basis some scientific knowledge, which, when carried out, is accepted as true knowledge.
Prediction (scientific) - derivation on the basis of scientific laws and theories of new empirical facts, experimental effects, as well as various kinds of scientific constants.
Synthesis is the combination of knowledge about individual parts, properties, relations of an object into a certain system based on the results of their previous analytical study. The result of synthesis can be knowledge about the interaction of parts and properties of the object under study, the establishment of the existence causation between them, finding the dependence of the behavior of a separate part of an object on its functions as an integral system (for example, establishing the dependence of the functioning of various organs of a certain living system on its general functions).
The system method is a way of considering any subject (object) of scientific knowledge as a certain system. This, on the one hand, is a “banal” setting for scientific knowledge, and on the other hand, it is very strong. Modeling an object as a system, the researcher must not only decompose it into a certain number of parts and elements, but also formulate a set of relationships, connections between them, i.e. set the specific structure of the object as a system. A view of an object as a system also implies the adoption of an assumption about the relative independence of the object under study, its self-sufficiency and ability to function according to its inherent internal laws. Another strong assumption of looking at the object under study as a system is the assumption of its integrity, which means accepting the hypothesis of the presence of certain integral laws of its behavior that are not reducible (not reduced) to the sum of the laws of functioning of its elements. The system method is an alternative, on the one hand, to the elementary-additive method of object modeling, and on the other hand, to the holistic-teleological explanation of the behavior of objects. The widespread use of the system method in modern science and technology has become possible due to the construction of a general mathematical theory of systems, as well as the possibility of testing complex mathematical models objects as systems with the help of computational mathematics and powerful computers.
Comparison is a method of establishing the similarity (identity) or difference of cognizable objects, phenomena or processes on a certain basis (the basis of comparison). The results of the comparison are recorded using comparative judgments, for example: "BUT more B", "B shorter than L", "L is completely identical AT". The establishment of the identity or difference of objects is always the result of their comparison with each other, or direct ("L above B", "B lighter than L"), or indirectly, through a comparison of both of them with some third object. For example, "L more B", "B more than C", therefore, "L is more WITH". Or "length L is 30 cm", "length AT is equal to 50 cm", therefore, "BUT shorter AT" etc. The most important form of comparison in science is the comparison of the empirical object under study with some reference object, which acts as its standard or unit of measurement.
Experiment (scientific) - the creation of artificial and fully controlled conditions for the scientific knowledge of an object. All impacts on the experimentally studied object, their intensity, as well as the response of the object under study to these impacts, are clearly recorded using different kind scientific instruments. The results of the interconnection of signals at the input and output of the experimental study of the object are subsequently statistically processed, and their dependence on each other is described by a certain (mathematical) function.
Expertise (scientific) - the development of an agreed opinion of a group of scientists - experts, specialists in a particular field of science, to assess the empirical validity, theoretical consistency and (or) practical significance of a certain scientific concept or project. Various scientific teams can act as expert groups: departments, laboratories, specialized scientific councils, temporary scientific teams specially created to discuss a specific problem, or individual scientists - generally recognized leaders in the relevant scientific areas. Any scientific expertise has a socio-cognitive and consensual character, expressing the position of the majority of members of specific expert groups. In principle, any expertise may turn out to be erroneous both in general and in particular, but at the time of the decision it reflects the agreed position of the professional community, if the expert group was representative of the relevant disciplinary scientific community.
Extrapolation is an extensive increment of knowledge by spreading the consequences of a hypothesis or theory from one sphere of the described phenomena to other spheres. For example, Planck's law of thermal radiation, according to which the energy of thermal radiation can be transferred only in separate "portions" - quanta, was extrapolated
A. Einstein to another area - the field of electromagnetic radiation and optical phenomena. In particular, by extrapolating the idea of quantum radiation of energy, Einstein was able to fully explain the nature of the photoelectric effect and similar phenomena. In fact, extrapolation is one of the most common forms of prediction in science. Extrapolation is a powerful heuristic tool for studying objects. It allows expanding the epistemological potential of empirical knowledge, increasing its information capacity and validity. The very ability of a particular hypothesis or theory to extrapolate, to predict new facts and phenomena, if successful, dramatically enhances its validity and competitiveness in comparison with other hypotheses.
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