Any person, receiving this or that information, analyzes, generalizes and remembers it, and then uses it in his actions. An ordinary eyewitness of certain events does this, as a rule, haphazardly, from case to case.

sociological observation- it is always directed, systematic, direct "tracking" and fixation of socially significant phenomena. It not only serves the purpose of obtaining meaningful information, but may itself be subject to verification.

The fixation of any phenomenon (and it is mandatory) can occur with the help of various means- special forms or diaries, audio, video and photographic equipment and other technical means of observation.

The main types of observation are unincluded and included, implying the anonymous presence of the researcher in the object he is examining, when the researcher imitates entry into the group, adapts to it, as a rule, anonymously and analyzes the events occurring in it "from the inside".

There are few examples of “participant” observation conducted by Russian sociologists. In the 1980s Leningrader A.N. Alekseev resigned from the Institute of Socio-Economic Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where he worked as a senior researcher, and incognito got a job as a worker at the Printing Machine Plant, where he collected rich material about the life of the workforce. This sociologist not only stated certain facts, but also introduced experimental factors from within, i.e. was not only a researcher, but an active participant in the events that took place among the workers. As a result of his observation, Alekseev published a number of works devoted to the "sociology of observing participation."

However, researchers who use the method of observation have difficulties associated with the fact that they sometimes lose their objectivity, getting used to the role of an “activist”. The result of the "included" observation, as V.A. Yadov is often an essay rather than a strictly scientific treatise. In addition, some experts doubt the ethics of disguising a sociologist as an ordinary participant in events.

The positive effect of using this method is indisputable: the researcher receives direct, vivid impressions from the observed people, which allows him to understand and explain certain of their actions, to correctly assess the cohesion, or, conversely, the contradictions in the group.

A common feature of observation as a method of collecting primary information is manifested in the ability to analyze particulars: the nature of behavior, gestures, facial expressions, the expression of emotions of individuals and entire groups. Sometimes this method is used along with other methods of collecting information to bring to life the columns of impassive figures - the results of various surveys. Observation is indispensable for studying the activity of the population at rallies, mass social and political events, the behavior of students during informal communication, etc.

The application of the observation method is preceded by a plan, which indicates the means of collecting information, the timing of the study, the amount of funding, as well as the number of observers themselves. The latter should be highly qualified, be attentive, sociable, be able to control their behavior, know the theory of sociology, sectoral sociology that are used in a particular study, as well as the means and techniques of observation, materials and documents regulating the activities of the object under study. For future specialist observers, it is advisable to organize a series of practical exercises(observations) in field or laboratory conditions, which will allow to identify errors typical for the observer, develop useful behavioral observation techniques, rules for compiling documents. Classes are usually taught by an experienced sociologist.

There are standard instructions for conducting the study. They indicate: the sequence of stages and procedures for observation, assessment of the actions of the observed, ways of fixing information and interpreting the data received, samples of reporting.

Usually, a trial study is carried out first in order to open possible mistakes, inaccuracies, exaggerations. In the course of further observation, it can be useful both for the project manager and for the observer himself. This method is especially important for developing a general research hypothesis.

Thus, in the process observations the researcher conducts a direct and purposeful fixation of social facts, noting the specific actions of people and registering in real time the development of social phenomena and processes. Important advantages of observation as a method are the presence of a direct connection between the researcher and the object under study, flexibility, efficiency and relative cheapness in application.

Observation- this is a purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. The task of the observer, as a rule, is not connected with interference in "life" by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.

Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) is carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with subject means for carrying out the process and fixing the results.

Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects or test the initial assumptions associated with them. Observation is historically the first scientific method of psychological research.

The term "observation" is used in three different senses: 1) observation as an activity; 2) observation as a method; 3) observation as a technique.

Seeing how activity relates to certain areas of public practice. The operator of the power system observes the readings of the instruments, the shift attendant inspects the equipment according to a certain plan, the doctor examines the patient, the investigator observes the behavior of the suspect, etc. In contrast to observation as a scientific method, observation as an activity is aimed at serving practical activities: observation is necessary for the doctor to diagnosis and clarification of the treatment process; to the investigator - to put forward and verify versions and solve the crime; the power system operator - to make a decision on the distribution of electricity flows.

Seeing how method science includes a system of principles of cognitive activity, provisions on the essence and specifics of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations, on instrumental equipment and varieties of human activity in the role of an observer. Observation as a method of psychology is distinguished by universality, i.e., applicability to the study of a wide range of phenomena, flexibility, i.e., the ability to change the “field of coverage” of the object under study as necessary, to put forward and test additional hypotheses in the course of observation. To conduct an observational study, minimal hardware is required.

The specificity of observation as a scientific method of psychology lies in the type of relationship to the object of study (non-intervention) and the presence of direct visual or auditory contact of the observer with the observed. The main characteristics of observation as a method of psychology are purposefulness, regularity, dependence on the theoretical ideas of the observer.

Seeing how technique(observation technique) takes into account the specific task, situation, conditions and instruments of observation. The method of observation is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature a synonym for "observation technique" is "observation technique". The observation methodology contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes: a) the choice of a situation and an object for observation; b) the program (scheme) of observation in the form of a list of signs (aspects) of the observed behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them; c) method and form of recording the results of observation; d) a description of the requirements for the work of an observer; e) description of the method of processing and presentation of the received data.

Object and subject of observation. object external observation can be an individual, a group of people or a community. The object of observation is characterized by uniqueness, non-repeatability, very short or very long duration of mental phenomena.

The main problem that arises in the conduct of observation is the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the observed. To minimize this impact, the observer should "become familiar", i.e. more often present in environment, engage in any business, do not focus on what is being observed. In addition, it is possible to explain the presence of the observer by some purpose acceptable for the observed, or to replace the human observer with recording equipment (video camera, voice recorder, etc.), or to observe from an adjacent room through glass with one-way light conduction (Gesell's mirror). The modesty, tact, good manners of the observer weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.

There is also a reception included observation when the observer is a real member of the group. However, this technique entails an ethical problem - the duality of the position and the inability to observe oneself as a member of the group.

Subject observations can only be external, exteriorized components of mental activity:

– motor components of practical and gnostic actions;

- movements, movements and stationary states of people (speed and direction of movement, contact, shocks, blows);

– joint actions (groups of people);

- speech acts (their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic structure);

- facial expressions and pantomime, expression of sounds;

- manifestations of some vegetative reactions (redness or blanching of the skin, changes in the rhythm of breathing, sweating).

When conducting observation, the complexity of an unambiguous understanding of the internal, mental through observation of the external arises. In psychology, there is a multiplicity of connections between external manifestations and subjective mental reality and a multilevel structure of mental phenomena, so the same behavioral manifestation can be associated with various mental processes.

Observer position in relation to the object of observation can be open or hidden. The included observation can also be classified as open or covert, depending on whether the observer reports the fact of observation or not.

A person-observer has a selectivity of perception, which is determined by his attitudes, the general direction of his activity. A certain attitude activates perception, sharpens sensitivity to significant influences, however, an overly fixed attitude leads to bias. The general orientation of activity can serve as an incentive to overestimate some facts and underestimate others (teachers pay attention to cognitive activity, trainers - to body features, dexterity of movements, tailors - to tailoring, etc.).

There is also the phenomenon of the projection of one's own "I" on the observed behavior. Interpreting the behavior of another person, the observer transfers his own point of view to him. Individual characteristics of the observer (primary modality of perception - visual, auditory, etc., ability to concentrate and distribute attention, memory capacity, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc.) also have a significant impact on the result of observation. A good observer needs special training in observation, which allows you to somewhat reduce the influence of individual characteristics.

Depending on the situation, field observation, laboratory observation and provoked observation in natural conditions are distinguished. field the observation is carried out in the natural conditions of the life of the observed, the distortion of behavior in this case is minimal. This type of observation is very time-consuming, since the situation of interest to the researcher is little controllable and, therefore, observation is most often of an expectant nature. Laboratory observation is carried out in a more convenient situation for the researcher, however, artificial conditions can greatly alter human behavior. provoked observation is carried out in natural conditions, but the situation is set by the researcher. In developmental psychology, this observation approaches a natural experiment (observation during the game, during classes, etc.).

By way of organizing distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation. Unsystematic observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. For the researcher, it is important here to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon under study, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher highlights some features of behavior and fixes their manifestation in various conditions or situations.

There are also continuous and selective observation. At continuous observation, the researcher captures all the features of behavior, and when selective pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, fixes their frequency, duration, etc.

Different ways of organizing surveillance have their own advantages and disadvantages. So, with non-systematic observation, random phenomena can be described, therefore, it is preferable to organize systematic observation under changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to record the entire observed, therefore, in this case, it is desirable to use equipment or involve several observers. Selective observation does not exclude the influence of the observer's position on its result (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome this influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.

Depending on the goals Research can be divided into exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses. search engine research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, aims to obtain the most complete description of all the phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely. If observation is used in such a study, then it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on the method of observation, designates the goal of such observation as “to observe in general”, to observe everything that an object manifests itself with, without selecting any specific manifestations. Some sources call this observation expectant.

An example of an exploratory study based on observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova. common goal this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, circle work, various competitions, behavioral features and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations of children, disputes, remarks were registered.

If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is built differently. In this case it is called researcher, or selective. At the same time, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget. To study one of the stages, the researcher chose manipulative games of the child with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, the child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.

By use of surveillance Distinguish between direct and indirect (with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance maps. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder is an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on the inner world of a person without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.

By way chronological organization distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and broadly cover the behavior, lifestyle, habits of the observed person. periodic observation is carried out for certain, precisely specified periods of time. This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. single, or single, observations are usually presented as a description of a single case. They can be both unique and typical manifestations of the phenomenon under study.

Fixing the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or after some time has passed. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of the subjects suffer.

The program (scheme) of observation includes a list of units of observation, the language and form of description of the observed.

Choice of observation units. After choosing the object and situation of observation, the researcher faces the task of conducting the observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to single out certain aspects of the object's behavior, individual acts accessible to direct perception from the continuous flow of the object's behavior. The selected units of observation should be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow interpretation of the results in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary considerably in size and complexity.

When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) the observer's assessment of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measurement of the duration of the observed event - timing. Scaling in observation is carried out by the method of scoring. Three to ten point scales are usually used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, medium”, etc.). Sometimes a graphical form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of the segment on the line, extreme points which are marked with lower and upper scores. For example, the scale for observing the behavior of a student at school, developed by J. Strelyau to assess the individual characteristics of a person, involves an assessment of ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.

For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: ​​a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. However, it should be remembered that the timing of activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person, interferes with him.

Methods for recording observations. General requirements to record observations formulated by M.Ya. Basov.

1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it really existed.

2. The record must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background record).

3. The record must be complete in order to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.

Based on the study a large number records of M.Ya. Basovs proposed to distinguish three main ways of verbal fixation of behavior: interpretive, generalizing and descriptive, and photographic recordings. The use of all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.

Recording non-standardized observations. In an exploratory study, preliminary knowledge about the reality under study is minimal, so the observer's task is to record the manifestations of the object's activity in all their diversity. This photographic record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation in it, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words of a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where “you can’t see the forest for the trees,” wrote A.P. Boltunov.

Usually, in the course of exploratory research, the form of observation records is used in the form continuous protocol. It must indicate the date, time, place, situation of observation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which the record is kept without headings. For the record to be complete, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of conditional abbreviations or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the stage of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of units of observation can be compiled.

In a long-term field study conducted by the method of non-standardized observation, the recording form is diary. It is carried out during many days of observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations for a long time, the accuracy and uniformity of terminology should be observed. Diary entries are also recommended to be kept directly, and not from memory.

In a covert participant surveillance situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in events, he cannot record anything. Therefore, the observer is forced to process the material of observations, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Therefore, the observation diary uses generalizing descriptive and interpretation notes. However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).

Each entry in the observation diary should include a short introduction to better understand the behavior that has become the subject of recording. It reflects the place, time, situation, situation, state of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion can also be attached to the record, which reflects the changes in the situation that have occurred during the observation (the appearance significant person etc.).

While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer must then express his attitude to the described phenomena and his understanding of their meaning. Such entries should be clearly separated from observational entries and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.

Recording standardized observations. For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - notation in symbols and standard protocol. At character entries each category can be assigned designations - letters, pictograms, mathematical signs, which reduces the recording time.

Standard Protocol is used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders' system for analyzing the verbal interaction between a teacher and a student). This form of recording the results of observation has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of the fixation of manifestations, the disadvantages are the loss of the “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).

The result of the observation is a "behavioral portrait". This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, consultative practice. The main parameters in compiling a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:

1) individual features appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (style of clothing, hairstyles, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or attaches special importance to it, which elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);

2) pantomime (posture, features of gait, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual postures);

3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly animated, and in which they remain constrained);

4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonational richness, the inclusion of pauses in speech, the pace of speech);

5) behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to it, ways to establish contact, the nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, with an orientation to the interlocutor, positions in communication - “on an equal footing”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - a demonstration of various ways of behavior that are opposite in meaning in situations of the same type);

6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);

7) behavior in psychological difficult situations(when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);

8) behavior in the main activity (game, study, professional activity);

9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements that characterize the outlook, interests, life experience.

The widespread use of the observation method for studying the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. A small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions.

Accumulation of data on mental development children of infancy and early age allowed to bring them into certain systems.

Development tables A. Gesell cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are complemented by information provided by the child's mother. The American psychologist A. Anastasi, in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these developmental tables, but points out their usefulness as an adjunct to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.

Method E. Fruht fixes the development of a child aged 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual orienting reactions; 2) auditory orienting reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) understanding of speech; 7) active speech; 8) skills and abilities.

For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of the reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on the stomach, trying to raise and hold the head (for 5 s); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 s and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 min), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie calmly, maintains this position for 1 min; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); keeps head straight for 30 s. With support under the armpits, it firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.

This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the overall picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.

1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, such as coordinating eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting;

2) communication and speech development. These include expressive speech and understanding; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) autonomy and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults during eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out current assignments; 5) behavior. Sometimes included under heading 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the difficulties and problems of the child.

The structure of the development card is a list of points for each direction of development. If a skill or skill is formed, then an icon is put in the card, if the data is uncertain - “?”. There are no results at the end. This is a way to "photograph" a baby at some point in development in order to plan further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future "snapshots" of the same child.

Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development to compare with the average for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental outcomes with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before he learns certain skills. They are not always marked as milestones for healthy children.

When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect sample - one hardly exists. Precisely formulated points in the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the "method of time samples" and means making observations over pre-marked time intervals. All entries relating to one "slice" must be entered on the card within one week. If this is not possible, follow-up should be postponed.

D. Lashley's method of observing "difficult" behavior. The author believes that in order to understand the problem of the child, one should conduct an observation and then conclude how serious it is. It is fairly easy to identify three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the "difficult" behavior lasts in each case, or how long per day such behavior looks typical; 3) intensity - the problem is simple, fairly serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of "difficult" behavior. Frequency calculation in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, and after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day, or even whole days, when the child is not at all "difficult".

Thus, on the basis of observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field of child development, as well as a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for the teacher, as it allows him to better understand his pupils.

Method of observation, its types, methods of organizing and fixing the results of observation.

Watching it ancient method knowledge. Many eminent scientists who adhered to the natural-science approach, from C. Darwin to K. Lorentz, recognized it as the main source of obtaining scientific facts. As a scientific empirical method, observation has been widely used since the end of the 19th century in clinical psychology, developmental psychology, sociology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology, i.e. in those areas where the fixation of the features of the natural behavior of a person in his usual conditions is of particular importance, where the intervention of the experimenter disrupts the process of interaction of the object with the environment.

In pedagogy, this method is also given great attention, it is used as the main method of collecting information in the process of pedagogical research.

Pedagogical observation- a method of cognition of the pedagogical process and the phenomena of education through purposeful perception with the help of the senses or in their indirect perception through a description by others, tracking the change and development of the conditions and results of pedagogical practice.

It is contemplative, passive in nature, does not affect the processes under study, does not change the conditions in which they occur, and differs from everyday observation by the specificity of the object of observation, the presence of special methods for recording observed phenomena and facts.

There are various techniques and methods for observing human behavioral reactions, allowing an experienced observer to penetrate into the inner meaning of certain external manifestations.

The features of observation as a scientific method are: orientation towards a clear, specific goal; planning and systematic; objectivity in the perception of the studied and its fixation; preservation of the natural course of psychological and pedagogical processes.

The means of observation are different: observation schemes, its duration, recording technique, data collection methods, observation protocols, systems of categories and scales. All these tools increase the accuracy of observation, the possibility of recording and monitoring its results. Thus, serious attention should be paid to the form of the protocol, which depends on the subject, objectives and research hypothesis that determine the observation criterion.

observation has several species.

mediated (indirect) observation is carried out using auxiliary means, for example, video equipment, or authorized persons working according to the program and task of the researcher. Indirect observation also occurs in the study of the products of the subjects' activities.

Immediate(Direct) observation occurs when there is a direct relationship between the object and its researcher. There are three positions of the researcher during direct observation: the researcher-witness (a neutral person); researcher-head of the pedagogical process; researcher-participant of the pedagogical process (included in the test subjects.

open observation, when the fact of the presence of the researcher is realized by the subjects. For example, the researcher is present in the room, while the pedagogical situation changes, because subjectsThey know they are being watched from the side. This effect is increased if the observer is unknown to the group or individual, is significant, and can competently assess the behavior.

Hidden observation gives a more realistic picture. In this case, technical means are used, such as shooting with a hidden camera, recording on a voice recorder. Covert surveillance can also be carried out on the behavior of the subjects in situations where they do not pay attention to the researcher. In any case, the most important role is played by the personality of the observer - his professionally important qualities. With open observation, after a certain time, participants get used to the observer and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a "special" attitude towards himself.

continuous observation is used in cases where a specific pedagogical process needs to be studied from beginning to end in its development.

Discrete (intermittent) observation is used when the pedagogical process is very long.

monographicobservation encompasses many interrelated phenomena.highly specializedobservation when a small task is singled out from an integral object.

observation-searchis constructed in such a way as to capture a wide range of areas and find interesting facts in the pedagogical process. That is, when the researcher still does not know where to look. This type of observation requires a lot of time and a lot of analysis. work.

Standardizedobservation, by contrast, is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is being observed. It is carried out according to a certain pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens in the process of observation with the object or the observer himself. Standardized observation is best used when the researcher has an accurate and fairly complete list of features related to the phenomenon under study.

non-standardizedobservation most often occurs at the initial stage of the study. It should not be confused with naive observation, since there is a posing of the question, albeit a broad one.

selective observation is aimed at tracking individual parameters of the observed.

continuous observation, fixing any manifestations and changes in the object of observation in certain situations.

Each of these types of observation has its own characteristics and is used where it can give the most reliable results. However, the effectiveness of the observation method largely depends on compliance with the following pedagogical requirements:

• the success of the observation method in a particular pedagogical study is largely determined by the personality of the observer: his worldview, abilities, professionalism, sociability, responsiveness, modesty, unobtrusiveness and other qualities;
• observation should serve the strictly formulated really scientific tasks of research and not harm in any way those whom it observes;
• the researcher must continuously monitor his actions so that their influence on the observed situation and, consequently, its change is minimal;
• observation should not be subjective, the researcher is obliged to record all the facts, and not those that suit him;

Observation is usually carried out according to a predetermined plan with the allocation of specific objects of observation. The following can be distinguished stages preparation and conduct of pedagogical supervision:

1. Determine the purpose, tasks facing the observation (for what, for what purpose the observation is being carried out). The narrower and more precise the targets, the easier it is to record the results of observation and draw reliable conclusions. It is useless to carry out observation "in general" or observation "just in case" and then decide how and where to use the data obtained.
2. Define objects of observation. They can be separate subjects, as well as conditions, phenomena, situations.
3. Choose the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most provides the collection of the necessary information.
4. Develop a scheme (plan) of observation. Prepare documents, including forms of observation protocols, instructions to the observer and rules for using the necessary equipment. The plan details all the questions that require specific answers. A detailed questionnaire is drawn up in advance about what exactly interests him in this activity at each stage of observation. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the observed phenomena and processes are detailed. The form of the protocol should indicate: the date of observation, the object under study, the phenomenon or process, the purpose of observation, the content and nature of the observed actions.
5. Choose adequate ways to record the results: logging (verbal description, graphic recording, shorthand), recording on a voice recorder (speaking, commenting, full audio recording), photographing or video filming, using special equipment (dynamometer, sensors, stopwatch, etc.).

In the process of initial observations, one can use not only pre-compiled protocols, but expanded and more or less ordered diary entries. As these records are systematized, it is possible to develop a completely adequate to the objectives of the study and at the same time a more concise and strict form of protocol records.

The results of observations can be systematized in the form of individual (or group) characteristics. Such characteristics are detailed descriptions of the most significant features of the subject of research. Thus, the results of observations are simultaneously source material for further analysis.

1. Select methods for analyzing the results. The researcher must remember that it is not enough just to observe and fix this or that phenomenon or process, it is necessary to provide the possibility of subsequent analysis and synthesis. Therefore, it is not enough just to "photograph" reality, it is more significant to give a correct interpretation of the observed phenomena and facts, to reveal their causal relationship.

Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the process of experimentation. The results of observing the subjects in the course of their performance of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.

Like any method, observation has its positive and negative aspects.

The advantages of the observation method include:

• observation of the real pedagogical process taking place in dynamics;
• registration of events at the time of their occurrence;
• independence of the observer from the opinions of the subjects.
• the study of the subject in integrity, in natural functioning.

The disadvantages of observation are that this method does not allow:

• actively intervene in the process being studied, change it or deliberately create certain situations;
• observe simultaneously a large number of phenomena, persons;
• cover some hard-to-reach phenomena, processes, some aspects of the observed object (motives, state, mental activity);
• take accurate measurements;
• avoid the possibility of errors related to the identity of the observer.

I want to dwell on the personality of the observer in more detail, because the fundamental difficulty of objective observation is associated with the unambiguity of understanding, interpretation, and explanation of external factors. The results of observation are significantly affected by the level of experience and qualifications of the observer. The distortion of the perception of events is the greater, the stronger the observer seeks to confirm his hypothesis. Fatigue can also affect, the observer can adapt to the situation and stop noticing important changes, make mistakes in writing.

A.A. Ershov singles out the following typical errors of observation.

Correlation error. The assessment of one trait of behavior is given on the basis of another observed trait (intelligence is assessed by fluency).

condescension effect. The tendency to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.

contrast error. The tendency of the observer to distinguish features in the observed that are opposite to their own.

First impression mistake. The first impression of an individual determines the perception and evaluation of his future behavior.

There are various errors in the assessment of the observed facts associated with various known effects.

The Pygmalion effect lies in the fact that when putting forward an initial hypothesis, the researcher involuntarily seeks to interpret the observed facts in its favor.

The halo effect leads to an unjustified generalization of the specific impressions of the researcher and the transfer of assessments from one situation to another.

Gallo effect. The generalized impression of the observer leads to a rough perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences.

Thus, due to its advantages and despite its disadvantages, observation is an indispensable method in the study of groups, group relationships, interpersonal relationships, communication of children, etc., if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without outside interference in a situation where you need to get a complete picture what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety. This method cannot be replaced by any other, because. it is observation that makes it possible to capture much of what is practically inaccessible to instruments, indescribable with the help of exact mathematical formulas, when the researcher wants directly, and not from the words of other persons, to obtain information about sensations, emotional experiences, images, ideas, thoughts that accompany one or other behavioral act.

How do we know the world? The answer is very simple - contemplating. Observation is the basis of cognition of reality and the beginning of any purposeful process. It arouses interest, and that, in turn, motivates to actions that form the result.

Observation - a method of getting to know the world

We use the observation method in Everyday life without even thinking about it. When we look out the window to see what the weather is like, we are waiting for our minibus at the bus stop, we visit the zoo or the cinema, and even just take a walk - we are watching. This ability is a huge gift, without which it is difficult to imagine the everyday life of a person.

Every profession requires this skill. The seller needs to learn how to determine the preferences of buyers, the doctor - the symptoms of the disease, the teacher - the level of knowledge of students. Cook's job requires constant monitoring of the cooking process. As you can see, all of us, without even thinking, use the method of observation every day.

When do we learn to observe?

The way a child perceives the world is different from the perception of an adult. To see something new is a surprise for the child, causing a desire for further research. Observation in childhood develops the curiosity of the baby and thus forms his perception of the surrounding reality.

Teaching a child to observe is the task of an adult. In kindergartens, classes are held specifically for this purpose, where children learn to actively perceive nature. “Looking” and “seeing” are somewhat different concepts. The child should not just mindlessly contemplate, but learn to understand what he actually sees, compare, contrast. Such skills come gradually. Children's observations are the basis for the formation of correct ideas about the world around them. They form the basis of human logical thinking.

General concept of the term "observation"

The concept under consideration is very multifaceted and versatile. We are accustomed to understand by observation a purposeful, specially organized method of actively perceiving a process that is used to collect data. What kind of information this will be depends on the object of observation, the conditions for conducting it and on the goals that must be achieved.

Everyday, non-targeted observations of everyday processes give us knowledge, experience and help us decide on the implementation of certain actions. Deliberately organized observation is a source of accurate data that determines the characteristic research subject. For this, certain conditions must be created - a laboratory environment or a natural social environment necessary for analysis.

scientific observation

Within one or another science method observations may acquire specific content, but the basic principles remain unchanged:

• The first is the principle of non-interference in the subject or process being studied. To obtain objective results, do not disturb the natural course of the studied action.
• The second is the principle of direct perception. Observe what is happening at the current moment in time.

Psychology is a science that could not exist without this method. Along with the experiment, observation provides the necessary data for any conclusion of psychologists. Sociology is another branch that makes extensive use of this method. Every sociological study is wholly or partly based on the results of observations. It is worth noting that almost all economic research begins with statistical observations. In the exact sciences (chemistry, physics), along with empirical measurement methods that provide accurate information (weight, speed, temperature), the method of observation is necessarily used. Philosophical research is also difficult to imagine without this method. But in this science the concept is given a looser definition. Philosophical observation is, first of all, conscious contemplation, as a result of which certain problems of being can be solved.

Observation as a method of collecting statistical information

Statistical observation is an organized, systematic collection of the necessary data characterizing socio-economic processes and phenomena. Any such research begins with the accumulation of information and is a purposeful monitoring of objects and fixing the facts of interest.

Statistical observation is different from simple theme that the data obtained in the course of its implementation must be recorded. In the future, they will affect the results of research. That is why so much attention is paid to the organization and conduct of statistical observations.

Purpose and objects of statistical observation

From the definition of this concept, it becomes clear that its purpose is to collect information. What kind of information this will be depends on the form of observation and its objects. So who or what are extras most likely to follow?

The object of observation is a certain set (set) of socio-economic phenomena or processes. The key here is that there should be a lot of them. Each unit is studied separately in order to average the obtained data and draw certain conclusions.

How is statistical observation organized?

Each observation begins with the definition of goals and objectives. Further, the time period for its implementation is clearly limited. Sometimes, instead of a time frame, a critical moment is determined - when the amount of information sufficient to conduct the study is collected. Its occurrence provides an opportunity to stop collecting data. Reconciliation points are fixed - the moments when the planned performance indicators are reconciled with the actual ones.

An important stage of preparation is the definition of the object of observation (a set of interrelated units). Each unit has a list of features that are subject to observation. It is necessary to determine only the most significant of them, which essentially characterize the phenomenon under study.

At the end of the preparation for observation, an instruction is drawn up. All subsequent actions of the performers must clearly comply with it.

Classification of types of statistical observation

Depending on the conditions, it is customary to distinguish different types statistical observation. The degree of coverage of units of the studied population makes it possible to distinguish two types:

• Continuous (complete) observation - each unit of the studied set is subject to analysis.
• Sampling - only a certain part of the population is studied.

Naturally, the full implementation of such a study requires a lot of time, labor and material resources, but its results will be more reliable.

Depending on the time of registration of facts statistical observation may be:

• Continuous - fixing events in the current time. Pauses in observation are not allowed. Example: registration of marriages, births, deaths by registry offices.
• Discontinuous - events are fixed periodically at certain moments. This may be a population census, an inventory at an enterprise.

Saving observation results

An important point in the observation is the correct fixation of the results. In order for the information that is received to be efficiently processed and used in further research, it must be properly stored.

For this, registers, forms, and an observation diary are created. Often the procedure statistical studies, if it involves a large number of units under study, it also requires several observers. Each of them records the received data in forms (cards), which are later summarized, and the information is transferred to the general register.

In self-organized studies, the results are often saved in an observation diary - a specially designed journal or notebook. We all remember from school how we made graphs of weather changes and recorded data in such a diary.

Is the method of observation necessary in sociology?

Sociology is a science for which observation as a research method as important as for statistics or psychology. The overwhelming majority of sociological experiments are based on this method. Here, as in the case of statistics, observation is the source of data for further work.

The object of sociological observations is a group of individuals, each of which for some time becomes a unit under study. It is more difficult to study the actions of people than, for example, the course of natural processes. Their behavior can be influenced by the presence of other objects (if the observation is carried out in a group), as well as the presence of the researcher himself. This is one of the disadvantages of this method. The second drawback of observation in sociology is subjectivism. The researcher may, unwittingly, intervene in the process being studied.

In sociology (as in psychology), this method provides descriptive information to characterize the characteristics of the unit or group being studied.

In order for sociological observation to be successful and productive, it is necessary to adhere to the plan:

• Determine the goals and objectives of the upcoming study.
• Identify the object and subject of observation.
• Choose the most efficient way to do it.
• Select a method for recording received information.
• Provide control at all stages of observation.
• Organize high-quality processing and interpretation of the information received.

What are the types of observation in sociology?

Depending on the place and role of the observer in the group under study, there are:

Depending on the authority, monitoring can be:

• Controlled - it is possible to organize the process under study.
• Uncontrolled - any interference with observation is excluded, all facts are recorded in their natural manifestations.

Depending on the conditions of the organization:

• Laboratory - observation, for which certain conditions are artificially created.
• Field - is carried out directly at the place of manifestation of the social process and at the time of its occurrence.

What is self-observation? This is a very interesting and specific type of research, when the object under study itself must, as objectively as possible, trace the features of its own behavior necessary for the study and provide a report. This method has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that only the person himself has the opportunity to assess his own psychological processes and actions as deeply and reliably as possible. The minus is the present subjectivism of the method, which cannot be got rid of or at least minimized.

Using the Method of Observing Children in Educational Research

When it comes to studying child psychology, observation is practically the only possible way. The child is a very specific object of study. Young children are not capable of being participants in psychological experiments; they cannot verbally describe their emotions, actions, deeds.

Many pedagogical methods are based on data accumulated in the process of observation of infants and children of early preschool age:

• Tables of early development by Arnold Gesell, compiled by direct observation of the reaction of children to external factors.
• E. L. Frucht compiled a methodology for the psychophysical development of infants. It is based on the observation of a child up to ten months of age.
• J. Lashley used this method for many studies. His most famous works are Development Cards and Methods for Observing Difficult Behavior.

Observation and observation. What is the use of such a personality trait?

Observation is a psychological property based on the possibilities of sensory perception, individual for each person. In simple words is the ability to observe. The important thing here is whether a person is able to notice details in the process of contemplation. As it turned out, not everyone has this skill developed at a sufficient level.

Observation is a quality that is useful both in everyday life and in professional activities. There are many psychological studies that focus on the development of mindfulness. Practice shows that learning to observe is easy, you only need your desire and a little effort, but the result is worth it. For observant people, the world is always more interesting and colorful.