Professional vocabulary: education and use. Vocabulary professional and terminological

Bibliographic description:

Nesterova I.A. Professional vocabulary [Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia site

Professional vocabulary has features that allow people of the same profession to communicate freely. However, professionalism is not necessarily terms. There are certain differences between terms and professional vocabulary. This will be mentioned in our article.

The concept and features of professional vocabulary

Words related to professional vocabulary are called professionalisms. Galperin interpreted professionalisms as "... words associated with the production activities of people united by one profession or occupation" . In his opinion, professionalism is correlated with terms. The latter appear to define newly emerging concepts as a result of scientific discoveries and technological progress. Professionalisms in a new way designate already known concepts, usually objects and processes of labor (activity). Professionalisms differ from terms in that terms are a specialized part of literary and book vocabulary, and professionalisms are a specialized part of non-literary colloquial vocabulary. Semantic structure professionalism is obscured by a figurative representation in which the distinguished features can be very random and arbitrary. At the heart of the emergence of professionalism lies semantic specialization - the narrowing of the meaning of the word.

In the field of professional vocabulary, the terms of computer science and computer technology currently occupy a special place due to the intensive computerization of various fields of activity: virtual reality, laser printer, computer virus, multimedia, file, modem, scanner, etc.

The rapid expansion of the field of application of computer technology leads to the involvement of these and other terms in the active vocabulary. You can clarify their meanings in special dictionaries.

The researchers note that in the modern Russian language “a huge number of new legal terms have appeared that are largely unfamiliar to the general population, and at the same time, legal terms, like no other, require a clear knowledge of the established federal laws their meanings". For example: forced migrants, state duty payer, society with limited liability, dealer activity. You can also get acquainted with the terms of a legal nature by referring also to dictionaries.

Speaking about the norms of word usage, one should keep in mind such a process as the transformation of the meanings of words, in particular, the termination of commonly used words.

IN AND. Maksimov gives the following example:

The menu meant “a selection of foods, as well as a leaflet with their list”, and in modern computer technology they began to call it “a list of modes, commands and response options shown on the display screen for user selection”<...>. And in no case should you mix the common meaning of the word and the terminated, professional one.

The communicative process may be hindered by the use of borrowed words if the speaker and/or listener do not know or know their semantics inaccurately. For example: auditor, broker, make-up artist, croupier, logistics specialist, marketer, maitre d' (names of professions).

Borrowed words: benefit or harm? The debate about the benefits and harms of borrowed words has not subsided for many decades. On the one hand, the speeches of linguists against the use of foreign words unnecessarily evoke a lively response and sympathy from most people. On the other hand, the appearance of new words is caused by the emergence of new life realities that did not exist before and for which there is no language analogue in Russian (see the same job titles: logistics, marketing, office manager; or: mixer, toaster, mobile (cellular ) telephone, fax, pager).

The attitude towards borrowed words is not only a linguistic, but also a social problem that requires a thoughtful and cautious approach.

Norms of word usage are associated with both semantically and stylistically accurate word choice. Here one should take into account the fact that under the influence of the rapid changes in public life, which were mentioned above, many actively used names changed their stylistic coloring and, consequently, the scope of use. So, the words business, businessman, which had in the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" S.I. Ozhegov litter "colloquial", in the 90s of the XX century. entered the active dictionary and became neutral, i.e. their use is now possible in different styles of speech.

Along with the actualization of part of the obsolete vocabulary, which has returned to the active vocabulary (gymnasium, lyceum, banker, governor, governess, cadets, liberal democrats), a part of the vocabulary is being deactualized in the vocabulary of the Russian language. The reason for the deactualization of entire lexical groups was the dismantling of the existing political and economic systems. The words and phrases five-year plan, collective farmer, leader, pioneer, Komsomol member, shock worker of communist labor, winner of socialist competition, etc., have lost their relevance.

Compatibility of words: win or lose? A particular difficulty from the point of view of word usage is the compatibility of words. The possibilities of combining words with each other are very different. The service parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions) have the greatest ability to enter into combinations with other words. Significant parts of speech can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically not limited within their subject-logical connections: a specific noun (person, house, book), verbs (live, know, go), especially auxiliary verbs (be, become, start), evaluative adjective (good , big). Other words have limited compatibility (possess, ticklish, blue). These words require special attention from the point of view of the lexical norm.

Restrictions in the compatibility of words can be semantic: there should be no contradictions in the connected concepts (expressions such as a huge house, a square circle, blooming January cannot be used).

Combining some words into phrases becomes impossible due to their grammatical nature (fast - sad, five - laugh). And, finally, limitations in compatibility can be caused by lexical features of words (it is customary to say win, not accepted - to defeat; accepted - laughter, evil, fear takes, not accepted - joy takes).

Errors in the combination of words are often made in the essays of schoolchildren and applicants, in the oral answers of students in exams. For instance:

“A child is born with a blank slate in his head, and something correct needs to be written on it”; “His character is not Nordic, but frail, and maybe even queer, but he hides it intently”; “A comprehensive education program consists of pieces of different subjects and labor, which is also studied as a subject.”

Avoiding such mistakes will help to refer to special dictionaries, which provide typical examples of the compatibility of certain words with others, for example, to the "Dictionary of the compatibility of words in the Russian language" / Ed. P.N. Denisova and V.V. Morkovkin.

As JI.B. correctly pointed out. Shcherba, conscious grouping of words is characteristic mainly of written speech. However, compliance with the literary norms of word compatibility is a necessary requirement for oral word usage.

Norms of word compatibility cannot be too strict and set once and for all.

In the language, there is a continuous process of redistribution of links between words, caused by both extralinguistic and intralinguistic reasons. Much of what was generally accepted in the language earlier becomes obsolete and becomes unusual for the present. For example: the instigator of the story (now the meaning of the word "instigator" is narrowing), a hotbed of education, to promote processes, to come from the Komsomol. At the same time, many new phrases appear and become legitimized by speech practice: a complex of problems, a last minute trip, a computer virus, cellular communications, a helpline, a luxury train.

So, the correctness of word usage consists of the sum of signs. As the main K.S. Gorbachevich names the prevalence and regular reproducibility of the given meaning of the word, its correspondence to the general psycholinguistic mechanism of semantic development, consonance with traditional and cultural-historical factors.

9.1. Morphological norms

Morphological norms are the rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech. The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variant forms (as a rule, endings and suffixes).

The characteristic prerequisites for variation in morphology are the mixing and interaction of old types of declension, conjugation, and other methods of forming grammatical forms inherited from the past linguistic state; in some cases, the influence of territorial dialects; for foreign words - features of the source language or intermediary language. Especially stable are those fluctuations in morphological norms that are predetermined by the influence of several factors. Morphological variation extends to a very significant number of words.

Let us dwell only on those variants of morphological forms of parts of speech that most often raise questions in everyday word usage.

Variant forms of the noun

Forms of the genus

The genus category is historically quite stable. Only some nouns in the process of language development changed their grammatical gender: hall, sanatorium, dahlia (zh.r., obsolete) - hall, sanatorium, dahlia (m.r., modern).

1. In a number of cases, parallel forms of male and female. These forms may differ semantically and both belong to the literary language, i.e. be normative: fever (fever) - heat (heat); quarry (place of open mining); career 2 - (accelerated horse, gallop) - career (achieving a prominent position in society).

Generic variants may differ stylistically, for example: metamorphosis (complete, complete change) - metamorphosis (special) (modification into another form of development with the acquisition of a new appearance and functions. Metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly). Both options are also within the norms of the literary language.

different forms genera may have different uses. Then the variant of the non-literary sphere of use will be non-normative. For example: apple (cf., lit.) - apples (m.r., dial.); shoe (zh.r., lit.) - shoes (m.r., vernacular).

2. Names of persons by profession, position, scientist or military rank etc. retain the masculine form in those cases when they refer to a woman (associate professor, professor, doctor, accountant, captain, supply manager), since for a long time only men were the bearers of these professions and titles. To indicate gender in these cases, the semantic agreement of the verb-predicate in the past tense is used (The doctor finished the appointment. The captain reported on the completion of the task. The assistant professor took the exam). Non-normative is the use of feminine nouns with suffixes -ih(a), -sh(a) (librarian, rector, doctor). This is a vernacular distortion of the norm. For the official name of the profession, occupation of women (for example, in the questionnaire), masculine nouns are preferable (laboratory assistant, entrepreneur, inspector).

If a certain profession, position, specialty is equally associated with male and female labor, parallel formations are easily formed: a nurse - a nurse, a teacher - a teacher, a conductor - a conductor.

Often, words denoting representatives of a particular profession do not have a generic correspondence due to semantic dissimilarity, for example: machinist (mechanic who controls the machine) - typist (woman working on typewriter); soldier (serviceman) - soldier (soldier's wife) or the occurrence of unwanted homonymy, for example: pilot (pilot) - cap (uniform headdress); stoker (stoker at a steam boiler) - a stoker (a room where the furnaces of steam boilers are located).

3. The genus of compound words (abbreviations) composed by combining initial letters or sounds is determined by the genus of the main word. For example: UN - United Nations (zh.r., since the main word - organization - f.r.); Ministry of Emergency Situations - Ministry of emergencies(cf., since the main word is Ministry - cf.); Moscow State University - Moscow State University (m.r., since the main word is university - m.r.).

4. Of particular difficulty is the definition of the gender of indeclinable foreign nouns. It is customary to refer to the masculine gender indeclinable animate nouns: attache, entertainer, pony, chimpanzee.

Contextual usage may reveal the real ancestry: the Kangaroo galloped on. - The kangaroo was carrying a cub in a bag.

Inanimate indeclinable nouns should be assigned to the neuter gender: cafe, metro, car, photo, etc. But not all indeclinable nouns are subject to such a division. Thus, the word coffee is masculine, avenue (street) is feminine, and salami (sausage) is feminine. The word blinds (curtains) is mainly used as a noun plural.

5. Indeclinable foreign nouns denoting males are masculine, females are feminine. For example: military attaché, old frau. The nouns denoting both (such as croupier, incognito, protégé) are two-gender: my protégé is my protégé.

6. The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the generic name: the city of Sochi (m.r.), the Missouri River (f.r.).

Number forms

1. Singular nouns can be used in a collective sense, i.e. acquire the meaning of plurality: "The wolf is not found in our forests"; The reader asks...

2. Plural nouns can be used in the meaning of the singular. This is usually accompanied by expression and is characteristic of colloquial speech. For example: “What do they teach you only in institutes!”; “He walks around here in dressing gowns with dragons!”

3. Real nouns have only the form of one number - singular (copper, mercury, milk) or plural (sawdust, cream, canned food).

But in a special sense, real nouns can take on the plural form: sand - sands, clay - clays.

4. Abstract (abstract) nouns are usually used in the singular (opportunism, courage, whiteness), less often in the plural (re-elections, chores, vacations). Sometimes abstract nouns can take the forms of both numbers. In this case, their meaning is usually specified: speed - high speeds; beauty is the beauty of nature.

Variant case endings

1. Traditional variants of case endings of nouns are associated with inanimate masculine nouns:

(a) in the genitive singular, the endings -а(-я) and -у(-ю) are possible: a cup of tea - the aroma of tea, a piece of cheese - the production of cheese. Forms with endings -y, -yu are colloquial;

(b) in the prepositional case, variants -е - -у are possible: in the forest - about the forest. In this case, -y indicates the place of action, -e - the object. Both options are standard. On vacation - on vacation, in the workshop - in the workshop - in such cases, -e is neutral, -y is colloquial.

(c) some inanimate masculine nouns in the prepositional singular with the prepositions в and на with a spatial meaning must always have the stressed endings -у(-ю): corner, closet, shore, bridge, garden. For example: in Crimea (not in Crimea), in a row (not in a row).

2. In the nominative plural, along with the traditional endings -ы, -и, the endings -а, -я have become widespread. For a number of words, they have already become the main ones: directors, professors, poplars, bells, passports.

In case of hesitation in the choice of these endings, it should be remembered that -a, -ya are more characteristic of everyday and professional speech: years - years, tractors - tractors, stacks - stacks, anchors - anchors.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that some variant forms differ in meaning, i.e. are homonyms in the singular form: images (icons) - images (artistic and literary); passes (documents) - passes (absenteeism or oversights); colors (coloration) - flowers (plants); tones (color overflows) - tones (sound).

3. Genitive plural with endings -ov, -ev,

Hey, zero is a constant stumbling block for all language learners. The endings -ov and zero compete most actively in speech, less often -ey and zero.

Null endings usually have nouns:

(a) with a collective meaning, used when designating groups: soldiers, partisans, hussars (but: tankers, colonels, etc.);

(b) words denoting paired objects: eyes, lips, shoulder straps, boots, felt boots, boots (but socks);

(c) names of some nationalities: Bulgarians, Turks, Armenians, Georgians (but: Tajiks, Kirghiz);

(d) words denoting units of measurement: watt, ampere, roentgen, volt.

When naming vegetables and fruits, the ending -ov is preserved, which has practically disappeared from oral speech, but nevertheless is normative: bananas, apricots, oranges, tomatoes.

In the case of oscillations of forms with a zero ending and -ov, the former are characteristic of colloquial speech, the latter - strictly literary language.

4. In recent years, variants of declinable and indeclinable nouns have appeared - geographical names: Golitsyno, Serovo, Pushkino, Odintsovo. Traditionally, all Russian words should be declined, but toponyms with the ending -o in the initial form are increasingly being used, which does not change when the case form changes: Monino station, live in Monino, come from Monino, stop near Monino. This trend reflects the influence of book styles: "in the beginning, indeclinable forms were used by geographers and the military, for whom it was important to give names in the original, nominative form, so as not to confuse words without endings: the city of Kirov - Kirovo ...".

5. Abbreviations are also divided into inflected and indeclinable. For example: university, registry office, Youth Theater, Zhek, Moscow Art Theater - decline, CIS, traffic police, LLC, VAT - do not decline.

Experts have established the following pattern: at the time of the appearance and mastery of the language, abbreviations, as a rule, do not change in cases. But over time, many abbreviations become like ordinary nouns and begin to decline. For example: at BAM, at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

_______________________________________________________________________

Variant forms of the adjective

______________________________________________________________________

Short forms

Short forms can have truncated and non-truncated variants: responsible or responsible, effective or effective.

1. Adjectives in -stvenny should have both varieties of the short form: mysterious - mysterious, mediocre - mediocre. But recently, in words of this type, a truncated version has become preferable: ignorant, hereditary, immoral, insensible, characteristic, natural, correspondingly, majestic, identical.

2. Adjectives in -enny allow truncated and non-truncated variants; they are both literary, but the untruncated form is more common book speech. For colloquial speech, striving to save speech efforts, truncated options are characteristic: groundless, blissful, meaningless, ambiguous, frivolous.

Degrees of comparison

1. When forming a simple comparative degree suffixes -ee and -ee are used: faster - faster, more important - more important. Variants with -ee are considered colloquial.

2. The traditional speech error in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison is the combination of indicators of synthetic and analytical forms: louder, less quiet, the most beautiful, the highest. Such use of forms is recognized as colloquial.

3. Adjectives have a suppletive form of a synthetic comparative degree: good (better), bad (worse), small (less).

_______________________________________________________________________

Variant forms of pronouns

______________________________________________________________________

When using pronouns, there are no particular difficulties with the choice of variant forms. We only note the following:

1. Pronouns of the 3rd person he, she are not pronounced in relation to a person who is nearby: you should call him by name. This is the requirement of the culture of speech.

2. For 3rd person pronouns, after prepositions, -n is added to the stem: meet her - meet her; call him - remember him.

3. After the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, 3rd person pronouns are used without the initial -н: older than him, higher than her, more expensive than them.

4. Interrogative pronouns who? and what? do not have morphological categories of gender and number. With the pronoun who? the verb-predicate is used in the masculine gender, regardless of who is really meant: a man, a woman, several people. For example: Who came? Who called a taxi?

With the pronoun what? the verb-predicate is put in the neuter gender: What happened? What happened?

5. The pronouns you and your can be used as a form of polite address to one person. In this case, they are capitalized: How do you feel? Has your report been prepared?

_______________________________________________________________________

Variant forms of the numeral

1. The most common errors in the use of numerals are noted when declining compound cardinal numbers. Each part of the compound number should be changed, for example: about 286 - about two hundred eighty-six; from 1305 - with one thousand three hundred and five. The use of forms with a thousand, with a thousand in the instrumental case goes beyond the literary norms.

2. In complex numerals in -hundred, -sti, -hundred in oblique cases, both parts are inclined: four hundred, six hundred, seven hundred, despite the fact that the numeral one hundred (as well as forty and ninety) in all indirect cases, except for the accusative, have inflection - a. They have only two forms: Im.p. = V.p. forty, ninety, one hundred; the remaining cases are forty, ninety, one hundred.

3. When declining ordinal numbers, only the last digit changes: in two thousand and three.

4. Mistakes are not uncommon when using collective numbers (two, three, four, etc.) with nouns. These numerals do not combine with feminine nouns (one cannot say: five students, three students). Collective numerals are possible only in the following combinations: with masculine nouns with the meaning of persons (two young men, three schoolchildren), names of cubs (five kittens); with common nouns (three elders, four colleagues); with personal pronouns (“Only three of the eighteen guys left us ...”).

5. Numerals both - both have a mixture of masculine and feminine stems. Normatively, when declining a numeral, both stems end in -o (both friends), both - in -e (both friends).

6. Variants of case endings of numerals arise as a result of their inconsistent reflection of the category of animation. The words two, three, four, used with animate nouns, have an accusative form similar to the genitive, for example: to take three relatives to the station (cf.: to take three trains); meet one acquaintance (cf .: read one volume, one book, one poem).

_______________________________________________________________________

Variant forms of the verb

_____________________________________________________________________

1. With masculine nouns denoting female persons by profession (engineer, doctor, author, auditor), the past tense verb is put in the feminine gender: The school principal held a meeting. The engineer has completed the project.

2. Some verbs in -nut form variant forms - with a suffix -nu and a zero suffix: arise - arose and arose; disappear - disappeared and disappeared; accustomed - accustomed and accustomed. Recently, preference has been given to options with a zero suffix.

3. For verbs in -yva, -iva, when forming forms of an imperfect form, it is possible to alternate sounds [o] // [a] in the base: to condition - to condition and condition; empower - empower and empower. These examples are stylistically equivalent.

However, most of these options are contrasted as outdated and modern: challenge - challenge, honor - honor, reassure - reassure, etc.

4. There is a group of abundant verbs that form variant forms of the type: moves - moves, drips - caplets. Some of them do not have much stylistic differences, differing semantically and being equally normative: Science drives progress. The student moves the table.

In most of the abundant verbs, the forms in -at, -ut are neutral, in -ay - colloquial: waving - waving, whining - whimpering, tormenting - tormenting.

5. A number of unproductive verbs in -et: to recover, to become disgusted, to be disgusted - in colloquial speech they are used in the forms to recover, to be disgusted, etc., although their variants are more correct to recover, become disgusted, become disgusted.

6. Some verbs have features in the formation of face forms, in particular, the absence of the form of the 1st person singular. The reasons for this are either in the structure or in the semantics of the verb. From the point of view of the structure (the appearance of combinations of sounds incompatible for the Russian language), verbs with the basis on -d, -t, -z, -s do not form the forms of the 1st person: win, convince, kink, feel, rumble, vacuum, dare, rustle.

Semantic reasons that prevent the formation of forms of the 1st (and 2nd) person singular can be:

(a) the subjectivity of the action, i.e. we are talking about impersonal verbs: to evening, to dawn, to shiver, to be unwell;

(b) incompatibility with human action: rust, turn green, warm;

(c) compatibility of action: run together, crowd, scatter, accumulate.

Such verbs are called insufficient.

7. Verbs do not have an imperative mood:

drive (nearest imperative form - go), be able, want, see, hear, crave and etc.

8. Of the variants of the verb form - gerunds - with the suffixes -v and -lice, the second is considered obsolete: having taken - having taken, having decided - having decided.

9.6 Syntactic norms

Syntactic rules govern correct construction sentences and phrases.

Order of words in a sentence.

1. The correctness of speech is largely determined by the order of words in a sentence. In written speech, his positioning norms are often violated, which leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement: the sun covered the cloud; Decided to keep all dog owners on a leash.

2. The norm of the modern Russian literary language is the direct word order in the sentence: in the first place (in preposition) is either the subject or the predicate: The weather has improved. The sun shines. The stylistic application of these variants of syntactic constructions is different. Sentences with a prepositive subject are usually used in narration (Graduates are writing an essay), with a prepositive predicate - when describing a sentence (The long-awaited summer has come). Constructions with a predicate at the beginning of a sentence are also typical for interrogative and exclamatory sentences: Do you like theater? How does this color suit you?

3. For secondary members of the sentence, the following placement within the phrase is recommended: agreed words precede the core word, and controlled words follow it. For example: You gave your (agreeable word) fate (core word) to another (controlled word).

4. If in a sentence the agreed word is separated from the stem verb, then this is usually an inversion - a stylistic device consisting in a deliberate change in the order of words in order to emotionally, semantically highlight any part of the sentence. For example: Joyful athletes returned from competitions. Full of thought, I once walked along a forest road.

Normatively, the use of inversion is limited to artistic and journalistic speech.

5. In phrases of two nouns or a verb and a dependent noun, it is the dependent that is usually in the postposition: father's cottage, road to the house; read the story, solve the problem. In phrases with an adverb, it is in the preposition: very cheerful, very patient.

In colloquial speech, the construction of the named postpositional and prepositional constructions is often violated: grandmother's house; we plant seedlings; very humble.

In combinations of verbs with adverbs, the word order depends on the meaning of the statement, on where the logical stress falls. For example: The sky is overcast in autumn; He answered brilliantly.

6. When several homogeneous definitions are used in a sentence, the one that names the most important feature is placed closer to the word being defined. For example: A special convenient computer desk was needed for the computer.

Variants of connection between the subject and the predicate.

1. With masculine nouns naming a profession, position, rank, but denoting a woman, the predicate in book styles is put in the form of the masculine gender, in colloquial - in the feminine form (A lawyer should (should) help in resolving this issue).

2. Coordination with such nouns of definitions in the feminine gender is colloquial (our editor..., new doctor...).

3. When the subject is expressed by a combination of common nouns and proper nouns, the predicate is consistent with the latter (Inspector Petrova responded to a request from the Ministry).

4. Often there are difficulties in choosing the form of the predicate in the singular or plural, if the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination, including with the words "many", "several", "many", etc. Possible options: Several people did not work. - Several people did not work. The same is true for combinations with specific quantitative semantics: Five people sat (sat) by the fire.

The singular number of the predicate does not cause hesitation when designating time, space, measure of weight: A hundred years have passed ... There are two kilometers left to the highway; There were five kilograms of onions in the net.

Also, the predicate is used in the singular in the presence of the clarifying words “only”, “total”, “only”: Only eight vacationers signed up for the tour.

5. Similar difficulties in choosing the forms of the predicate appear with subjects, which include the nouns majority, minority, multitude. Despite the grammatical form of the singular, they can mean not one object or person, but many.

It is customary to focus on animation / inanimateness: if the subject is expressed animate noun, the predicate is usually put in the plural. Many people went to the rally. Cf .: A lot of subjects were studied at school.

6. Fluctuations in the form of the number of the predicate also occur with homogeneous subjects. Usually the predicate in such cases is put in the plural form: The athletes and the coach went to the airport. Variants (with the singular form) are allowed only in colloquial speech: Afanasyev's sister and brother walked with us.

7. With interrogative, negative and indefinite pronouns (such as who, someone, nobody, someone) as a subject, the predicate is put in the singular masculine form, even if we are talking about a woman or several persons: Which of those present handed over money for tickets to the theatre?

With a pronoun like what (nothing, something), the predicate in the past tense is put in the singular form of the middle gender, even if we are talking about many objects or the name of a certain gender (male or female): What happened? Something rustled in the distance.

Variation in the form of agreement: two new cassettes.

1. In combinations of nouns with numerals two, three, four, the form of definition depends on the gender of the noun: in the feminine it is the nominative plural, in the masculine and neuter it is the genitive. For example: two new cassettes - two new discs; three scientific expeditions - three unexplored lakes.

In colloquial speech, options are possible, but they are already considered non-normative: two new cassettes, two new discs.

2. In all other combinations of nouns with numerals (except two, three, four), the form of the definition depends on the word order: in the preposition, the definition is in any case used in the form of the nominative plural (the first five classes), in the postposition and interposition - in the form genitive plural ("The last six months devoted to preparations for the anniversary of the city"),

3. Applications usually agree with the noun to which they refer: “I went to both the Volga-mother and the Oka-nurse” (M. Gorky). Sometimes options appear: in the city of Kaluga, but in the city of Balakovo. Most variants are found in combinations of toponyms (place names) with generic names: city, town, village, river, lake. For example: to the village of Zheleznodorozhny - to the village of Zheleznyaki; in the village of Belaya - in the village of Tishkovo. Toponyms that have only the plural form (Mytishchi, Khvastovichi, Velikiye Luki), as well as toponyms in -o, which have recently shown a tendency to inflexibility (Fryazino, Voronovo, Balabanovo), do not agree with generic names.

The names of stations, ports, as a rule, are given in the initial form: The train arrives at the Kostroma station; Unloading will be carried out in the port of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

Street names are coordinated as applications: on Teatralnaya street, from Vorobyovka street. If street names are a frozen form of the genitive case or compound names, then they do not agree with the word being defined, but remain unchanged: Kirov Street (from the “name of Kirov”), about Pushkin Street, on Krasnye Vorota Street, to Simeonovo Settlement Street.

Management options: The house of the nephew of the doctor's brother's coachman's wife.

1. In the Russian language, a number of controlled structures are characterized by great stability, and the choice of the required form of control in such cases is not difficult. These are, for example, constructions expressing homogeneous relationships: worked at a factory - worked at a school (the case of the dependent word is the same, but the prepositions are different. The forms are not common: worked at a factory, worked at a school).

2. Some control constructions have shades of meaning that are fairly definitively distinguished by native speakers. For example: buy bread - buy bread. The genitive case indicates a part, the amount of something, and the accusative indicates that the action completely passes to the object. To fight with someone - to fight against someone. The instrumental case indicates the subject or object of the action, and it is the action that is emphasized. The genitive case signals an active clash of opposing social groups and opinions.

3. A number of control options have different stylistic affiliations: talk about the film (neutral) - talk about the film (colloquial); forget due to absent-mindedness (neutr.) - forget due to absent-mindedness (book).

4. Synonymous words (which are the main ones in management) often require different dependent case forms. For example: inform parents - notify parents; to be afraid of the boss - to be shy in front of the boss; admire talent - applaud talent. When using such combinations, associative errors arise (reproach the employee instead of reprimanding the employee; resent the price increase instead of resent the price increase or get angry at the price increase).

5. With two or more control words, a common dependent may be used. Such combinations are correct if the main words require the same case and preposition: read and retell the text, select and prepare frames. Such combinations are incorrect if the common dependent word requires different management: to show care and attention to the elderly (care - about whom? attention - to whom?). In such cases, it is recommended to add to the second controlled word a pronoun that replaces the noun at the first word: to take care of the elderly and pay attention to them.

6. The norms of the literary language do not welcome the so-called "stringing" of cases, i.e. the arrangement of a chain of several identical case forms. A classic example was given by the famous linguist A.M. Peshkovsky: The house of the doctor's brother's coachman's wife's nephew.

Most often there is a stringing of genitive cases: to solve the issue of accelerating the payment of pensions; less often - instrumental cases: the issue is discussed by the commission appointed by the directorate.

Sometimes it is enough to “break” the chain of cases to ensure the perception of the text, sometimes infinitive constructions or subordinate clauses should be used. For example: To resolve the issue of accelerating the payment of pensions...

7. It is recommended to avoid case forms with the same prepositions, for example: A conversation took place between groups of students about friendship between peoples. The following editing of the text is possible: Students of several groups had a conversation about friendship between peoples.

8. Native Russian speakers often find it difficult to use the construction miss... (for you? for you?). Linguists do not yet have a unanimous opinion about this management model.

I. B. Golub offers the following approach: “If in combination with nouns (we miss our son, we miss children) and with personal pronouns of the 3rd person (we miss him, we miss them), the preposition po controls the dative case, then in combination with personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, the same preposition is used with the prepositional case: miss you (not you), miss us (not us).

Professional (special) vocabulary is vocabulary used by groups of people who are professionally connected. In special vocabulary, two layers are distinguished: terminological and proper professional vocabulary.

The largest group of words in professional vocabulary are scientific and technical terms. They belong to the language of science and form within the term system.

M. I. Fomina points out that terminological vocabulary includes words used “for the logically precise definition of special concepts, establishing the content of concepts, their hallmarks» Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology. - M., 2001. - S. 216 .. This suggests that for the term the main is the definitive function, that is, the definition function.

The ideal requirements for terms are unambiguity, lack of synonyms, well-defined, predominantly motivated specialization, and absolute semantic accuracy. Today, the terms do not meet these requirements, the same term can be used in different sciences and with different meanings. For example, the term image used in philosophy (“a mental imprint of the surrounding world”), in linguistics (“something sensually perceived”), as well as in literary criticism, psychology and other sciences. The requirement for the absence of doublets is also violated: in linguistics, for example, the terms prefix and prefix, word, lexeme and lexical item.

The system of terms is replenished with commonly used vocabulary: nose(general) and bow of the ship, bird wing(general) and aircraft wing. However, today more often the terms themselves go beyond scientific works, penetrating into common vocabulary: reaction, start, radio, oxygen.

If the terms belong to written, bookish speech, then professionalisms belong to oral, colloquial speech and serve groups of people connected by one job. Professionalisms go beyond the literary language and, as a rule, are reduced in style.

Proper professional vocabulary includes words and expressions that are not strictly legalized and commonly used, but are used in certain areas of production. Unlike terms, professionalisms are used in oral speech as "semi-official" words that do not have a strict scientific character. Such words are often distinguished by special figurativeness and metaphor, as well as greater differentiation. For example, hunters have many names for foxes by color and breed: simple, red, forest, fire, red-brown, krestovka, black, karsun, smelly fox etc.

Some professional words are highly professional in nature and are used in the colloquial speech of people united by a certain occupation. Sometimes such words are defined as professional jargon. This vocabulary has a reduced expressive coloring and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers snitch- "self-recording device"; pilots nedomaz, remaz- “undershoot and overshoot of the landing mark”; printers widow- "a line not included in the text." The boundaries between semi-official professional words and professional jargons are very fuzzy, unstable and stand out only conditionally.

Separate professionalisms, often with a reduced sound, can become part of the commonly used vocabulary: issue to the mountain, turnover. V fiction actually professional vocabulary is used by the authors for a specific purpose - to create a character when describing the life of people associated with any kind of production.

In dictionaries, professionalisms are given with the mark “special”, sometimes the sphere of use of a particular word is indicated: physical, medical, hunting. etc.

In special vocabulary, words and expressions are distinguished, used by groups of persons united by the nature of their activity (by profession), in various fields production, techniques, which, however, did not become commonly used - the so-called professionalisms. Their status is quite complicated, because some experts: a) identify with the terms, b) refer to the units of craft vocabulary; c) to special non-nominative vocabulary (verbs, adverbs, adjectives); d) non-standardized special vocabulary, limited use in the oral speech of professionals in an informal setting, and often with emotionally expressive connotations. Unlike terms - official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function mainly in oral speech as "semi-official" words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms are used to denote various production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, technical professionalism: charge d "un atelier, calcul des tolérances, gestion de l" enterprise, escompte, par itération; theatrical: armoire a sons = piano de l "orchestre, baisser le torchon = baisser le rideau, un tunnel = longue tirade dans le texte, faire de la baraque = donner un mauvais spectacle, boire ta lasse = connaоtre l" insucci and complet; artists: croyte = peinture qui n "est pas au goyt du peintre, navet = peinture horrible, cro-queton = croquis.

For example, professionalism is used in the speech of printers: cul-de-lampe - a graphic decoration at the end of a book, moustache - an ending with a thickening in the middle. Professionalisms are characterized by significant differentiation in the designation of special concepts, tools and means of production, the names of objects, actions, and so on. For example, in meteorology, in accordance with the distinguishable types of snowflakes, there are several of their names: astérique- asterisk , aiguille- needle, hérisson- hedgehog, lame- plate.

Professionalisms are either created anew with the use of original or borrowed word-building means according to general language models, or (which is observed very often) are the result of a rethinking of general literary words. According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) proper lexical professionalisms that arise as new, special names. For example, in this way the names arose in the speech of carpenters and joiners various kinds planer : moulure- kalevka, enlive-carry- zenzubel and others;

2) lexico-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of the word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, the professional meanings of words in the speech of printers arose: sapins - Christmas trees or oreilles - paws - a kind of quotation marks; in the speech of hunters, professional names of animal tails are distinguished: in a wolf - byche, at the fox - tube, at the beaver - pelle, at the hare - fleur, faisceau etc.;
3) lexical and derivational professionalisms, which include words like a spare wheel - a spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - the main director, etc., in which either a suffix is ​​​​used, or a way of adding words, etc.

4) One of the ways to form professionalisms is compression: when a word is eliminated from a compound name that conveys its functional and semantic meaning to the remaining word, complicating its content. hallmark such names are brevity and semantic capacity (cf .: hydraulic brake drive system - hydraulique).

Professionalisms can be grouped according to the sphere of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. Technicisms are distinguished into a special group - highly specialized names used in the field of technology. They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, material. So, horse breeders distinguish horses by purpose: de trait- harness, de selle- riding, de bvt- pack, and the first in harness: limonier- root, de renfort- attached; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the planer planing tool has varieties: varlope- jointer, Rilard- sherhebel. In professional speech, logs and boards are distinguished by size, shape and are called: bois carry- beam, dose- croaker, etc.

Professionalisms often have expression, which brings them closer to jargon. So the drivers of buses, trucks, cars call the steering wheel a steering wheel, printers the sign accepted on the letter - quotation marks in their appearance are figuratively called Christmas trees (""), paws (""), the general headline in the newspaper is a hat.

A variety of professionalisms are professional jargons that are not capable of acquiring a normative character, and their conventionality is clearly felt by the speakers. It has a reduced expressive coloring and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device " cabard”- “sneaker”. Sometimes slang professionalisms pass into the national language, while remaining stylistically reduced; For example, avoir le trace"to be afraid" of theatrical jargon or barbouiller"smear" from the jargon of artists. Professional jargon words, as a rule, have neutral, non-colloquial synonyms that have an exact terminological meaning.

Professional vocabulary includes words containing semes of disapproval, neglect, contempt: tubercle - senior duty officer, pile on marriage, turning pale, etc., which bring them closer to jargon. Professionalisms bordering on jargon are used as an effective method of speech contrast. Such professional names are associated with the communicative process in labor activity. Imagery is a characteristic feature of professionalism in all areas of production. Uncodified professional vocabulary is outside the literary norm, therefore, like colloquial or slang words, it is usually quoted in the text. But now the norm has become freer, quotes are not always used to highlight professionalism.

V works of art, as well as in newspaper and magazine texts, professionalisms, as a rule, perform a nominative function, and also serve as a visual and expressive means. Separate professionalisms, often with a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: travail par saccades- assault. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic goal: as a characterological tool in describing the lives of people associated with any kind of production.

Covering the life of society, newspapers cannot but touch upon the scientific and vocational side. In materials of this orientation, vocabulary is used that constitutes the sublanguage of the national language, "its subsystem, which includes special words that are necessary only for this profession." Moreover, the more complex the purposeful activity of people, the more isolated from the common language is their special language, or sublanguage, so the use of special vocabulary in the texts of newspaper publications requires careful selection and a deliberate approach to it. The introduction of professionalism into the text as a modeling function is used not only in the speech characteristics of the characters, but also in the author's speech of the journalist. This technique allows you to show the author's involvement in the problem he writes about, his competence in this area. The text, which includes professionalism, becomes similar to oral speech. This allows the reader to feel like a participant in the events, to delve deeper into their essence. A professional name in a newspaper text is used to stylize the text, i.e. bring it as close as possible to the reality of that professional and industrial sphere of human activity that the author writes about, thus ensuring realism. Therefore, professionally oriented words are often found in interviews, where they create the speech characteristics of the characters. The unedited text should reflect the reality of live speech, and professionalism only emphasizes its situational nature.

Sphere of use of professional vocabulary

Professionalisms, in contrast to their commonly used equivalents, serve to distinguish between close concepts used in a certain type of human activity. Due to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for concise and accurate expression of thoughts in special texts intended for a trained reader. However, the informative value of narrow professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in large-circulation industry newspapers and is not justified in publications oriented to a wide readership.

As a product of practice, professionalism makes speech concrete and easily assimilated not only by ordinary representatives of a particular industry, but by a wide range of people in contact with this environment. It is preferred to a term that gives a scientific generalized, often with the use of foreign roots, the name of objects, phenomena, actions. Professional names allow you to quickly and easily get acquainted with the production, and the emotionality of professionalism makes this process interesting. These qualities of professionalism become necessary for journalists who seek to draw the attention of the mass reader to a certain professional area, to the problems in it.

Widespread in literary language narrowly professional words are usually not received, that is, the scope of their use remains limited. Most often, this is the colloquial speech of representatives of a particular profession, since professionalisms are semi-official names (and this is one of their differences from terms), fixed in the language of a particular profession. Sometimes they are sort of informal synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always marked “professional”.