Topic. Educational psychology as a science

Stages of formation of educational psychology as an independent science.

General didactic stage (mid-18th - late 19th centuries). Experimental stage (late 19th century - mid-20th century). Formation of pedagogical psychology into an independent science. Pedagogical psychology(mid-20th century, at the present stage). Development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology. Computerization of the educational process and the development of pedagogical psychology.

Object, subject and tasks of modern pedagogical psychology. The structure of modern educational psychology. Relationship between developmental and educational psychology: integration and differentiation. Pedagogy and psychology in the structure of the discipline. Communication of educational psychology with other sciences.

Topic. Methods of educational psychology

Methodological bases and methods of pedagogical psychology. General and special, theoretical and empirical methods. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research Basic methods in educational psychology Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical research and features of its application.

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science

Topic 1. Pedagogical psychology as a science.

The subject of educational psychology

1. The subject and structure of educational psychology

The term "educational psychology" denotes two different sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education.

Under the same term - "pedagogical psychology" applied science is also developing, the purpose of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve pedagogical practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

The term "pedagogical psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874 (Kapterev P.F., 1999; abstract). Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines occupying a border position between pedagogy and psychology: "pedology" (O. Khrisman, 1892), "experimental pedagogy" (E. Meiman, 1907). Experimental pedagogy and pedagogical psychology were first interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky) (see Media Library). During the first third of the XX century. their meanings have been differentiated. Experimental pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; pedagogical psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. (see Cross. 1.1)

Pedagogical psychology- This is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. It is closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

When considering educational psychology, like any other branch of science, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the concepts of its object and subject.

In the general scientific interpretation, the object of science is understood as that area of ​​reality, to the study of which this science is directed. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science.

The subject of science is that side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. The subject does not capture all aspects of the object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject matter.

Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, man is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, and so on. But each science is based on its own subject, i.e. what exactly she studies in the object.

As the analysis of the points of view of various authors shows, many scientists define the status of educational psychology in different ways, which may indicate the ambiguity of resolving the issue of the subject of educational psychology (see animation).

For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that pedagogical psychology "studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes ... patterns of formation of creative active thinking in schoolchildren ... changes in the psyche, i.e. the formation of mental neoplasms" (Krutetsky V.A., 1972, p. 7).

A completely different point of view is held by V.V. Davydov. He proposes to consider educational psychology as a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues this by the fact that the specificity of each age determines the nature of the manifestation of the laws of assimilation of knowledge by students, and therefore the teaching of a particular discipline should be built differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of education. Education is considered by him as a form, and development - as the content that is realized in it.

There are a number of other points of view. In the future, we will adhere to the generally accepted interpretation, according to which the subject of pedagogical psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of assimilation of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Winter I.A. , 1997; abstract).

Structure of educational psychology

The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections (see Fig. 2):

1. psychology of learning;

2. psychology of education;

3. teacher psychology.

1. The subject of the psychology of learning is the development of cognitive activity in the context of systematic learning. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

1. interrelations of external and internal factors that determine the differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;

2. ratio of motivational and intellectual plans of teaching;

3. opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;

4. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc. (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-uchen.html; see the laboratory of psychology of teaching of the PI RAE).

Psychology of learning explores, first of all, the process of acquiring knowledge and adequate skills and abilities. Its task is to reveal the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for a successful course. A special task of pedagogical psychology is the development of methods that allow diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of domestic psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always assimilated as elements of these actions, and skills take place when the assimilated actions are brought to certain indicators according to some of their characteristics.

Doctrine- this is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the assimilation process. The actions that make up the activity of learning are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov II, 1986; abstract).

Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the context of the current system of education. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated that reveals typical shortcomings in the assimilation of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. Also explored the role life experience students, the nature of the educational material presented in the assimilation of knowledge.

In the 70s. 20th century in pedagogical psychology, they increasingly began to use a different path: the study of the patterns of the formation of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in conditions of specially organized training. Studies have shown that the management of the learning process significantly changes the course of mastering knowledge and skills. The studies carried out are of great importance for finding the most optimal ways of teaching and identifying the conditions for the effective mental development of students.

Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of the assimilation of knowledge, skills, the formation of various personality traits on the individual characteristics of students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).

In domestic pedagogical psychology, such theories of learning as the associative-reflex theory, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, etc. have been created. Among Western theories of learning, the behavioral theory is most widely used (1. -podjun.html; see laboratory for the study of mental development in adolescence and youth; 2. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see laboratory for the psychological foundations of new educational technologies) .

2. The subject of the psychology of education is the development of the individual in the conditions of the purposeful organization of the activities of the child, the children's team. The psychology of education studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of a worldview, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

Research in this area is aimed at studying:

b. differences in the self-consciousness of students brought up in different conditions;

c. structures of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;

d. conditions and consequences of mental deprivation, etc. (Lishin O.V., 1997; abstract, cover).

3. The subject of teacher psychology is the psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

a. determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

b. studying the emotional stability of the teacher;

c. revealing the positive features of the individual style of communication between the teacher and the student, and a number of others (Mitina L.M., 1998; abstract).

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-prof.html; see the laboratory of professional development of the personality of the PI RAO), (http://elite.far.ru/ - Department of Acmeology and Psychology of Professional Activities of the RAGS under the President of the Russian Federation).

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in the design of the content and methods of teaching, the creation of teaching aids, the development of diagnostic tools and the correction of mental development.

2. Goals and objectives of educational psychology

There are a number of problems in educational psychology, the theoretical and practical significance of which justifies the allocation and existence of this field of knowledge (see Fig. 3). Let's review and discuss some of them.

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of pedagogical psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

The problem under consideration is a derivative of the general scientific problem - the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in a person or as a problem of genotypic and environmental conditioning of the human psyche and behavior (see Chrest. 1.2). The problem of genetic sources of psychology and human behavior is one of the most important in the psychological and pedagogical sciences. After all, the fundamental solution of the question of the possibilities of teaching and raising children, a person in general, depends on its correct solution (Biological ..., 1977.; abstract) (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html ; see Laboratory of Theoretical and Experimental Problems of Developmental Psychology).

According to modern science, it is practically impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education, and, therefore, what is given genetically is not subject to re-education. On the other hand, education and upbringing in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the actual genotype and do not affect organic processes.

In domestic psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 1930s. 20th century (Vygotsky L.S., 1996; abstract). (http://www.vygotsky.ru/russian/vygot/vygotsky.htm; see server dedicated to Vygotsky).

He substantiated the leading role of learning in development, noting that learning should go ahead of development, be the source of new development.

However, this raises a number of questions:

a. How does training and education lead to development?

b. Does any training contribute to development or only problematic and so-called developmental?

c. How are the biological maturation of the organism, learning and development related?

d. Does learning affect maturation, and if so, to what extent, does this influence affect the fundamental solution of the question of the relationship between learning and development?

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-ob-raz.html; see the group of psychology of learning and development of junior schoolchildren of the PI RAE).

2. The problem of the relationship between education and upbringing. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of training and education in their unity represent the pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of the personality. In essence, both proceed through the interaction of a teacher and a student, an educator and a pupil, an adult and a child, who are in certain conditions of life, in a certain environment.

The scope of the problem under consideration includes a number of questions:

a. How do these processes mutually condition and interpenetrate each other?

b. How do different types of activities affect learning and upbringing?

c. What are the psychological mechanisms for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation of skills, and the assimilation of social norms, norms of behavior?

d. What are the differences in pedagogical influence in training and education?

e. How does the process of education and upbringing proceed directly? These and many other questions are the essence of the problem under consideration (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html ; see the research group of the factors of formation of the individuality of the PI RAO).

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. One of the most important in the study of child development is the problem of finding and making the maximum possible use for the development of each child of a sensitive period in his life. In psychology, sensitive periods are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain kinds of influences of the surrounding reality. So, for example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal terms for the development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. An excessively early start of learning something can adversely affect mental development, just like a very late start of learning can be ineffective (Obukhova L.F., 1996, abstract).

The difficulty of the problem under consideration lies in the fact that all sensitive periods of the development of the intellect and personality of the child, their beginning, duration and completion are not known. Approaching the study of children individually, it is necessary to learn how to predict the onset of various sensitive periods in the development of each child.

4. The problem of gifted children. The problem of giftedness in domestic psychology began to be studied more closely only in the last decade. General giftedness refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are "children who show this or that special or general giftedness" (Rossiyskaya ..., 1993-1999, vol. 2. p. 77; abstract).

In this regard, a number of questions arise related to the identification and training of gifted children:

a. What is characteristic of the age sequence of manifestation of giftedness?

b. By what criteria and signs can one judge the giftedness of students?

c. How to establish and study the giftedness of children in the process of education and upbringing, in the course of students performing one or another meaningful activity?

d. How to promote the development of gifted students in educational process?

e. How to combine the development of special abilities with broad general education and comprehensive development of the student's personality? (Leites N.S., 2000; abstract); (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-odar.html; see the laboratory of psychology of giftedness of the PI RAO), (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/lab-tvor.html ; see the creativity diagnostics group).

5. The problem of readiness of children to study at school. The readiness of children to study at school is "a set of morphological and psychological characteristics of a child of senior preschool age, which ensures a successful transition to systematic organized schooling" (Rossiyskaya ..., V.1. P. 223-224).

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term "readiness for schooling", the term "school maturity" is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation to a greater extent.

The problem of children's readiness for schooling is revealed through the search for answers to a number of questions:

a. How do the conditions of a child's life, his assimilation of social experience in the course of communication with peers and adults influence the formation of school readiness?

b. What system of requirements imposed on the child by the school determines the psychological readiness for schooling?

c. What is meant by psychological readiness for schooling?

d. By what criteria and indicators can one judge the psychological readiness for schooling?

e. How to build correctional and developmental programs to achieve readiness for schooling? (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html ; see the laboratory of the scientific foundations of child practical psychology of the PI RAE).

The solution of these and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator of high professional qualifications, a large part of which are psychological knowledge, skills and abilities (http://www.voppsy.ru/; see the website of the journal "Questions of Psychology").

Tasks of educational psychology

The general task of pedagogical psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are (see animation):

a. revealing the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

b. determination of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering the student's socio-cultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the individual mind of the student and use in various situations;

c. determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.);

d. determination of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

e. study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity;

f. determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific, theoretical thinking;

g. determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

h. development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

3. The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

Clarification of the subject of pedagogical psychology also requires determining its place among other sciences, first of all, establishing its relationship to pedagogical disciplines, to general and developmental psychology.

According to B.G. Ananiev, pedagogical psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which "occupied a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, became the sphere of joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations" (Ananiev B.G., 2001; abstract).

In connection with such a "boundary" nature of pedagogy and psychology, we consider it necessary, first of all, to clarify the relationship between these two sciences.

Psychology is organically connected with pedagogy (see Fig. 5).

There are several "nodes" of communication between them (see Fig. 6).

The main communication node is the subject of these sciences. Psychology studies the laws of development of the human psyche. Pedagogy develops the laws governing the development of the individual. The upbringing and education of children and adults is nothing more than a purposeful change in this psyche (for example, thinking, activity). Consequently, they cannot be carried out by specialists who do not possess psychological knowledge.

The second link between the two sciences is the indicators and criteria for the training and upbringing of the individual. The degree of advancement of schoolchildren's knowledge is recorded by changes in memory, stocks of knowledge, abilities to use knowledge for practical purposes, possession of cognitive activity techniques, speed of knowledge reproduction, terminology, skills of transferring knowledge to non-standard situations, etc. Education is fixed in motivated actions, a system of conscious and impulsive behavior, stereotypes, skills of activity and judgments. All this means that the symptoms of achievements in the educational work of adults with children are shifts in the psyche, in the thinking and behavior of students. In other words, the results of pedagogical activity are diagnosed by changes in the psychological characteristics of students.

The third node of communication is research methods. Interscientific communications between the two branches of knowledge also take place in the research methods of pedagogy and psychology. Many psychological research tools successfully serve to solve pedagogical research problems (for example, psychometrics, pairwise comparison, rating, psychological tests, etc.).

The relationship of educational psychology with branches of psychology

The relationship of educational psychology with related sciences, including developmental psychology, is two-way (see Fig. 7). It is guided by research methodology, which is a "projection" of general psychological science; uses data supplied by developmental psychology and other sciences. At the same time, pedagogical psychology itself supplies data not only for pedagogical science, but also for general and developmental psychology, labor psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.

Recently, developmental psychology has become increasingly important as the foundation for educational psychology. Developmental psychology is a theory of the development of the psyche in ontogenesis. She studies the patterns of transition from one period to another based on a change in the types of leading activities, changes in the social situation of development, the nature of human interaction with other people (Obukhova L.F., 1996; abstract). (http://flogiston.ru/arch/obukhova_1.shtml; see the electronic version of the book by Obukhova L.F.).

Age is characterized not by the ratio of individual mental functions, but by those specific tasks of mastering the aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a number of principles of developmental psychology (see Fig. 8):

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent age.

Each age has its own reserves of development, which can be mobilized in the course of the development of the child's activity organized in a special way in relation to the surrounding reality and to his own activity.

Features of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc. (Psychology ..., 1978).

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance in creating a psychological theory of the assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, on their basis, the following principles of educational psychology can be distinguished (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

a. Training is built on the basis of developmental psychology data on age reserves, focusing on the "tomorrow" of development.

b. Education is organized taking into account the individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

c. Education cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the development of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student's personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

4. The history of the formation of educational psychology

Historical aspects of educational psychology

1.4.1. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century.

1.4.2. The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century

1.4.3. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. and up to now

The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century.

I.A. Zimnyaya identifies three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).

a. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century. can be called general didactic.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. and up to the present. The basis for distinguishing this stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology. Let us consider in more detail each of these stages in the development of pedagogical psychology.

I.A. Zimnyaya called the first stage general didactic with a clearly felt need to "psychologize pedagogy" (according to Pestalozzi).

The role of psychology in the practice of education and upbringing was recognized long before the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific branch. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. Diesterweg et al. emphasized the need to build the pedagogical process on the basis of psychological knowledge about the child.

Analyzing the contribution of G. Pestalozzi, P.F. Kapterev notes that "Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of self-activity, self-development" (Kapterev P.F., 1982, p. 293). Pointing to the differences in the development of the mental, physical and moral abilities of the child, Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of their connection and close interaction in learning, which moves from simple to more complex, in order to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of a person.

The idea of ​​developmental education K.D. Ushinsky called "the great discovery of Pestalozzi" (Ushinsky K.D., 1948, p. 95). Pestalozzi considered the main goal of teaching to excite the mind of children to active activity, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of their ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of the concepts they have learned. He developed a system of exercises arranged in a certain sequence and aimed at setting in motion the desire for activity inherent in the natural forces of a person. However, Pestalozzi to some extent subordinated to the task of developing students another, no less important task of teaching - equipping students with knowledge. Criticizing the school of his day for verbalism and cramming, which dull the spiritual powers of children, the scientist sought to psychologize learning, to build it in accordance with the "natural way of knowing" in the child. The starting point of this path, Pestalozzi considered the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

A follower of I.G. Pestalozzi was F.A. Diesterweg, who considered nature conformity, cultural conformity, and amateur performance to be the basic principles of education (Disterweg F.A., 1956).

Diesterweg emphasized that only knowing psychology and physiology, the teacher can ensure the harmonious development of children. In psychology, he saw "the basis of the science of education", and believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development. The task of education is to ensure such independent development. The scientist understood self-activity as activity, initiative and considered it the most important personality trait. In the development of children's amateur performances, he saw both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education.

F. Diesterweg determined the value of individual subjects based on how much they stimulate the student's mental activity; contrasted the developing method of teaching with the scientific (reporting) one. He formulated the basics of didactics of developmental education in clear rules.

Of particular importance for the formation of pedagogical psychology was the work of KD Ushinsky. His works, first of all the book "Man as an Object of Education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology" (1868-1869), created the prerequisites for the emergence of pedagogical psychology in Russia. The scientist considered upbringing as "the creation of history." The subject of education is a person, and if pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects. This meant studying the physical and mental characteristics of a person, the influences of "unintentional education" - the social environment, the "zeitgeist", his culture and social relations.

K.D. Ushinsky gave his interpretation of the most complex and always topical issues:

a. about the psychological nature of education;

b. the limits and possibilities of education, the ratio of education and training;

c. the limits and possibilities of learning;

d. correlation of education and development;

e. a combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education.

The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century

The second stage is associated with the period when pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, having accumulated the achievements of pedagogical thought of the previous centuries.

As an independent field of knowledge, pedagogical psychology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century, and developed intensively from the 80s. 19th century

The significance of the initial period of development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the fact that in the 60s. 19th century fundamental provisions were formulated that determined the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific discipline. At that time, tasks were set on which the efforts of scientists should be concentrated, problems were identified that needed to be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.

Guided by the needs of upbringing and education, the task of forming a comprehensive personality, scientists of that period raised the issue of a broad comprehensive study of the child and the scientific foundations for managing his development. The idea of ​​a holistic, versatile study of the child sounded very convincing. Consciously not wanting to limit the theoretical substantiation of pedagogy to one psychology, they stimulated the development of research at the intersection of different sciences. Consideration in unity and interconnection of the three main sources of pedagogy - psychology, physiology, logic - served as the basis for contacts between psychology, physiology and medicine, between psychology and didactics.

This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology (J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which, on the basis of a combination of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, the characteristics of the child's behavior were determined in order to diagnose its development (see animation).

Pedology(from Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.

The American psychologist S. Hall, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889, is recognized as the founder of pedology; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Crisment. But back in 1867 K.D. Ushinsky in his work "Man as an Object of Education" anticipated the emergence of pedology: "If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects."

In the West, pedology was practiced by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. The founder of Russian pedology is the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. A great contribution to science was also made by the remarkable scientist V.M. Bekhterev.

The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: there was a normal scientific life with stormy discussions in which approaches were developed and difficulties in development inevitable for a young science were overcome.

Pedology sought to study the child, while studying it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all the influencing factors. P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941) defined pedology as the science of the age development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment (Blonsky P.P., 1999; abstract).

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; developed the theory and practice of psychodiagnostics. Institutes of pedology functioned in Leningrad and Moscow, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of the child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropometry, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical classes were combined with everyday practical work.

In the 30s. 20th century criticism of many provisions of pedology began (problems of the subject of pedology, bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), which resulted in two resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Pedology was defeated, many scientists were repressed, the fate of others was crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed. Pedologists yu blotted out of the curricula of all universities. Labels were generously pasted: L.S. Vygotsky was declared an "eclecticist", M.Ya. Basov and P.P. Blonsky - "propagandists of fascist ideas." Fortunately, many were able to avoid a similar fate, having managed to retrain. For more than half a century it was carefully concealed that Basov, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Kornilov, Kostyuk, Leontiev, Luria, Elkonin, Myasishchev and others, as well as the teachers Zankov and Sokolyansky, were pedologists. More recently, when Vygotsky’s works were published, his lectures on pedology had to be renamed lectures on psychology (http://virlib.eunnet.net/sofia/05-2002/text/0523.html; see Strukchinskaya E.M.’s article “L S. Vygotsky on pedology and related sciences") (see Media Library).

A number of works by P.P. Blonsky, works by L.S. Vygotsky and his colleagues in child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Proceedings of I.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurin, which were created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological studies of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky provided the opportunity to develop theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. (http://www.genesis.ru/pedologia/home.htm; see the journal website " Pedology").

The connection between psychology and pedagogy gave a powerful impetus to the study of the age characteristics of children, to the identification of the conditions and factors that determine child development. The desire to make pedagogy psychological, to introduce psychology into the pedagogical process became the basis on which the system of pedagogical psychology was built (although the term "pedagogical psychology" itself was not yet used at that time), led to the participation of scientists from various specialties in the development of its problems.

By the end of the XIX century. in Russian psychological and pedagogical science, not only were the main areas of scientific activity formed, but significant data were also accumulated, which made it possible to formulate practical problems.

The idea of ​​a psycho-physiological study of the child and the use of its results in pedagogical practice was reinforced by substantiating the possibility of studying mental phenomena experimentally. The use of the experiment in learning conditions, undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, at first did not receive a wide response in science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting from the mid-80s, the experiment began to enter into life, an active desire arose to connect the pedagogical process with it, i.e. to create a qualitatively new science of education and training.

The successes of psychological and pedagogical science aroused interest, on the one hand, among practicing teachers, and, on the other hand, among philosophers and psychologists who had not previously dealt with issues of school education. Teachers felt a clear need for solid psychological knowledge, and psychologists realized how many interesting and instructive things are contained in school life. The state of science and practice has clearly shown that school and science must meet each other halfway. But the whole question was how to do this, how to organize psychological research in such a way that it would be directed directly towards the solution of pedagogical problems. Equally inevitable was the question of who should conduct such research.

The solution of complex theoretical and methodological problems of educational psychology became impossible without their discussion and comprehensive analysis. This was also required by the further development of specific research, the determination of the main directions of the movement of research thought. In other words, a significant expansion of scientific and organizational activities was necessary.

The development of educational psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on a scientific basis. The status of this science as an independent branch of knowledge, which has important theoretical and practical significance, has been established. Research in this area has taken a leading place in domestic psychological and pedagogical science. This was due to successes in the study of age development, which ensured the authority of developmental and educational psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of education and training.

Not only in science, but also in public opinion, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of the laws of child development is the basis for the correct construction of the education system. Therefore, scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theoreticians and organizers of science, who enjoyed great prestige, were involved in the development of these problems, in particular: V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov. A whole pleiad of domestic psychologists has been formed who are actively engaged in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of education and training. This galaxy included, first of all, P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinstein, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, an intensive theoretical, methodological, scientific and organizational activity was launched, aimed at deepening and expanding scientific work, at promoting psychological and pedagogical knowledge among practitioners of the education system, and at improving their qualifications. On their initiative, specialized scientific centers began to be created to provide research and educational activities and training of personnel. Small laboratories, circles, and classrooms for studying the development of children at some educational institutions became widespread; Pedagogical psychology became an integral part of the content of education in pedagogical educational institutions. The question was raised about the study of the foundations of psychology in the upper grades of secondary school, training courses in psychology were developed.

In domestic pedagogical psychology since the 30s. studies of the procedural aspects of learning and development were launched:

a. interconnections of perception and thinking in cognitive activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, S.N. Shabalin);

b. correlations between memory and thinking (A.N. Leontiev, L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov, P.I. Zinchenko, etc.);

c. development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, etc.);

d. mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh.I. Shif, N.A. Menchinskaya, G.S. Kostyuk, etc.);

e. the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children (N.G. Morozova and others).

In the 40s. many studies have appeared on the psychological issues of mastering the educational material of various subjects: a) arithmetic (N.A. Menchinskaya); b) native language and literature (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, L.I. Bozhovich, O.I. Nikiforova), etc. A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N.A. Rybnikov, L.M. Schwartz, T. G. Egorov, D. B. Elkonin and others).

The main results of the research were reflected in the works of A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, M. Offner, E. Meiman, V.A. Laya and others, which explore the features of memorization, speech development, intelligence, the mechanism of developing skills, etc., as well as in the studies of G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Dewey, S. Frane, Ed. Clapered; in the experimental study of the features of learning (J. Watson, Ed. Tolman, G. Gasri, T. Hull, B. Skinner); in the study of the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, Sh. and K. Byullerov, V. Stern, etc.); in the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the school of M. Montessori.

The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. until now

The basis for distinguishing the third stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology.

So, in 1954 B.F. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning, and in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built an integral system of problem-based learning, which, on the one hand, continued the development of the system of J. Dewey, who believed that learning should go through problem solving, and on the other hand, correlated with the provisions of O. Zelts, K. Dunker, S.L. Rubinstein, A.M. Matyushkin and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phase nature, the beginning of the emergence of thought in a problem situation (P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinshtein).

In 1957-1958. the first publications of P.Ya. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, which absorbed the main achievements and prospects of educational psychology. At the same time, in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental learning, which arose in the 70s. based on the general theory of learning activity (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov and others), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankov.

In the period of 40-50s. S.L. Rubinshtein in "Fundamentals of Psychology" (Rubinshtein S.L., 1999; abstract) gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge, which was developed in detail by L.B. Itelson, E.N. Kabanova-Meller and others, as well as N.A. Menchinskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlensky in the concept of exteriorization of knowledge. Introduced in the mid 70s. the book by I. Lingart "The Process and Structure of Human Learning" (Lingart I., 1970) and the book by I.I. Ilyasov "The structure of the learning process" (Ilyasov II, 1986; abstract) made it possible to make broad generalizations in this area.

Noteworthy is the emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestopedia, suggestology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher's control of the unconscious student's mental processes of perception, memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion. On this basis, methods have been developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G.A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion, group dynamics in the process of such training (A.V. Petrovsky, L.A. Karpenko).

In the 50-70s. at the junction of social and pedagogical psychology, many studies were carried out on the structure of the children's team, the status of the child among peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of ​​research relates to the education and upbringing of difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in some informal associations (D.I. Feldshtein).

In the same period, there were tendencies towards the formulation of complex problems - educative education and educational education. Actively studied:

a. psychological and pedagogical factors of children's readiness for schooling;

c. psychological reasons for school failure (N.A. Menchinskaya);

d. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training (I.S. Yakimanskaya).

Since the end of the 70s. 20th century work intensified in the scientific and practical direction - the creation of a psychological service at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of pedagogical psychology have emerged:

a. development of conceptual approaches to the activities of the psychological service,

b. equipping it with diagnostic tools,

c. training of practical psychologists.

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html ; see the laboratory of the scientific foundations of child practical psychology of the PI RAE).

All the diversity of these theories, however, had one thing in common - the theoretical substantiation of the most adequate, from the point of view of the authors, to the requirements of the society of the system of education - teaching (learning activity). Accordingly, certain areas of study were formed. Within the framework of these areas of education, its common problems were also revealed: the activation of forms of education, pedagogical cooperation, communication, management of the assimilation of knowledge, the development of students as the goal of education, etc.

So, for example, domestic educational psychology studies:

a. psychological mechanisms of learning management (N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa and others), the educational process as a whole (V.S. Lazarev and others);

b. management of the process of mastering generalized methods of action (V.V. Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.);

c. educational motivation (A.K. Markova, A.B. Orlov, etc.);

d. individual psychological factors influencing the success of this process;

e. cooperation (G.A. Tsukerman and others), etc.;

f. personal characteristics of students and teachers (V.S. Merlin, N.S. Leites, A.N. Leontiev, etc.), etc.

Thus, at this stage of development, educational psychology becomes more and more voluminous.

So, pedagogical psychology is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of assimilation of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process. In general, we can say that educational psychology studies the psychological issues of managing the pedagogical process, explores the processes of learning, the formation of cognitive processes, etc.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the ratio of training and development, the ratio of training and education, taking into account sensitive periods of development in training; work with gifted children, the problem of children's readiness for schooling, etc.

Consequently, the general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process. This also determines the structure of this branch of psychology: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education, the psychology of the teacher.

The term "educational psychology" is used to refer to two sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education. Applied science is also developing under the same name "pedagogical psychology", the purpose of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve pedagogical practice. Abroad, the applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

a. Pedagogical psychology- this is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.

b. Pedagogical psychology- a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, has become an area for joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the ratio of training and development; the ratio of training and education; taking into account sensitive periods of development in training; work with gifted children; readiness of children for schooling, etc.

a. The general task of pedagogical psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process.

b. The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections: the psychology of learning; psychology of education; teacher psychology.

There are three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A.):

a. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century. can be called general didactic with a clearly felt need to "psychologize pedagogy" (according to Pestalozzi).

b. The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 1950s, when pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. until now. The basis for distinguishing this stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology.

Pedology(from the Greek pais - a child and logos - a word, science; lit. - the science of children) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy

Questions for self-examination

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?

2. Indicate the features of the historical change in the subject of educational psychology.

3. What is the essence of the biogenetic and sociogenetic directions in the development of educational psychology?

4. Name the main tasks of educational psychology.

5. How is the unity of developmental psychology and educational psychology manifested in the system of psychological knowledge about the child?

6. What are the main areas of action of educational psychology and pedagogy?

7. Name the main branches of educational psychology.

8. Describe the main problems of educational psychology.

9. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between development and learning?

10. Expand the applied aspect for pedagogical practice of solving the problem of identifying sensitive periods in development.

11. What approaches to solving the problem of children's readiness for schooling exist in domestic science and practice?

12. What is the problem of optimal psychological preparation of the teacher and educator?

13. Name the main stages in the development of educational psychology.

14. What is characteristic for each of the stages of development of educational psychology?

15. What are the features of pedology as a science?

16. What are the main studies that have been launched since the 30s. 19th century in the field of procedural aspects of education and upbringing?

17. What a fundamentally new direction emerged in educational psychology in the 60s and 70s. 20th century?

Bibliography

1. Ananiev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. SPb., 2001.

2. Biological and social in human development / Ed. ed. B.F. Lomov. M., 1977.

3. Blonsky P.P. Pedology: Book. for teachers. and stud. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. M., 1999.

4. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1981.

5. Developmental and educational psychology: Reader: Proc. allowance for students. avg. ped. textbook institutions / Comp. I.V. Dubrovina, A.M. Parishioners, V.V. Zatsepin. M., 1999.

6. Developmental and educational psychology: Texts / Comp. and comment. O. Shuare Martha. M., 1992.

7. Volovich M.B. Not to torture, but to teach: On the benefits of pedagogical psychology. M., 1992.

8. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

9. Gabay T.V. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1995.

10. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance. Rostov n / a, 1997.

11. Ilyasov I.I. The structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

12. Kapterev P.F. Child and pedagogical psychology. M.; Voronezh, 1999.

13. Krutetsky V.A. Fundamentals of educational psychology. M., 1972.

14. The course of general, developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M., 1982. Issue. 3.

15. Leites N.S. Age giftedness of schoolchildren: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. M., 2000.

16. Lingart I. The process and structure of human learning. M., 1970.

17. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Proc. allowance for students of higher education. ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. Book. 2. Psychology of education. 2nd ed. M., 1995.

18. Obukhova L.F. Developmental psychology: Textbook. M., 1996.

19. Fundamentals of pedagogy and psychology of higher education / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1986.

20. Workshop on developmental and educational psychology: Proc. allowance for students ped. in-tov / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakov. M., 1987.

21. Psychology and teacher / Per. from English. Hugo Münsterberg. 3rd ed., rev. M., 1997.

22. Workbook of a school psychologist / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1995.

23. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: In 2 vols. M., 1993-1999.

24. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals general psychology. SPb., 1999.

25. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: Proc. allowance for universities. M., 1995.

26. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance for students. avg. specialist. textbook establishments. M., 1998.

27. Feldstein D.I. Problems of developmental and pedagogical psychology: Fav. psychol. tr. M., 1995.

28. Fridman L.M., Kulagina I.Yu. Psychological handbook of the teacher. M., 1991.

29. Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education: Proc. allowance. M., 1995.

30. Yakunin V.Ya. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance. M., 1998.

Practical lesson

Chapter 7. Pedagogical psychology and pedagogy

1. The subject of educational psychology and the subject of pedagogy

“A person, if he is to become a person, needs to be educated” Jan Comenius

Pedagogical psychology studies the conditions and patterns of formation of mental neoplasms under the influence of education and training. Pedagogical psychology has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, has become a sphere of joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations (B.G. Ananiev). For example, one of the pedagogical problems is the realization that the educational material is not assimilated in the way and not as much as we would like. In connection with this problem, the subject of pedagogical psychology is being formed, which studies the patterns of assimilation and learning. On the basis of the established scientific ideas, the technique, the practice of educational and pedagogical activity, substantiated by the psychology of the laws of assimilation processes, are formed. The second pedagogical problem arises when the difference between learning and development in the learning system is realized. You can often meet a situation where a person learns, but develops very poorly. The subject of research in this case is the patterns of development of intelligence, personality, abilities, and a person in general. This direction of pedagogical psychology develops the practice of not teaching, but organizing development.

In modern pedagogical practice, it is no longer possible to competently, effectively and at the level of modern cultural requirements build one's activity without the intensive introduction of scientific psychological knowledge. For example, since pedagogical activity consists in communication between a student and a teacher, in establishing contact between them, that is, a request for research, construction scientific knowledge about ways of communication between people and their effective use in building pedagogical processes. The profession of a teacher is probably the most sensitive to psychology, since the activity of a teacher is directly aimed at a person, at his development. The teacher in his activity encounters "live" psychology, the resistance of the individual to pedagogical influences, the significance of the individual characteristics of a person, etc. Therefore, a good teacher, interested in the effectiveness of his work, is involuntarily obliged to be a psychologist, and he gains psychological experience in his work. It is important that this experience is precisely serving the main practical task, it is the experience of a teacher who has certain pedagogical principles and methods of pedagogical activity. Above this pedagogical activity, psychological knowledge is built up as a service to it.

Pedagogical psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, abilities, skills, explores individual differences in these processes, patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers the relationship between the teacher and students, the relationship between students (V.A. Krutetsky). In the structure of educational psychology, the following directions can be distinguished: psychology educational activities(as a unity of educational and pedagogical activity); psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student); psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer); psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Thus, the subject of pedagogical psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (I.A. Zimnyaya).

The subject of pedagogy is the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.

Pedagogy explores the following issues:

• study of the essence and laws of development and formation of personality and their influence on education;
• determination of the goals of education;
• development of the content of education;
• research and development of methods of education.

The object of knowledge in pedagogy is a person who develops as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.

Pedagogy- this is the science of how to educate a person, how to help him become spiritually rich, creatively active and completely satisfied with life, find a balance with nature and society.

Pedagogy is sometimes seen as both a science and an art. When it comes to education, it must be borne in mind that it has two aspects - theoretical and practical. Theoretical aspect education is the subject of scientific and pedagogical research. In this sense, pedagogy acts as a science and is a set of theoretical and methodological ideas on education.

Another thing is practical educational activity. Its implementation requires the teacher to master the relevant educational skills and abilities, which can have varying degrees of perfection and reach the level of pedagogical art. From a semantic point of view, it is necessary to distinguish between pedagogy as a theoretical science and practical educational activities as an art.

The subject of pedagogical science in its strictly scientific and precise understanding is education as a special function of human society. Based on this understanding of the subject of pedagogy, we will consider the main pedagogical categories.

The categories include the most capacious and general concepts that reflect the essence of science, its established and typical properties. In any science, categories play a leading role, they permeate all scientific knowledge and, as it were, link it into an integral system.

Education is a social, purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the new generation to assimilate socio-historical experience in order to prepare it for social life and productive work. The category "upbringing" is one of the main ones in pedagogy. Characterizing the scope of the concept, they single out education in the broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of society as a whole, and education in the narrow sense - as a purposeful activity designed to form a system of personality traits, attitudes and beliefs. education is often interpreted in an even more local sense - as a solution to a specific educational task (for example, the education of certain character traits, cognitive activity, etc.).

Thus, education is a purposeful formation of a personality based on the formation of 1) certain attitudes towards objects, phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) worldview; 3) behavior (as a manifestation of attitude and worldview). It is possible to single out the types of education (mental, moral, physical, labor, aesthetic, etc.).

Being a complex social phenomenon, education is the object of study of a number of sciences. Philosophy explores the ontological and epistemological foundations of education, formulates the most general ideas about the higher goals and values ​​of education, in accordance with which its specific means are determined.

Sociology studies the problem of the socialization of the individual, reveals the social problems of its development.

Ethnography examines the patterns of education among the peoples of the world on different stages historical development, the "canon" of education that exists among different peoples and its specific features.

Psychology reveals individual, age characteristics and patterns of development and behavior of people, which is the most important prerequisite for determining the methods and means of education.

Pedagogy explores the essence of education, its laws, trends and development prospects, develops theories and technologies of education, determines its principles, content, forms and methods.

upbringing is a concrete historical phenomenon, closely connected with the socio-economic, political and cultural level of society and the state.

Humanity ensures the development of each person through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.

Development is an objective process of internal consistent quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical and spiritual forces of a person.

We can distinguish physical development (changes in height, weight, strength, proportions of the human body), physiological development (changes in body functions in the field of the cardiovascular, nervous systems, digestion, childbirth, etc.), mental development(complication of the processes of reflection by a person of reality: sensation, perception, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activities, abilities, interests, value orientations). The social development of a person consists in his gradual entry into society, into social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal and other relations. Having mastered these relations and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of man. It means understanding his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding the complex nature of the universe and striving for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, mental, social development, for his life and the lives of other people. Spiritual development more and more recognized as the core of the formation of personality in man.

The ability to develop is the most important property of a person throughout a person's life. Physical, mental and social development of the personality is carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled and uncontrolled factors. It occurs in the process of assimilation by a person of the values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society at a given stage of development.

It may seem that education is secondary to development. In fact, their relationship is more complicated. In the process of educating a person, his development takes place, the level of which then affects education, changes him. A more perfect upbringing accelerates the pace of development. Throughout a person's life, upbringing and development mutually provide each other.

The category “upbringing" is widely used: it is possible to transfer experience, therefore, to educate, in the family, it is possible through the media, in museums through art, in the management system through politics, ideology, etc. But among the forms of upbringing, education stands out.

Education is a specially organized system of external conditions created in society for human development. A specially organized educational system is educational institutions, institutions for advanced training and retraining of personnel. It transfers and receives the experience of generations according to the goals, programs, structures with the help of specially trained teachers. All educational institutions in the state are united in single system education through which human development is managed.

Education in the literal sense means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is interpreted as a process and a result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes.

Education can be considered in different semantic planes:

1. Education as a system has a certain structure and hierarchy of its elements in the form of scientific and educational institutions of various types (preschool, primary, secondary, specialized secondary, higher education, postgraduate education).
2. Education as a process presupposes extension in time, the difference between the initial and final states of the participants in this process; manufacturability, providing changes, transformations.
3. Education as a result indicates the completion of an educational institution and certification of this fact with a certificate.

Education ultimately provides a certain level of development of the cognitive needs and abilities of a person, a certain level of knowledge, skills, and his preparation for a particular type of practical activity. Distinguish between general and special education. General education provides each person with such knowledge, abilities, skills that are necessary for him for comprehensive development and are basic for receiving special, professional education in the future. In terms of the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary and higher. Now, when the need for continuous education arises, the term “adult education”, post-graduate education, has appeared. Under the content of education V.S. Lednev understands "... the content of a triune holistic process, characterized, firstly, by the assimilation of the experience of previous generations (education), secondly, by the upbringing of the typological qualities of a person (education), and thirdly, by the mental and physical development of a person (development)" . Three components of education follow from here: training, education, development.

Education is a specific type of pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), the socially conditioned tasks of educating a person are realized in close connection with their upbringing and development.

Learning is the process of direct transmission and reception of the experience of generations in the interaction of the teacher and students. As a learning process, it includes two parts: teaching, during which the transfer (transformation) of a system of knowledge, skills, experience of activity is carried out, and teaching (student activity) as the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.

Principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching are studied by didactics.

But training, upbringing, education denote forces external to the person himself: someone educates him, someone educates him, someone teaches him. These factors seem to be transpersonal. But after all, a person himself is active from birth, he is born with the ability to develop. He is not a vessel into which the experience of mankind “merges”, he himself is capable of acquiring this experience and creating something new. Therefore, the main mental factors of human development are self-education, self-education, self-training, self-improvement.

self-education- this is the process of assimilation by a person of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development. education, if it is not violence, is impossible without self-education. They should be seen as two sides of the same process. Through self-education, a person can self-educate.
self-education is a system of internal self-organization for the assimilation of the experience of generations, aimed at their own development.
self-learning- this is the process of direct acquisition by a person of the experience of generations through his own aspirations and his own chosen means.

In terms of "self-education", "self-education", "self-education", pedagogy describes the inner spiritual world of a person, his ability to develop independently. External factors - upbringing, education, training - are only conditions, means of awakening them, putting them into action. That is why philosophers, educators, psychologists argue that it is in the human soul that the driving forces of its development are laid.

Carrying out upbringing, education, training, people in society enter into certain relations with each other - these are educational relations. Educational relations are a kind of relations between people, aimed at the development of a person through upbringing, education, and training. Educational relations are aimed at the development of a person as a person, i.e. on the development of his self-education, self-education, self-training. A variety of means can be included in educational relations: technology, art, nature. On the basis of this, such types of educational relations are distinguished as "man-man", "man-book-man", "man-technology-man", " man-art-man"," man-nature-man". The structure of educational relations includes two subjects and an object. The subjects can be a teacher and his student, a teaching staff and a team of students, parents, i.e. those who transmit and who assimilate the experience of generations. Therefore, in pedagogy, subject-subject relations are distinguished. In order to better transfer knowledge, skills, and abilities, the subjects of educational relations use, in addition to the word, some materialized means - objects. Relationships between subjects and objects are commonly referred to as subject-object relationships. Educational relationships are a microcell, where external factors (upbringing, education, training) converge with internal human ones (self-education, self-education, self-training). As a result of such interaction, the development of a person is obtained, a personality is formed.

OBJECT of knowledge - a person developing as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.

Pedagogy is the science of educational relations that arise in the process of the relationship of upbringing, education and training with self-education, self-education and self-training and aimed at human development (V.S. Bezrukova). Pedagogy can be defined as the science of translating the experience of one generation into the experience of another.

1.1 Goal setting in pedagogy and pedagogical principles

An important problem of pedagogy is the development and definition of the goals of education. A goal is something that you strive for, something that needs to be achieved.

The goal of upbringing should be understood as those predetermined (forecasted) results in preparing the rising generations for life, in their personal development and formation, which are sought to be achieved in the process of educational work. A thorough knowledge of the goals of education gives the teacher a clear idea of ​​what kind of person he should form and, naturally, gives his work the necessary meaningfulness and direction.

It is known from philosophy that the goal inevitably determines the method and nature of human activity. In this sense, the goals and objectives of education are directly related to the definition of the content and methodology of educational work. For example, once in the old Russian school, one of the goals of education was the formation of religiosity, obedience, unquestioning observance of established rules of conduct. That is why a lot of time was devoted to the study of religion, methods of suggestion, penalties and even punishments, up to physical ones, were widely practiced. Now the goal of upbringing is the formation of a personality that puts high the ideals of freedom, democracy, humanism, justice and has scientific views on the world which requires a completely different methodology of educational work. In the modern school, the main content of education and upbringing is the mastery of scientific knowledge about the development of nature and society, and the methodology is becoming more democratic and humanistic, the authoritarian approach to children is being fought, the methods of penalties are actually used very rarely.

Different goals of education determine both its content and the nature of its methodology in different ways. There is an organic unity between them. This unity acts as an essential regularity of pedagogy.

The formation of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed personality not only acts as an objective need, but also becomes the main goal (ideal) of modern education.

What do they mean when they talk about the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality? What is the content of this concept?

In the development and formation of personality, physical education, strengthening of its strength and health, development of correct posture and sanitary culture. It must be borne in mind that the proverb has developed among the people not without reason: in a healthy body - a healthy mind.

The key problem in the process of comprehensive and harmonious development of personality is mental education. An equally essential component of the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual is technical training or familiarization with modern technological advances.

The role of moral principles in the development and formation of personality is also great. And this is understandable: only people with perfect morals, conscientious attitude to work and property can ensure the progress of society. At the same time, great importance is attached to the spiritual growth of the members of society, to familiarize them with the treasures of literature and art, and to form in them high aesthetic feelings and qualities. All this, of course, requires aesthetic education.

We can draw a conclusion about the main structural components of the comprehensive development of the individual and point out its most important components. As such constituent parts act: mental education, technical training, physical education, moral and aesthetic education, which must be combined with the development of inclinations, inclinations and abilities of the individual and its inclusion in productive work.

education should be not only comprehensive, but also harmonious ( from the Greek harmonia - consistency, harmony). It means that all aspects of the personality must be formed in close relationship with each other.

Of paramount importance is the creation in the school of conditions for mastering the basics of modern sciences of nature, society and man, giving teaching and educational work a developing character.

An equally important task is that in the context of the democratization and humanization of society, freedom of opinion and belief, young people do not acquire knowledge mechanically, but deeply process it in their minds and draw the conclusions necessary for modern life and education.

An integral part of the education and training of the younger generations is their moral upbringing and development. comprehensively developed person must develop the principles of social behavior, mercy, the desire to serve people, take care of their well-being, maintain the established order and discipline. He must overcome selfish inclinations, above all appreciate the humane attitude towards a person, possess a high culture of behavior.

Of paramount importance in comprehensive development personality has a civil and national education. It includes the cultivation of a sense of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations, respect for our state symbols, the preservation and development of the spiritual wealth and national culture of the people, as well as the desire for democracy as a form of participation of all citizens in solving issues of national importance.

Pedagogical principles

Principles are the basic starting points of any theory, science in general, these are the basic requirements for something. Pedagogical principles are the main ideas, following which helps to achieve the pedagogical goals in the best possible way.

Consider the pedagogical principles of the formation of educational relations:

The principle of conformity to nature is one of the oldest pedagogical principles.

Rules for the implementation of the principle of natural conformity:

• build the pedagogical process according to the age and individual characteristics of students;
• to know the zones of proximal development that determine the possibilities of students, to rely on them when organizing educational relations;
• direct the pedagogical process to the development of self-education, self-education, self-education of students.

The principle of humanization can be considered as a principle of social protection of a growing person, as a principle of humanizing relations between students and teachers and among themselves, when the pedagogical process is based on the full recognition of the civil rights of the pupil and respect for him.
The principle of integrity orderliness means achieving unity and interconnection of all components of the pedagogical process.
The principle of democratization means providing participants in the pedagogical process with certain freedoms for self-development, self-regulation and self-determination, self-education and self-education.
The principle of cultural conformity involves the maximum use in upbringing and education of the culture of the environment in which a particular educational institution is located (the culture of a nation, country, region).
The principle of unity and consistency of actions of the educational institution and the student's lifestyle is aimed at organizing a comprehensive pedagogical process, establishing links between all spheres of students' life, ensuring mutual compensation, complementarity of all spheres of life.
The principle of professional expediency ensures the selection of the content, methods, means and forms of training specialists, taking into account the characteristics of the chosen specialty, in order to form professionally important qualities, knowledge and skills.
Polytechnic principle is aimed at training specialists and general workers based on the identification and study of an invariant scientific basis common to various sciences, technical disciplines, production technologies, which will allow students to transfer knowledge and skills from one area to another.

All groups of principles are closely interconnected, but at the same time, each principle has its own zone of the most complete implementation, for example, for classes in the humanities, the principle of professional expediency is not applicable.

1.2 Basic concepts of didactics

Didactics studies the principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching.

Consider the basic concepts of didactics.

Education is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and knowledge are assimilated.

Learning as a process is characterized by the joint activity of the teacher and students, which has as its goal the development of the latter, the formation of their knowledge, skills, skills, i.e. general orienting basis for specific activities. The teacher carries out the activity denoted by the term "teaching", the student is included in the activity of teaching, in which his cognitive needs are satisfied. The process of learning is largely generated by motivation.

Typically, training is characterized as follows: it is the transfer of certain knowledge, skills and abilities to a person. But knowledge cannot be simply transferred and “received”, it can only be “obtained” as a result of the active activity of the student himself. If there is no his counter activity, then he does not have any knowledge, skills. Consequently, the relationship "teacher - student" cannot be reduced to the relationship "transmitter - receiver". The activity and interaction of both participants in the educational process are necessary. The French physicist Pascal correctly noted: “A student is not a vessel that needs to be filled, but a torch that needs to be lit.” Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates the necessary conditions for the activity of the student, directs it, controls it, provides the necessary means and information for it. The function of learning consists in the maximum adaptation of symbolic and material means for the formation of people's ability to act.

Education is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views.

If the teacher fails to arouse the activity of students in mastering knowledge, if he does not stimulate their learning, then no learning takes place, and the student can only formally sit out in the classroom. In the process of training, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

• stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;
• organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;
• development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;
• improvement of educational skills and abilities;
• development of a scientific outlook and moral and aesthetic culture.

The organization of training assumes that the teacher implements the following components:

• setting the goals of educational work;
• formation of students' needs in mastering the studied material;
• determination of the content of the material to be mastered by students;
• organization of educational and cognitive activities for students to master the material being studied;
• giving the educational activity of students an emotionally positive character;
• regulation and control of educational activities of students;
• evaluation of student performance.

In parallel, students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn consist of the corresponding components:

• awareness of the goals and objectives of training;
• development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;
• understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be mastered;
• Perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material, application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;
• manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;
• self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activity;
• self-assessment of the results of their educational and cognitive activities.

The pedagogical process is presented as a system of five elements (N.V. Kuzmina): 1) the purpose of learning (C) (why to teach); 2) content educational information(C) (what to teach); 3) methods, teaching methods, means of pedagogical communication (M) (how to teach); 4) teacher (II); 5) student (U). Like any large system, it is characterized by the intersection of links (horizontal, vertical, etc.).

The pedagogical process is a way of organizing educational relations, which consists in the purposeful selection and use of external factors for the development of participants. The pedagogical process is created by the teacher. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what teacher creates it, it will have the same structure.

PURPOSE -» PRINCIPLES -> CONTENT - METHODS -> MEANS -> FORMS.

The goal reflects the end result of pedagogical interaction, which the teacher and the student are striving for. The principles are intended to determine the main directions for achieving the goal. Content is part of the experience of generations, which is transmitted to students to achieve the goal in accordance with the chosen directions. The content of education is a system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, specially selected and recognized by society (the state), the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain area.

Methods are the actions of the teacher and the student, through which the content is transmitted and received. Means as materialized objective ways of "working" with content are used in unity with methods. Forms of organization of the pedagogical process give it a logical completeness, completeness.

The dynamism of the pedagogical process is achieved as a result of the interaction of its three structures: pedagogical, methodological and psychological. pedagogical structure we have already discussed in detail. But the pedagogical process also has its own methodological structure. To create it, the goal is divided into a number of tasks, in accordance with which the successive stages of the activity of the teacher and students are determined. For example, the methodological structure of the excursion includes a preparatory briefing, movement to the place of observation, observation of the object, fixation of what was seen, and discussion of the results. The pedagogical and methodological structure of the pedagogical process are organically interconnected. In addition to these two structures, the pedagogical process includes an even more complex structure - the psychological one: 1) the processes of perception, thinking, comprehension, memorization, assimilation of information; 2) manifestation by students of interest, inclinations, motivation for learning, dynamics of emotional mood; 3) ups and downs of physical and neuropsychic stress, dynamics of activity, performance and fatigue. Thus, in psychological structure lesson, three psychological substructures can be distinguished: 1) cognitive processes, 2) motivation for learning, 3) tension.

In order for the pedagogical process to “work”, “set in motion”, such a component as management is needed. Pedagogical management is the process of transferring pedagogical situations, processes from one state to another, corresponding to the goal.

The management process consists of the following components:

• goal setting;
• information support (diagnosing the characteristics of students);
• formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students;
• designing, planning activities to achieve the goal (planning the content, methods, means, forms);
• project implementation;
• control over the progress of execution;
• adjustment;
• summarizing.

It is possible to formulate the modern didactic principles of higher and secondary schools as follows:

1. Developing and nurturing education.
2. Scientific and accessible, feasible difficulty.
3. Consciousness and creative activity of students with the leading role of the teacher.
4. Visibility and development of theoretical thinking.
5. Systematic and systematic training.
6. The transition from learning to self-education.
7. Communication of education with life and practice of professional activity.
8. The strength of learning outcomes and the development of students' cognitive abilities.
9. Positive emotional background of learning.
10. The collective nature of learning and taking into account the individual abilities of students.
11. Humanization and humanitarization of education.
12. Computerization of education.
13. Integrativeness of teaching, taking into account interdisciplinary connections.
14. Innovative learning.

The most important didactic principles are the following:

• training should be scientific and have a worldview orientation;
• learning should be problematic;
• learning should be visual;
• learning should be active and conscious;
• training should be accessible;
• training should be systematic and consistent;
• in the process of learning in organic unity, it is necessary to carry out the education, development and upbringing of students.

In the 60-70s L.V. Zankov formulated new didactic principles:

• training should be carried out at a high level of difficulty;
• in training, it is necessary to observe a fast pace in the passage of the studied material;
• the mastery of theoretical knowledge is of paramount importance in teaching.

In the didactics of higher education, the principles of education are distinguished, reflecting the specific features of the educational process in higher education: ensuring unity in the scientific and educational activities of students (I.I. Kobylyatsky); professional orientation (A.V. Barabanshchikov); professional mobility (Yu.V. Kiselev, V.A. Lisitsyn, etc.); problematic (T.V. Kudryavtsev); emotionality and majority of the whole learning process (R.A. Nizamov, F.I. Naumenko).

Recently, ideas have been expressed about the allocation of a group of principles of teaching in higher education, which would synthesize all existing principles:

• orientation higher education on the development of the personality of a future specialist;
• compliance of the content of university education with modern and predictable trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);
• the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms of organization of the educational process at the university;
• rational application of modern methods and teaching aids at various stages of training specialists;
• compliance of the results of training specialists with the requirements that are imposed by a specific area of ​​their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.

An important element modern higher education is methodological training. The development of science and practice has reached such a level that the student is unable to learn and remember everything necessary for his future work. Therefore, it is better for him to assimilate such educational material, which, with its minimum amount, will equip him with the maximum amount of information and, on the other hand, will allow him to work successfully in a number of areas in the future. Here the task arises of the most economical selection of scientific knowledge in all subjects of study at the university. But this is not enough. At the same time, it is important to comprehensively develop the general intelligence of students, the ability to solve various problems.

Higher education and upbringing have their own special principles (unlike school ones), such as, for example:

• training in what is necessary in practical work after high school;
• taking into account the age, socio-psychological and individual characteristics of students;
• professional orientation of training and education;
• organic connection of education with scientific, social and production activities.

Educational psychology as a science. The subject of educational psychology.

Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely associated with such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.

The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:

1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development.

2. The combination of age-related patterns and individual characteristics of development and methods of education and upbringing that are optimal for age categories and specific children.

3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche.

4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education.

5. Pedagogical neglect.

6. Ensuring an individual approach to learning.

The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. Indeed, the word “learning” refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e., the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educator in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.

Structure and tasks of pedagogical psychology.

Tasks of educational psychology:

1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

2.- determination of the mechanisms and patterns of learning by students of sociocultural experience, its structuring, preservation in the individual mind of the student, its use in different situations;

3. - determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.).

4. - study of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the influence of these processes on their intellectual, personal development;

5. - study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;

6. - determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge;

7. - determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation in accordance with educational standards.

The structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:

1. -psychology of learning;

2. - psychology of education;

3. -psychology of the teacher.

Or more broadly:

1. psychology of educational activity;

2.psychology of educational activity and its subject;

3.psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;

4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.

Experiment(from Latin eexperimental - “trial”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most time-consuming, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Well-known psychologists - experimenters P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of mind approach that has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness, he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.

It is impossible to do without an experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and laboriousness, since only in a carefully thought out, properly organized and conducted experiment can one obtain the most conclusive results, especially those relating to cause-and-effect relationships.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular relationships, i.e. stable, essential, links between phenomena and processes. It is this purpose that distinguishes the experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.

Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and spontaneous ones taken into account.

Scheme of the psychological and pedagogical experiment.

D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:

1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.

2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.

3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.

4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.

There are practically no ideal experiments.

General concept of learning.

Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth).
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development), it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of simple conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.

All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of links between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Varieties of associative learning:

1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.

· sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

· motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions, when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the process of performing a movement.

· sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.

2. Associative Cognitive Learning It is divided into knowledge learning, skill learning and action learning.

· At learning knowledge, a person discovers in objects new properties that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.

· Learning skills consists in the formation of an action program that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.

Learning action involves the learning of knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are essential connections, structures and relations of objective reality.
Varieties of intellectual learning:

More complex forms of learning are related to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflex and cognitive.

1. Reflex intellectual learning It is divided into relationship learning, transfer learning and sign learning.

Essence relationship learning consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.

· Transfer Learning lies in the "successful use in relation to the new situation of those skills and congenital forms behaviors that the animal already possesses. At the heart of this type of learning lies the ability to highlight attitudes and actions.

· sign learning associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which "the animal reacts to the object as a sign, i.e., responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object means" (Ibid., p. 62).

In an animal, intellectual learning is presented in the simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and proceeds at the cognitive level.

2. Intelligent Cognitive Learning It is divided into learning concepts, learning thinking and learning skills.

· Learning understanding of concepts lies in the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are fixed in words and combinations of words. Through the mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.

· Learning thinking consists in "the formation in students of mental actions and their systems, reflecting the main operations, with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Learning to think is a prerequisite for learning concepts.

. Learning skills is to form in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.

Theories of learning.

T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of evidence available. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have proposed the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as memory habits or processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Second, we often behave in different ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of a habit, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of a response to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes , unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - commonly referred to as intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of topics, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcement depends is called an operant, since it acts on the environment in order to cause this reinforcement. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant generation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. Anticipation depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment, not on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazri considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, coincident events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their constituent movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was particularly thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two of their key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and math. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction, if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by a similarity if we want learning to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.

Types of learning in humans

1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as the mother duck appears in the field of view of the newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. It - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.

2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.

3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.

4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.

5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning, carried out in a symbolic form through a variety of sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.

The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.

If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.

In this way, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.

Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.

The structure of learning activities.

Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the personality of the child, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.

motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, activities.

Classification of motives for teaching:

Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.

cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).

Emotional: emotional interest.

What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with learning itself, learning, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.

It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that a learning goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that has not touched his soul, is not kept in his mind, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child’s habitual motives.

Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.

learning task- this is what the child must master.

Learning action- these are changes in the educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.

Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.

Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts

mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).

To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.

Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.

Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance at classes, leaving the educational institution.

Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.

Methods of influence in education

Consciousness formation method: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, briefing, dispute, report, example. The method of organizing activities and forming the experience of behavior: exercise, accustoming, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Incentive method: competition, reward, punishment.

Pedagogical impact- a special type of teacher's activity, the purpose of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the pupil (needs, attitudes, attitudes, states, behavior patterns).

The purpose of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three strategies of influence corresponding to them.

First strategy - strategy of imperative influence; its main functions: the function of controlling the behavior and attitudes of a person, their reinforcement and direction in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The second strategy is manipulative - is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge to influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,

Traditionally, in psychological science, two main types of pedagogical influence are distinguished: persuasion and suggestion.

Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness, the will of the child. This is a logically reasoned impact of one person: or a group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.

Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.

38. Methods of self-education and self-education

Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through self-study outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.

Few sciences, both in the past and today, are subject to such widespread public condemnation and accusations of pseudoscience as pedagogy and psychology. This is despite the fact that interest in these disciplines is steadily increasing. The need to solve psychological and pedagogical problems becomes urgent and largely determines the future of mankind.

Tangible changes in the landscape, human living conditions, development information technologies and exact sciences, on the one hand, and fragmentary knowledge of human nature, on the other hand. Let's try to figure out: how objective are the accusations of uselessness for modern people to psychology and pedagogy.

What is psychology?

The very word "psychology" consists of two Greek words - "soul" and "knowledge". As a science, psychology arose relatively recently - at the end of the 19th century, until that moment it was part of philosophy.

“Psychology is both a very old and still very young science - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and yet it is still all in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is calculated only for decades, but its main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy has existed. Years of experimental research were preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other,” wrote Russian psychologist S.L. Rubinstein in 1940.

Since its inception, psychology has been studying the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development of mental processes, and also explores the mental states and mental properties of a person.

The subject of psychology from antiquity to the beginning of the 18th century was the soul, then the content of the subject of psychological science depended on its direction.

Thus, the English empirical associationist psychology of D. Hartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer studied the phenomena of consciousness, Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, considered the direct experience of the subject to be the subject of psychology. Functionalists studied adaptability (William James), psychophysiology as the origin of mental activities (Ivan Sechenov), behaviorism - behavior (John Watson), psychoanalysis - the unconscious (Sigmund Freud), Gestalt psychology - information processing processes and the results of these processes (Max Wertheimer), humanistic psychology - personal experience of a person (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May), a system-activity approach in psychology (L. Vygotsky, P. Galperin, D. Elkonin, V. Davydov) is currently relevant in Russian pedagogy the subject of psychology calls activity.

Psychologists use general scientific methods, for example, experiment, observation, questioning, questioning, as well as psychological methods proper for conducting research, analyzing the data obtained, and drawing conclusions.

Modern psychology

Today it is a multi-colored kaleidoscope of various psychological directions, psychological techniques, theories and is divided into different branches: general, age, children's, social, pedagogical, history of psychology, personality theory, etc.

A practicing psychologist independently makes a choice on the basis of which methodology he will work - psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy, cognitive psychology, behavioral approach, Synton method, neurolinguistic programming, etc.

Often a psychologist is forced to make some kind of compilation of several psychological methods to get a visible result of their activities. It should be noted that domestic psychologists are in a more difficult position than Western ones, since the 1936 decree "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" eliminated pedology, which practically froze the development of psychological science in our country for several decades.

It was only in 1966 that psychology faculties were created at the main universities of the country - Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the department of psychiatry and medical psychology at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. However, the pressure from the ideology of Marxism-Leninism on psychology remains for a long period. Achievements, like the fallacies of Western psychology, became widespread in our country in the mid-1980s.

Meanwhile, despite the steady growth and accumulation of knowledge, research in various branches of psychology as a whole, the feeling of a crisis in psychology intensifies in society, since none of the areas of psychology fully and accurately explains the nature of a person, the reasons for his behavior. All this gives reason to doubt the scientific nature of psychology.

Between science and pseudoscience

Psychology is closely connected with natural science, ethnography, sociology, cultural theory, art history, mathematics, logic, and linguistics. Yes, it is so interconnected that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the actual psychology.

In addition, psychological methods are poorly described and studied. The patterns identified by psychologists are not always the same. Many psychological theories are not confirmed in practice. Psychologists work to solve problems, and they should help to avoid them.

This prompts psychologists to look for effective recipes for working with people, for example, in astrology, esotericism, which allows, for example, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. V. Yurevich to conclude: “Psychology occupies an intermediate position between science and parascience ".

A few words about pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated from Greek, means "child-rearing", since in Ancient Greece a teacher was a slave who was assigned to a student.

The need for the emergence of a science that studies the laws of upbringing and education of a person arose as society accumulated knowledge and the need to understand the methods of successful transmission of social experience from generation to generation.

If psychology studies a person, his psyche, then pedagogy is a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with the development of an individual.

How to raise a child, reveal his talents, educate, instill social norms, contribute to the development of personality? What changes occur in the human psyche under the influence of training and education?

Pedagogy is called upon to answer these questions in order to provide an opportunity to foresee and manage the educational process, to understand how to properly develop a personality.

However, by and large, today pedagogical science is not much different from everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, as it consists of disparate facts, theories that have little evidence in practice. more and more reminiscent of quackery in medicine.

social pedagogy

Social pedagogy is a branch of pedagogy that studies how the social environment affects the formation of personality and how best to organize socialization. It is designed to help solve psychological and pedagogical problems in practice, in modern realities. Social pedagogy explores only the field of education carried out by society and the state.

A.V. Mudrik in the textbook "Social pedagogy" writes: "Social pedagogy is a branch of knowledge, having studied which you can learn, firstly, about what will inevitably happen or can happen in the life of a person of a particular age in certain circumstances. Secondly, how can favorable conditions be created for human development, to prevent "failures" in the process of his socialization. And thirdly, how can one reduce the effect of the influence of those unfavorable circumstances in which a person finds himself, the effect of that undesirable thing that happens in the process of a person’s socialization.

Social pedagogy and psychology are very close. To check the psychological readiness of a child for school is psychology, but to prepare him for school is already pedagogy.

Thus, it is assumed that the psychologist should only state, explain, recommend, but really influence the behavior of a person, his psyche, this is already the task of the teacher. From this it becomes clear the emergence of psychological and pedagogical faculties and the specialty of a teacher-psychologist.

At the same time, every year there is a growing need not only to provide direct psychological assistance to people, but also to prevent problems and prevent them.

However, again, instead of effective methods, we see general recipes worn to holes:

if you want to solve a problem, know yourself (including your past lives); do not stop in your development - continuous education is waiting for you; don't be a victim - be the author of your life; do not be a consequence - become the cause of everything that happens around you; value life, take care of your health; first love children, and then educate them; your thoughts are your life...

Meaningful invocations. Well, for some reason they don't work. Thinking doesn't change. A lump of social contradictions is growing, hatred, anger, aggressiveness, a decline in morality, and the number of people who do not feel the joy of life is increasing.

Formulas similar to spells - "should", "must", "should" - dissolve in the vacuum of psychological illiteracy, hanging in the air of topical questions about human nature.

System-Vector Psychology

And if you were told that a long-awaited breakthrough had occurred in psychology, would you believe it? No. And rightly so. Because all the provisions of real psychological science do not need to be taken on faith, as well as create special conditions in order to see how it works. Her theory is inseparable from practice. She is life itself.

So, the latest achievement in the world of psychology is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan, which for the first time allows you to accurately differentiate people according to their innate inclinations and reveals the meaning of socialization (introducing a person to culture).

All people are initially born with - vectors that determine the way a person thinks, his life values, desires. Properties are given by nature, but their implementation and development are not predetermined. It depends on the landscape, the society in which a person falls.

Nobody is born a criminal or a genius. Yes, initially each child is different from the other, but how his innate abilities (and they always exist) will be realized and developed is a question for parents, teachers, and society.

System-vector psychology defines: anal, skin, muscle, urethral (lower vectors), oral, olfactory, sound, visual (upper vectors). Each modern person has several vectors, since the landscape is changing, and sometimes contradictory properties are needed to adapt to it.

Accordingly, the more dramatic changes occur in people's living conditions, the more multi-vectored (others are already in starting opportunities than their own parents) children are born.

Today we are clearly seeing children of the "information formation", unlike previous generations. The gap between them and us is enormous. Sharply on the agenda is the question of how to understand a child, how to help him discover his abilities to the fullest and become happy.

Basics of child psychology

Up to a year is simple. He is born with the given basic properties, which he will have to develop before the end of the puberty period (approximately 12-15 years). Then you can only correct all those conditions that "come from childhood."

The main thing that parents of a baby up to a year need to concentrate on is maintaining his life. In this period, the baby eats a lot, grows rapidly and takes the first steps in the knowledge of the world around him. His character is clearly visible, and this must be reckoned with.

For example, a baby who quickly adapts to changes easily endures trips, eats calmly on the road, but an anal toddler, endowed with a rigid psyche, hard tolerating changes, will worry, show anxiety, for him a new environment is stress (even when you change clothes) . By understanding the vector set of their child, parents will be able to provide him with a sense of security necessary for his full development.

The psychology of a child at the age of 2 changes - he begins to walk, the zone of mastering the world expands, in addition, the baby constantly replenishes his vocabulary, shows an active interest in his own body. Individuality, differences from other children appear more and more clearly. So, the skin baby is active in games, loves new games, toys, and the anal baby sits quietly and draws, looks at books for a long time, and shows conservatism in games.

At the age of three, a child often changes unexpectedly - an obedient daughter becomes a stubborn stubborn, "unwanted", does everything in defiance of her parents. The crisis of three years known in psychology is the birth of the "I" of the child, when he begins to separate himself from the world around him, to realize his desires and needs.

This is the first step towards independence. For many parents, the crisis of a child's three years is a test of their parental aptitude. Will they be able to agree, will they learn how to effectively cope with the baby's tantrums, direct the child's energy in the right direction?

A systematic approach greatly simplifies the life of parents: after the training, they understand what kind of baby is in front of them and what he really wants. freedom must be given, neither prohibitions, nor praise, nor punishment will affect him. It is important to praise the anal peanut for real deeds, adequately limit the skin peanut, build a clear system of prohibitions and rewards.

At the age of three, the most urgent need for children is communication with peers. For the successful socialization of the child, the development of the necessary communication skills in him, it is worth sending him to kindergarten.

Right there, in children's team, a kind of model of a primitive pack, he will pass the ranking, find his place in society, the team.

A 4-5-year-old child continues to actively explore the world, begins to ask more and more questions. Some children have obsessive fears - they are afraid of the dark, afraid to be alone. From the point of view of Yuri Burlan's System-Vector Psychology, the state of fear is a manifestation of a visual vector, and until a certain time, the fact that a child is afraid to sleep alone at night is quite normal, this is the archetype of the visual vector, which will develop from fear into love. underlies visual phobias.

It is important for parents to understand what and why is happening to the child in order to adequately respond to his archetypal behavior. For example, it is dangerous for the psyche to drive the viewer into great fear, to fixate him on this state by reading scary tales, where fictional characters eat each other. It is extremely harmful to beat a skinner with a belt for what seems to us to be petty theft, but in his perception he simply took what he needed to hide, make a reserve for a "rainy day", or punish him for swearing.

We subconsciously feel how painful it is to punish the baby: we close the spectator in the closet, we beat the mouthpiece, we shout at the soundman, we beat the leather worker, we don’t let him out of the house, we drive the anal man ... And then all these sins of parental upbringing remain anchors in the psyche of adults .

In the psychology of a child of 6-7 years old, the concept of sexuality arises. During this period, children go through primary puberty, so there are very frequent cases when children of this age become victims of pedophiles.

Most children are on their way, a new stage in their social life begins - with new guidelines, authorities, requirements. Parents are faced with the question of how best to help their child adapt to school. Without systemic knowledge, parents and educators act at random. Well, if the properties of parents and children coincide, then they understand each other through themselves. And if not? In this case, the child is faced with double stress, the sources of which are the school and misunderstanding of the parents.

In the psychology of a child at the age of 8, as in child psychology at the age of 9, the development of upper vectors, intellectual abilities, is relevant.

In general, by the puberty period, the child must already go through the ranking according to the animal type, where the strong defeats the weak, where relationships are sorted out with the help of fights, and learn to gain authority in the team in a socially acceptable form, determine their niche in society.

Thus, the knowledge accumulated by pedagogy and psychology, social pedagogy, works selectively, from case to case, since they do not distinguish one person from another, they do not have an effective method of working with a person.

Such a technique is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan. This is the microscope through which anyone who looks sees the differences (vectors, their level of development and implementation) of people and is unlikely to teach the "fish" to fly, and this is the basis of any methods of education and training, the foundation for solving urgent social problems through changing the consciousness of a particular member of society to a collective consciousness.

Proofreader: Zifa Akhatova

The article was written based on the materials of the training " System-Vector Psychology»

Pedagogical psychology- This is a branch of psychology that considers psychological mechanisms, patterns, factors in the development of the psyche in the conditions of training and education.

Pedagogical psychology is the science of the formation and development of the psyche in the educational space.

The beginning of the formation of this science dates back to the last third of the 19th century. The term "pedagogical psychology" itself appeared in 1877, it was introduced by the Russian psychologist and teacher P.F. Kapetev. He wrote the book "Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators." After the publication of this book, educational psychology was recognized as an independent scientific direction. The epigraph of this book was taken by Pestalozzi's statement "I want to reduce all learning to psychological grounds." Today, this problem is extremely relevant, very popular among researchers, but still ambiguous, having a number of contradictions that need to be addressed.

The subject of educational psychology is psychological foundations personality formation in the process of training and education.

Tasks of educational psychology:

Identification of patterns of development of the psyche in the process of training and education;

Establishment of the conditions for the success of the development of the psyche in the educational space;

Determination of the main mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche in the process of training and education;

Establishment of factors influencing the psychological sphere of the individual in the course of training and education;

Creation and development of methods and techniques for studying the features of the functioning of the psyche in the process of education and upbringing;

Popularization of scientific knowledge in society.

Sections of educational psychology:

- psychology of learning;

This direction is engaged in the study of the psychological patterns of cognitive activity of students. One of the most important problems in this area is the issue of mental development of students. An important issue is the individualization and differentiation of the learning process. Today, a student-centered approach in the process of teaching and educating schoolchildren is very in demand and applied. This approach contributes to the solution to a certain extent of the problem of the development of human creative abilities. For teachers and educators, the issue of diagnosing mental development and the issue of developing methods aimed at improving the productivity of students' cognitive activity are extremely relevant.

- psychology of education;

This section studies the main psychological mechanisms and patterns of formation of students' personal parameters within the framework of the educational process.

This section is aimed at identifying factors that affect the system of relations:

Student - student;

Teacher - student;

Parents - student;

Teacher - administration;

Parents - school;

Student - administration;

Adults are children.

This section examines the psychological conditions for the formation and development of morality, worldview, personality orientation. A very important aspect is the psychology of self-development and self-education of a person.

- The psychology of the teacher.

This direction studies the features of the functioning and development of the teacher's psyche in the course of his professional activity. Of particular importance are the studies of the pedagogical abilities of the individual-typological qualities of the individual influencing professional activity, the question of becoming pedagogical excellence, as well as the psychological aspects of professional interaction.

All three areas of educational psychology are developing very actively, having a significant impact on the holistic educational process.

The main patterns of the formation of the child's personality

It is well known and indisputable that a personality is formed throughout life, and personal formations can appear at any age.
The basis of personality formation, according to Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev, is socialization- appropriation by a person of social experience in ontogeny.
It should be noted that socialization is an objective process. (I invite everyone to answer for themselves why).

Any society prefers that its citizens acquire the desired social experience that does not contradict social norms and moral principles. Although gaining such experience is an individual process subject to certain laws:

- recognition of education as the basis for the formation of personality;

Upbringing- this is a targeted impact on a person in order to form her desired personal parameters.

Those changes that occur in the personality and will be the result of education.
Without the process of upbringing, spiritual change, observance of traditions, development of norms of behavior and communication is impossible, that is, that qualitative change in the personality is impossible, which will ensure her comfortable stay in society.

- recognition of the child as the subject of the educational and training process;

The independent activity of the child is one of the characteristics of the subjective attitude to the world. This means that only a personal desire, a personal desire for a particular action leads to a positive result.

Without individual activity, the process of personality formation is extremely inefficient. Therefore, the attitude to the developing personality of a person as an object of development does not bring the desired results.

The educator must remember that he is obliged to organize the child's activities in such a way that he is convinced that he himself wants it. The role of the teacher, according to Vygodsky, is only to organize the conditions, the environment, and to control the results of the child's independent activity.

- inclusion of the motivational-need sphere of the child;

In the life of any creature, needs play a huge role. In addition to natural needs, a person also has socially significant ones. They arise against the background of specific socio-economic relations, formed interests and internal stimuli.

Depending on the motives, personality traits are formed. The basis for the practical implementation of motives is activity.

Thus, the scheme is implemented: Activity à Need à Motive à Activity à Need à house-house à

For a teacher, a parent, an adult who influences a developing personality, the basis is the formation of needs and motives.

- taking into account the "tomorrow of the developing child";

These are the potential, objectively existing, reasonable possibilities of the child, on which the parent, teacher, and educator should be guided.

In this case, the process of personal development becomes purposeful, individual, manageable and productive. Moreover, knowledge of this regularity makes it possible to design the development of the personality and painless, without great mental stress of its development.

- taking into account the principle of psychology: the development of the psyche occurs only in activity.

A teacher, parent, educator should remember that not any activity develops a personality, contributes to the emergence of new formations of the psyche, but only the leading activity of its age period of development.

Psychology of learning

Questions:

The subject of the psychology of learning, characteristics of learning;

Psychological theories of learning, development and organization of learning activities;

Psychological components of knowledge acquisition;

Psychological reasons for the failure of children.

Thorndike's theory was to recognize the identity of the processes of development and learning. His followers still believe that every step in learning is a step in development, every step in development is the result of training and education. Moreover, representatives of this direction still believe that there is no difference in the learning (and development) of humans and animals. Over time, this trend developed into behaviorism.
Representatives (for example, Skinner, Maslow and their followers) believe that the basis of human development is the formation of behavioral skills. They are the basis of human socialization, adaptation and intellectualization. These scientists believe that even intellectual skills can be instilled, which will gradually develop into skills. In this way, for example, the skill of being attentive, the skill of thinking, etc. can be instilled.

The theory of Jean Jacques Piaget.

Piaget theoretically substantiated and practically tried to prove that development is absolutely independent of training and education. These processes, in his opinion, are like rails - absolutely parallel, nowhere and never intersect. Moreover, Piaget believed that development goes ahead of learning and pulls it along.

- The theory of two factors.

Proposed and substantiated by Soviet scientists. The theory is based on the teachings of Vygotsky as his cultural and historical concept.

The essence of the theory is that development and learning are equivalent processes that are closely intertwined and constantly influence each other.

In the formation of a personality, a biological factor is important, that is, a certain natural predisposition to a particular activity. No less important is the social factor, that is, the possibility of mastering the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities required by society.

"If a person has a natural hearing loss, then, no matter how much we want, he will never become a composer, however, if a person never sees musical instrument, he also cannot be a composer" Khrebkov.

The theory of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky Cultural-historical concept".
At a certain stage of a person's life, development is the predominant factor determining the formation of the psyche and personality. Starting with the complication of the self-concept of the individual (from 6 years old), education and upbringing gradually begin to lead development. From that time on, writes Lev Semenovich, training is simply obliged to go ahead of development and lead it along.

This theory of Vygotsky turned the content of the organization of the educational process upside down, but in order for it to work effectively, it must be remembered that our psyche constantly characterized by two levels:

Zone of actual development;

This is the level of development that is available at the moment, characterized by the ability of a person to independently, without any help, perform certain external and internal actions.

Zone of Proximal Development.

The dominant one is, of course, the second level, but without relying on the first, it makes no sense.

- Pedology.

The theory appeared in Russia in the 19th century and was very popular among progressive educators and psychologists.

Psychological components of assimilation

As a result of properly organized activity, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, resulting in the mental development of the student. The main thing in this process is the assimilation and, in the future, the appropriation of previous experience.

Assimilation is an organized cognitive activity of a student, activating a number of mental processes.

Nikolai Dmitrievich Levitov singled out the main components of assimilation, which form the basis of personal mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities (assignment).

Assimilation is the main way for an individual to acquire socio-historical experience.

Components of assimilation:

- Positive attitude of the student to the learning process;

From the point of view of mental reflection, the effectiveness of any mental process will be quite high if the sthenic emotional background prevails. The speed and strength of assimilation will be based on non-negation of what a person is doing, that is, the psyche will not erect barriers, sometimes even in addition to the desire of the individual.
In recent years, there has been a sharp decline in the positive attitude of children towards learning. Why?

Unfavorable socio-economic relations;

Increasing the amount of required information;

Very frequent predominance of a negative emotional background.

For example, school fear is a condition that inhibits mental processes, which puts a barrier in terms of mastering and appropriating knowledge. Children, driven by fear, practically do not think, remember very poorly, and their attention is extremely scattered.

A positive attitude is formed:

Interest in knowledge and information;

Accepting the information as necessary;

Developing the ability to overcome difficulties.

A huge role in cognition is played by the feeling of satisfaction from obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the presence of positive motivation, that is, an internal absolute conviction in the need to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities.

In this process, one cannot beg anyone's role: neither the student, nor close adults, nor the teacher.

- Activation of the processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material;

Consider only sensations and perceptions as the most effective for mastering the material.

The task of the teacher is to ensure that the student in the lesson not only looks, but also sees, not only listens, but also hears everything that happens in the lesson. This helps the child most fully and comprehensively create in the brain the image of the subject being studied.
The object of perception in the learning process is everything that surrounds the child. That is why every teacher should start by educational space did not include unnecessary objects that do not matter at a given time.

If the teacher's speech suffers from any errors (such as speech defects, fast pace, high tone, unusual phonemic consonance), then the perception of meaning deteriorates significantly. The appearance of the teacher (especially at the first meeting) is of great importance. Very often, sympathy or antipathy arises in the first minutes of communication. With long-term communication with the teacher, his appearance completely loses its meaning.

Everything that the teacher uses as visual material must meet the requirements:

Tables should be legible;

Contrast must be observed (for example, diagrams);

The best option for the board is a dark brown background and white chalk;

The main material should always be located in the center;

Familiar material should always be in the same place;

Educational films should be no more than 10 minutes long;

During the entire educational process, it is imperative to use almost all types of perception: hearing, sight, touch.

For most children, perception is best in a complex of sensations.

Theorized learning process is always less effective than a process with elements of practice.

- thought processanalysis as a process of active processing of the received information;

Thinking plays an important role in the process of learning.
A special place is occupied by:

Forms of thinking and the ability to master them;

The operations of thinking must be developed in accordance with age;

Types of thinking should also be at a level of development sufficient for a given age;

The development of the qualities of the mind.

- The process of memorizing and preserving the material;

As a rule, students with memory deficiencies study worse than those with a well-developed memory.

The following memory parameters are subject to development:

Types of memory (especially figurative = sensory memory);

Memory processes (especially memorization, assimilation, reproduction).

The types of memory, as a rule, do not change (there are four types: quickly remembered - quickly forgotten, quickly remembered - slowly forgotten, etc.). The teacher just needs to take into account what type of memory the child has and treat it with understanding.

- attention as necessary condition the success of all previous components.

Attention is a mental state that ensures the success of all mental forms of reflection. Therefore, the formation and development of attention must be given special attention.

In the educational process, it is important to develop types of attention, especially secondary voluntary. To do this, it is necessary to involve the processes of awareness, motivation and the volitional sphere.

Reasons for the low level of assimilation:

Pedagogical reasons:

Weak teacher;

Overcrowding of classes (the norm for the beginning class is 15 people, for seniors - 17-22);

Imperfection of programs;

Very low level of textbooks and teaching aids;

Inefficient construction of the school day;

Ineffective forms of conducting classes.

Psychological reasons:

Failure to take into account the current level of personality development;

Developmental delay in accordance with the age norm - ZPR;

Insufficient development of mental forms of reflection (especially thinking, perception, memory);

Lack of reliance on individual typological personality traits;

Poor genetic inheritance;

Underdevelopment of the child's ability to self-regulation.

Psychology of educational influences

Upbringing and educational tasks in educational institutions are solved to a large extent depending on how the teacher is able to influence students.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky once said: "Without the personal direct influence of the educator on the pupil, true education is impossible."
All educational influences affect the inner world of a person. That is why they must be built in accordance with the laws of the functioning of the psyche.

Types of educational influences:

- Impact "request";

This is one of the softest effects. The request does not imply any pressure on the child.

The main characteristic of the request is the consideration of the child's ability to fulfill it.
When making a request, it is important to remember:

The request must not exceed the capacity of the child;

The child should not be an intermediary between the teacher and the performer;

Failure to comply should not adversely affect the child;

Any request should be based on future gratitude for the fulfillment.

- Impact "requirement";

This is a tougher impact, which implies its mandatory implementation.
The requirement must be subject to some administrative regulation.
The requirement must be reasonable. The unreasonableness of the demand will cause opposition and non-compliance.

When making demands, one should not use a requesting tone, one should not allow lack of control and lack of evaluation.

Failure to comply with the requirements should carry any reprimand or punishment.

- Impact "order";

This is the most severe of the imposed impacts. That is why the order is always based on legally accepted provisions. These provisions are adopted at the level of institutions or government bodies.

The execution of the order is not discussed. It is mandatory for all participants in the process.

- Impact "score":

- Evaluation-praise;

The only difference between evaluation and praise: praise is a verbal encouragement, and true encouragement carries a material basis. From the point of view of psychological perception, encouragement causes a positive emotional background.

- Evaluation-encouragement;

When applying incentives, you need to remember:

The business is encouraged, not the person;

Encouragement should be adequately done;

It is not necessary to encourage several times for the same thing;

Encouragement must necessarily cause the approval of others;

It is better to encourage and praise in public, and not tete-a-tete;

It is more often necessary to encourage melancholic and phlegmatic people, and not choleric people;

It is necessary to encourage even for the desire to do something;

Don't encourage too much.

- Evaluation-punishment.

Punishment is the opposite of reward.

Requirements for punishment:

It is better to punish one than in front of all;

It is impossible to punish for the unproved;

You can't just punish bad behavior;

The punishment must correspond to the measure of the offense;

You can not punish for the same thing several times;

You can not punish in haste;

It is impossible to punish with labor;

The punishment must be fair.

It is easy for a teacher to make a mistake when applying rewards or punishments.

Undeserved constant encouragement leads to arrogance, hostility from others. Improper punishment can cause humiliation of the individual, a feeling of anger and hatred towards the teacher. All this leads to a deformation of the child's personal growth.

- Impact "shortcut";

The teacher has no right to hang labels or invent nicknames for students. This has a very negative effect on children and others. Most often, such an action causes a similar reaction.

- Impact "suggestion".

Suggestion is a very complex type of influence, which is built on a significant reduction in a person's critical attitude to incoming information.
Among all people suggested - 70%. Therefore, the teacher must very carefully use suggestion as a measure of influence.

Suggestion is always deliberate, most often carried out verbally.

Suggestibility is affected:

Age;

The most suggestible are children and the elderly.

The state of the body;

Tired, weakened, sick people are more suggestible.

A large crowd of people acting in sync;

Level of intellectual development

The lower the level, the easier it is to inspire.

Character traits;

Credulity-suspicion, kindness, simplicity…

Also, the effectiveness of suggestion depends on:

From the environment where the person inspires;

From the nature of social relations;

In a bullying society, suggestibility is stronger. Those who are in need are more suggestible.

The teacher must remember suggestion rules:

You need to look into the eyes of the suggested;

You need to stay absolutely calm, uninhibited and relaxed;

Speech should be clear, intelligible, slightly slowed down;

In no case should you show any nervousness.