At the same time, depending on the degree of severity, two variants of character accentuation are distinguished - explicit and hidden. Explicit accentuation is characterized by the constancy of accentuated character traits, while with hidden accentuation traits do not appear constantly, but under the influence of specific situations and factors.
It should be noted that, despite the severe degree of social maladjustment, character accentuation is a variant of its norm. Due to the fact that individual character traits are excessively enhanced, a person's vulnerability to certain psychogenic interactions is revealed. However, in clinical terms, this is not considered a pathology.
To understand what character is, and in what cases it is said about accentuation, it is important to know what components it is made of, what is the difference between character and temperament.
What is a character?
Translated from Greek, character means chasing, imprint. Modern psychology defines character as a set of peculiar mental properties that manifest themselves in a person in typical and standard conditions. In other words, character is an individual combination of certain personality traits that are manifested in his behavior, actions and attitude to reality.Unlike temperament, character is not inherited and is not an inborn property of a person. Also, it is not characterized by constancy and immutability. Personality is formed and developed under the influence environment, upbringing, life experience and many other external factors. Thus, the character of each person is determined both by his social being and by his individual experience. The consequence of this is an infinite number of characters.
However, despite the fact that each person is unique ( like his experience) in the life of people there is much in common. This underlies the division a large number people for certain types of personality ( according to Leonhard and so on).
What is the difference between character and temperament?
Very often such terms as temperament and character are used as synonyms, which is not true. Temperament is understood as a set of spiritual and mental qualities of a person that characterize his attitude to the surrounding reality. These are those individual characteristics individual, which determine the dynamics of his mental processes and behavior. In turn, dynamics is understood as the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of emotional processes, as well as the characteristics of human behavior - its mobility, activity, speed.Thus, temperament characterizes the dynamism of the individual, and the nature of her beliefs, views and interests. Also, a person's temperament is a genetically determined process, while character is a constantly changing structure.
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described four variants of temperament, which received the following names - sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic temperament. However, further studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans ( including those conducted by Pavlov), proved that the basis of temperament is a combination of certain nervous processes.
From a scientific point of view, temperament refers to the natural features of behavior that are typical for a given person.
The components that determine temperament are:
- General activity. It manifests itself at the level of mental activity and human behavior and is expressed in varying degrees of motivation and the desire to manifest oneself in a variety of activities. The expression of general activity is different for different people.
- Motor or motor activity. Reflects the state of the motor and speech motor apparatus. It manifests itself in the speed and intensity of movements, the pace of speech, as well as in its external mobility ( or, conversely, restraint).
- emotional activity. Expressed in the degree of perception ( sensitivity) to emotional influences, impulsiveness, emotional mobility.
What is a personality?
Personality is more complex concept than character or temperament. As a concept, it began to take shape in antiquity, and the ancient Greeks initially defined it as a “mask” worn by an actor in the ancient theater. Subsequently, the term began to be used to determine the real role of a person in public life.Today, a person is understood as a specific individual who is a representative of his society, nationality, class or team. Modern psychologists and sociologists in the definition of personality, first of all, distinguish its social essence. A man is born a man, but he becomes a person in the process of his social and labor activity. Some may remain infantile ( immature and unfulfilled) individuals throughout life. Biological factors, factors of the social environment, upbringing and many other aspects influence the formation and development of a personality.
Accentuation of character according to Lichko
Lichko's taxonomy is designed specifically for adolescence, and all types of accentuations are described as they appear at this age. It is intended for clinicians and covers psychopathy, that is, pathological deviations of character.In addition to the basic types, it contains a description of mixed and intermediate types, which are due to endogenous factors and developmental characteristics in early childhood.
Particular attention in systematics is paid to psychopathy - anomalies of character that determine the entire mental appearance of the individual. Throughout life, psychopathy does not undergo any drastic changes, thus making it difficult for a person to adapt to the environment.
The following types of accentuations according to Lichko are distinguished:
- hyperthymic type;
- cycloid type;
- labile type;
- astheno-neurotic type;
- sensitive type;
- psychasthenic type;
- schizoid type;
- epileptoid type;
- hysteroid type;
- unstable type;
- conformal type.
Hyperthymic type
This type is also present in the Leonhard classification, as well as in other psychiatrists ( for example, Schneider or Gannushkin). From childhood, hyperthymic adolescents are characterized by mobility, increased sociability and even talkativeness. At the same time, they are distinguished by excessive independence and a lack of a sense of distance in relation to adults. From the first years of life, kindergarten teachers complain about their restlessness and mischief.The first significant difficulties appear during adaptation at school. Good academic abilities, a lively mind and the ability to grasp everything on the fly are combined with restlessness, increased distractibility and indiscipline. This behavior affects their uneven learning - a hyperthymic child has both high and low grades in his diary. A distinctive feature of such children is always a good mood, which is harmoniously combined with good health and often blooming appearance.
The most painful and distinct in such adolescents is the reaction of emancipation. The constant struggle for independence gives rise to constant conflicts with parents, teachers, educators. Trying to escape from the care of the family, hyperthymic teenagers sometimes run away from home, although not for long. True escapes from home are rare for this personality type.
A serious danger for these teenagers is alcoholism. This is largely due to their irrepressible interest in everything and promiscuity in the choice of acquaintances. Contact with random passers-by and the use of alcoholic beverages is not a problem for them. They always rush to where life is in full swing, very quickly adopt manners, behavior, fashionable hobbies.
The family usually plays a decisive role in the accentuation of a hyperthymic personality. The factors that determine accentuation are hyperprotection, petty control, cruel dictatorship, as well as dysfunctional intra-family relationships.
Cycloid type
This personality type is widely used in psychiatric research. At the same time, in adolescence, two variants of cycloid accentuation are distinguished - typical and labile cycloid.Typical cycloids in childhood are not much different from their peers. However, already with the onset of puberty, they experience the first subdepressive phase. Teenagers become lethargic and irritable. They may complain of lethargy, lack of energy, and that learning is becoming increasingly difficult. Society begins to weigh them down, which is why teenagers begin to avoid the company of their peers. Very quickly they become lethargic homebodies - they sleep a lot, walk a little.
Teenagers react to any remarks or calls for socialization by their parents with irritation, sometimes rudeness and anger. However, serious failures in school or personal life can deepen the depression and cause violent reactions, often with suicidal attempts. Often at this moment they fall under the supervision of a psychiatrist. Similar phases in typical cycloids last two to three weeks.
In labile cycloids, unlike typical ones, the phases are much shorter - several good days are quickly replaced by several bad ones. Within one period ( single phase) short mood swings are fixed - from a bad disposition to causeless euphoria. Often these mood swings are triggered by minor news or events. But, unlike other personality types, there is no excessive emotional reaction.
Behavioral reactions in adolescents are moderate and delinquent ( runaways from home, acquaintance with drugs) is not characteristic of them. The risk of alcoholism and suicidal behavior is present only in the depressive phase.
labile type
This type is also called emotionally labile, reactively labile, and emotively labile. The main feature of this type is its extreme variability of mood.Early development of labile children occurs without any special changes, and they do not particularly stand out among their peers. However, children are more susceptible to infections and constitute a category of so-called "frequently ill children". They are characterized by frequent tonsillitis, chronic pneumonia and bronchitis, rheumatism, pyelonephritis.
Over time, mood swings begin to be noted. At the same time, the mood changes frequently and excessively abruptly, while the reasons for such changes are insignificant. It can be either the unfriendly look of a random interlocutor, or inopportunely gone rain. Almost any event can plunge a labile teenager into despondency. At the same time, interesting news or a new costume can cheer you up and distract you from the existing reality.
The labile type is characterized not only by frequent and abrupt changes, but also by their significant depth. Good mood affects all aspects of a teenager's life. It affects well-being, appetite, sleep and ability to work. Accordingly, the same environment can evoke different emotions - people seem either cute and interesting, or boring and boring.
Labile teenagers are extremely vulnerable to censure, reprimands and condemnations, deeply worrying inside themselves. Often, troubles or minor losses can lead to the development of reactive depressions. At the same time, any praise or sign of attention brings them sincere joy. Emancipation in the labile type occurs very moderately and manifests itself in the form of short flashes. As a rule, in families where they feel love and care, they feel good.
Astheno-neurotic type
For the personality of the astheno-neurotic type, signs of neuropathy are characteristic from early childhood. They are characterized by tearfulness, shyness, poor appetite and restless sleep with enuresis ( nighttime urinary incontinence).The main features of adolescents of this type of accentuation are increased irritability, fatigue and a tendency to hypochondria. Irritation is noted for an insignificant reason and sometimes pours out on people who accidentally fall under the hot hand. However, it is quickly replaced by remorse. Unlike other types, there is neither a pronounced force of affect, nor duration, nor violent fury. Fatigue, as a rule, manifests itself in mental activities, while physical activity is better tolerated. The tendency to hypochondria is manifested by careful care of one's health, the heart becomes a frequent source of hypochondriacal experiences.
Runaways from home, addiction to drugs and alcoholism are not typical for adolescents with this type. However, this does not exclude other adolescent behavioral responses. They are drawn to peers, but quickly get tired of them and look for rest or loneliness. Relationships with the opposite sex are usually limited to short bursts.
sensitive type
Children from early childhood are characterized by increased fearfulness and timidity. They are afraid of everything - darkness, heights, animals, noisy peers. They also do not like overly mobile and mischievous games, avoiding children's companies. This behavior gives the impression of being isolated from the outside world and makes the child suspect that the child has some kind of disorder ( often autistic). However, it is worth noting that with those to whom these children are accustomed, they are quite sociable. The sensitive type feels especially good among babies.They are extremely attached to close people, even if they treat them coldly and harshly. They stand out among other children by obedience, they are often known as a domestic and obedient child. However, there are difficulties at school, because it frightens them with a crowd of peers, fuss and fights. Despite this, they study diligently, although they are embarrassed to answer in front of the class and answer much less than what they know.
The pubertal period usually passes without special bursts and complications. The first significant difficulties in adaptation arise at the age of 18-19. In this period, the main characteristics of the type are maximally manifested - extreme impressionability and a sense of one's own insufficiency.
Sensitive adolescents retain their childhood attachment to the family, and therefore the reaction of emancipation is rather weakly expressed. Excessive reproaches and lectures from the outside cause tears and despair, and not the protest characteristic of adolescents.
Sensitive individuals grow up early, and they also develop a sense of duty and high moral requirements early. At the same time, these requirements are addressed both to oneself and to others. Adolescents most painfully express a sense of their own inferiority, which with age turns into a hypercompensation reaction. This is manifested by the fact that they are looking for self-affirmation not on the side of their abilities ( where they can open up the most), but where they feel their inferiority. Timid and shy teenagers apply a mask of swagger, trying to show their arrogance, energy and will. But very often, as soon as the situation requires them to act, they pass.
Another weak link of the sensitive type is the attitude of others around them. They are extremely sensitive to situations where they become the object of ridicule or suspicion, or when the slightest shadow falls on their reputation.
Psychasthenic type
Manifestations of the psychasthenic type can begin both in early childhood and are characterized by shyness and fearfulness, and in a later period, manifested by obsessive fears ( phobias), and later by obsessive actions ( compulsions). Phobias, they are fears, most often relate to strangers, new objects, darkness, insects.The critical period in the life of any psychasthenic is the primary school. It is during this period that the first requirements for a sense of responsibility appear. Such requirements contribute to the formation of psychasthenia.
The main features of the psychasthenic type are:
- indecision;
- propensity to reason;
- anxious suspiciousness;
- love for introspection;
- the formation of obsessions - obsessive fears and fears;
- the formation of compulsions - obsessive actions and rituals.
Specially invented signs and rituals become protection from this anxiety for the future. For example, when going to school, it is necessary to bypass all the hatches, in no case stepping on their covers. Do not touch the door handles before entering the school. With the next alarm for the mother, it is necessary to pronounce a spell invented by yourself. In parallel with obsession, a psychasthenic teenager has indecision. Any, even a minor choice ( going to the cinema or choosing a juice), can be the subject of long and painful hesitation. However, after the decision has been made, it must be immediately executed, since psychasthenics cannot wait, showing extreme impatience.
As with other types, overcompensation reactions can be noted here, in this case in relation to their indecision. Such a reaction is manifested in them by exaggerated decisiveness in those moments when prudence and caution are required. This, in turn, results in a tendency to introspection about the motives of their actions and actions.
Schizoid type
The most significant and painful feature of this type is isolation and isolation from the outside world. Schizoid manifestations of character are detected much earlier than with other types. From the very first years, the child prefers to play alone, does not reach out to peers, and avoids noisy fun. He is distinguished by coldness and unchildish restraint.Other characteristics of the schizoid type are:
- isolation;
- inability to establish contacts;
- reduced need for communication.
Some teenagers, after all, sometimes try to make acquaintances and make any contacts. However, most often this ends in failure and disappointment. As a result of failures, they often withdraw even more into themselves.
The coldness of schizoids is explained by their lack of intuition ( inability to penetrate other people's experiences) and lack of empathy ( inability to share the joy or sorrow of another). Based on this, the actions of a schizoid teenager can be cruel, and this is not due to the desire to hurt someone, but to the inability to feel the suffering of others. The reaction of emancipation also proceeds in a very peculiar way. In the family, schizoid children can endure guardianship, obey a certain routine and regimen. But, at the same time, they react violently to the intrusion into their world of interests and hobbies. Also in society, they are furiously indignant at the existing rules and regulations, expressing their protest with ridicule. Such judgments can be nurtured and implemented in public speeches for a long time.
Despite isolation and isolation, schizoid adolescents have hobbies that are usually brighter than others. In the first place there are intellectual and aesthetic hobbies ( hobby). Most often this is strictly selective reading. Adolescents may be interested in a certain era in history, it can be a strictly defined genre of literature or a certain trend in philosophy. Moreover, enthusiasm may not correlate in any way ( not be related) to their needs. For example, it may be a passion for Sanskrit or Hebrew. Moreover, it is never exposed otherwise it will be regarded as an invasion of privacy) and is often hidden.
In addition to intellectual hobbies, hobbies of the manual-bodily type are also noted. It can be gymnastics, swimming or yoga exercises. At the same time, training is combined with a complete lack of interest in collective sports games.
epileptoid type
Characteristics of the epileptoid personality type is a tendency to dysphoria - low mood with outbursts of anger.Other characteristics of the epileptoid type are:
- emotional explosiveness;
- constant tension;
- cognitive ( mental) viscosity;
- stiffness;
- inertia.
The first signs of psychopathy are found in early childhood. From an early age, such children are distinguished by gloomy anger. Their dysphoria is manifested by whims, the desire to deliberately harass others. Unfortunately, sadistic tendencies are already noted at an early age - such children love to torture animals, beat and tease the younger and weaker. And, they do it all on the sly. Also, such children are notable for the childish frugality of their clothes and toys, as well as petty accuracy in things. To any attempts to touch their things, they react with an extremely vicious reaction.
The full picture of epileptoid psychopathy unfolds during puberty, starting at 12-13 years of age. It is characterized mainly by pronounced affective ( emotional) discharges that are the result of prolonged and painful dysphoria. In such categories there is abuse, severe beatings, rage and cynicism. Often the reason for anger may be small and insignificant, but it always concerns the personal interests of a teenager. In a fit of rage, such a teenager is able to throw his fists at a stranger, hit a parent in the face, or push a toddler down the stairs.
Attraction to the opposite sex awakens with force, but is always colored by gloomy tones of jealousy. They never forgive betrayals, both real and imaginary, and flirting is interpreted as a serious betrayal.
The reaction of emancipation proceeds very painfully in epileptoid adolescents. The struggle for independence causes them extreme anger and vindictiveness. They do not so much demand freedom and deliverance from power, but rights - their share of property and material wealth. It is also extremely painful for this type of personality to have reactions of passion. Almost everyone is prone to gambling, collecting. Very often they are driven by an instinctive desire for enrichment. Hobbies include sports, music and singing.
Self-esteem is one-sided. Most adolescents of this type note their tendency to a gloomy mood and commitment to the rules, accuracy. However, they do not recognize their peculiarities in relationships with others.
hysteroid type
Characteristics of the hysteroid character are egocentrism, a thirst for constant attention to one's person and admiration. To people who show indifference, such individuals show hatred.Other characteristics of the hysterical personality type are:
- increased suggestibility;
- deceit;
- fantasizing;
- theatricality;
- propensity for drawing and posturing;
- lack of deep sincere feelings with a great expression of emotions.
To attract attention, children begin to manipulate, show various demonstrative reactions. Over time, suicidality becomes the main behavioral response. In this case, we are talking about a demonstration and suicidal blackmail, and not about serious attempts. Suicidal blackmail is characterized by safe methods - vein cuts are made on the forearm or shoulder, medicines are selected from a home medicine cabinet ( citramon, activated charcoal). Also, they are always designed for the viewer - attempts to jump out of the window or throw themselves under the wheels of the transport are made in front of those present. Such suicidality is always signaled - various farewell notes are written, secret confessions are made.
Teenagers may blame failed love for their attempts. However, upon careful examination of the circumstances, it turns out that this is only a romantic veil. The only reason for this behavior in the hysteroid type is wounded pride and lack of attention. A suicidal demonstration followed by fuss and an ambulance gives considerable satisfaction to the egocentrism of a hysterical teenager.
Another distinguishing characteristic is the "flight into the disease" of hysterical adolescents. Very often they portray mysterious illnesses, and sometimes even seek to get into a psychiatric hospital. Once in it, they thus gain a reputation for being unusual.
Hobbies, including alcoholism or drug use, are also demonstrative. Already in adulthood, hysteroid personalities retain the features of childish opposition, imitation, and infantilism. As a rule, the reaction of the opposition ( negativism) manifests itself in the loss of habitual attention and the loss of the role of an idol. A similar reaction manifests itself in the same way as in childhood - going into illness, suicidal behavior, attempts to get rid of the one to whom attention has switched. For example, if another family member appeared ( new baby, mother's new husband), then all attempts will be addressed in his direction.
At this point, teenagers begin to signal themselves with addiction to drinking or drugs, leaving and absenteeism, and sometimes even stealing. In this way, they seem to be saying to return their former attention to them, otherwise they will go astray.
The hobbies of this psychotype are always concentrated around their own egocentrism. They prefer ensembles, stage, theaters. Self-esteem in adolescents with this type of character is far from objectivity.
Unstable type
The main characteristic of this type is emotional lability and unstable behavior. In early childhood, such children are distinguished by disobedience and restlessness, but at the same time, unlike hyperthymics, they are very cowardly and easily obey other children. Starting from kindergarten, they hardly learn the elementary rules of behavior, and from the first grades of school, there is a lack of any desire to learn.They can complete tasks and not shirk only with very strict supervision. They have an increased craving for entertainment, idleness and total idleness. They run away from lessons just to walk down the street. In their choice, they are extremely unstable and try literally everything - they steal and start smoking, while still children. Growing up quickly, they lose interest in their former hobbies and are constantly looking for thrills and new sensations. The painful reaction of emancipation is also connected with this - adolescents seek to free themselves from guardianship in order to indulge in entertainment. They never have true love for relatives, including parents, and they treat their troubles and worries with indifference. Basically, they use their family ties as a source of material wealth. Alone, they feel bad, as they are unable to occupy themselves. As a result, they are constantly drawn to teenage groups of all kinds. However, cowardice and lack of initiative do not allow a labile teenager to take the place of a leader in them.
Teenage hobbies are mainly concentrated around gambling. Those disciplines that require hard work disgust them. They can only work when absolutely necessary, but soon everything is quickly abandoned. Any difficulty or threat of punishment for not doing the job elicits one behavioral response - to run away. Unstable teenagers do not make plans, do not dream of anything or any profession. They amaze with their complete indifference to the future.
One of the main features of unstable types is weak will. It is this feature that can keep them in a regulated regime for some time. They can only reconcile themselves if idleness threatens severe punishment, and there is nowhere to run. The weak point of the unstable is the lack of supervision. Self-assessment of adolescents is far from objectivity, often adolescents ascribe to themselves the desired traits.
Conformal type
The characteristics of this type of personality are the constant readiness to obey the voice of the majority, stereotyping and stereotyping, a tendency to conservatism. However, the main constant feature is their excessive conformity ( compliance) to their familiar environment. At the same time, pressure from the group can be both real and imaginary.Representatives of this accentuated type are people of their environment. Their main rule is to think like everyone else and act like everyone else. The desire to join the majority makes them imitators in everything - from clothing and home furnishings to worldview points. Even in childhood, this is especially noticeable in the choice of clothes, school supplies, hobbies. If something new appears in society ( e.g. style), then initially representatives of the conformal type vehemently reject everything. But as soon as a new trend flows into society, for example, they themselves dress in the same clothes or listen to the same music as everyone else.
Because of the desire to be in tune with their surroundings, conforming teenagers can't resist anything. Therefore, they are a copy of their microenvironment. In a good environment, they absorb all the good, in a bad environment, all the bad customs and habits. Quite often, such teenagers can drink too much for the company or can be involved in group offenses.
Their professional success is largely due to two qualities - the lack of initiative and criticism. They can work hard, as long as the work does not require constant personal initiative. Even highly stressful work is to their liking, if it is clearly regulated. They are also remarkably uncritical. Everything that their environment says becomes the truth for them. Adolescents are not inclined to change their group and choose what educational institution where most comrades go. Deprived of initiative, conformists often find themselves drawn into group offenses. Therefore, the most severe mental trauma for them is expulsion from the group. Emancipation is weakly expressed, and hobbies are determined by the environment of the teenager and the fashion of that time.
Intermediate types of accentuation
In addition to the types described above, Lichko's classification also distinguishes intermediate and amalgam types, which account for more than half of all cases of accentuations. They are combinations various types accentuations among themselves. At the same time, the features of some types are combined with each other quite often, while others - almost never.Intermediate types include the labile-cycloid and conformally hyperthymic types, as well as combinations of the labile type with the astheno-neurotic and sensitive types. The formation of intermediate types is due to the peculiarities of development in the early period, upbringing factors and, above all, genetic factors.
Intermediate accentuated types are:
- schizoid-sensitive;
- schizoid-psychasthenic;
- schizoid-epileptoid;
- hysteroid-epileptoid;
- labile-cycloid;
- conformally hyperthymic.
Options for amalgam types are:
- schizoid unstable;
- epileptoid-unstable;
- hysteroid-unstable;
- conformally unstable.
Classification of an accentuated character according to Leonhard
Leonhard distinguished twelve types of personality accentuations. Four types are directly related to character accentuation, six more relate to temperament accentuation, and two more to personality accentuation.The following variants of character accentuation according to Leonhard are distinguished:
- demonstrative;
- pedantic;
- stuck;
- excitable.
stuck type
This is a persistent and stubborn type of character that resists change and is characterized by increased conceit and selfishness, one-sided interests. People with the stuck type are characterized by a keen sense of injustice, as a result of which they are very distrustful and experience the same emotions for a long time. The basis of the stuck type of personality accentuation is the pathological persistence of affect ( emotions).Any injustice can cause a strong and violent reaction. However, emotions subside after the person "gave vent to feelings." Anger also subsides very quickly, especially when the offender can be punished. If the emotional explosion did not take place, the affect continues much more slowly. In cases where a stuck person could not respond either in word or deed, internal tension can drag on. At the same time, one has only to return the thought to what happened, as all emotions come to life, and a new explosion is brewing. Thus, the affect in such a person will last until the inner experiences completely disappear.
Such jams are most pronounced when the personal interests of the accentuated personality are affected. And the explosion becomes a response to wounded pride and hurt pride. In this case, the objective moral damage can be negligible. Since the insult to personal interests is never forgotten, stuck individuals are reputed to be vindictive and vengeful people. In addition, they are extremely sensitive, painfully touchy and easily vulnerable.
Equally, such psychotypes react to social injustice. Therefore, among them there are often fighters for civil justice and freedom.
Traits of stuckness also appear in case of failure of the individual, since ambition is very bright in such people. As a result, they show arrogance and arrogance.
Pedantic type
In persons of the pedantic type, the repression mechanisms operate very weakly. They are distinguished by adherence to a certain order, formed habits and resist any changes. They also attach great importance to the external side of the case and the little things, and also demand the same from others.Pedantic people are extremely slow to make decisions, they take all issues seriously, both work and household. In their discussions, pedants can bring others to white heat. Surrounding people perceive scrupulousness and pedantry as banal tediousness.
The main feature of this character is total rigidity, which determines the unwillingness to any changes. Also, due to weak displacement mechanisms ( or their complete absence.) traumatic events are experienced by pedants for a very long time. The inability to oust trauma from memory leads to the fact that pedants return to it again and again. All this leads to even greater indecision and inability to respond quickly. The pedantic type is non-conflict by nature, but reacts very strongly to violations of the established order.
Other qualities of a pedantic personality are:
- punctuality;
- conscientiousness;
- accuracy;
- focus on high quality;
- indecision.
excitable type
The excitable type of accentuated personality is characterized by increased impulsivity, poor control of drives and impulses, irascibility and stubbornness. In a state of emotional arousal, such people do not control themselves.The main characteristic is instinctiveness - the desire to satisfy their needs and desires at this very moment. Such excitability is very difficult to extinguish, which is why people of this psychotype are often quite irritable and intolerant of others. At the moment of excitement, they do not think about the consequences, give a weak assessment of what is happening, and deny any criticism.
Impulsivity of a pathological nature is noted in all spheres of life, including in inclinations. Such individuals eat and drink everything in a row, impulsive and illegible in sexual sphere. Most of them become chronic alcoholics. They do not think about the danger or about the consequences both for themselves and for family life. Among chronic alcoholics one can find many excitable personalities. Promiscuity in sexual relations leads to the fact that such people have many illegitimate children at an early age, both in women and men. Many of them may enter the path of prostitution.
The excitable type is in many ways similar to epileptic psychopathy. This is manifested in the heaviness of thinking, slowness of thought processes and the difficult perception of other people's thoughts. The state of constant emotional arousal provokes multiple conflicts. As a result, such people often do not take root in any team. This is also aggravated by the fact that some of them support their opinion not only with shouts and all kinds of demonstrations, but also with fists. Also, such people are characterized by destructive behavior - the destruction of objects, breaking glass, and the like.
Demonstrative type
This type of accentuated character is distinguished by a pronounced demonstrative behavior, deliberate artistry, as well as emotionality and mobility. Children of this type are distinguished by fantasy and a certain degree of deceit. Moreover, they lie not from evil, but in this way they only try to embellish themselves in the eyes of others.As they grow older, they continue to fantasize, using deception to get attention. This is explained by the fact that the spoken words seem to them at the moment the truth. Another character trait is connected with this - the ability to forget what a person does not want to remember.
The demonstrative type is characterized by a constant desire to be in the spotlight. To get attention, such people tend to adapt very quickly to a new environment. Thus, the demonstrative type is distinguished by mobility and, at the same time, inconstancy.
In view of their originality of thinking and actions, demonstrative people can carry others around with them. At the same time, they often focus on themselves, which can turn people off.
Other types of Leonhard accentuations are:
- Hyperthymic accentuation. These are very active people who are characterized by sociability and restlessness. In communication with them, gestures, active facial expressions and other non-verbal means of communication prevail.
- Disty accentuation. Unlike the previous type, these are serious people who are often depressed. They are characterized by silence, pessimism and low self-esteem. As a rule, these are homebodies.
- Anxious accentuation. This type is characterized by shyness, fearfulness and self-doubt. They are worried about various fears, they are painfully hard going through troubles. Also, from an early age, they are responsible, tactful, endowed with high moral qualities.
- exalted accentuation. Differs in sociability, exaltation and altruism. However, this does not prevent such individuals from quickly falling into depressive states.
- Emotive accentuation. This type is characterized by increased empathy - a heightened sense of interconnection and sympathy for other people.
- Cyclotypic accentuation. This type is distinguished by a combination of hyperthymic and dysthymic features, which appear alternately.
Psychopathies and character accentuations in adolescents
According to the Soviet psychiatrist Gannushkin ( one of the main researchers of psychopathy), psychopathy is called persistent anomalies of character that determine the entire mental appearance of the individual. These anomalies do not undergo changes during life and, at the same time, prevent the individual from adapting to the environment.
The diagnostic criteria for psychopathy are:
- totality;
- resistance;
- violation of social adaptation.
The above criteria also serve as diagnostic criteria for psychopathic syndrome in adolescents. Totality means that pathological character traits are manifested everywhere - in the family, at school, with peers, in study and leisure, in work and in entertainment. Stability reflects the immutability of these traits. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the stability of the pathological features of a teenager is relative. This is explained by the fact that each type of psychopathy has its own age of formation. For example, schizoid traits appear even in childhood, while an unstable type blooms during puberty ( puberty). There are also some patterns in the transformation of character types. With the onset of puberty, previously observed hyperthymic features may be replaced by cycloidism.
Despite the fact that the degree of character anomalies is difficult to quantify, psychologists and psychiatrists still distinguish degrees of accentuation. These degrees are based on certain indicators.
Indicators that affect the severity of psychopathy are:
- severity, duration and frequency of decompensations ( breakdowns), phases;
- the severity of social behavioral disorders;
- degree of social ( work, family) maladaptation;
- degree of self-esteem ( criticality of a psychopath to his own person).
Severe psychopathy
Characterized by the fact that compensatory ( protective) mechanisms are not developed, and if they are present, they are extremely weakly expressed. During the period of exacerbation, very severe psychoses, dysphoria, and depression are observed. Conduct violations tend to reach the level of criminal offenses and suicide. There is also a constant and significant social maladjustment, and even in children. Adolescents drop out of school early primary school, almost never work, except in forced labor conditions. In adults, a complete inability to maintain family and friendly relations is revealed.Pronounced degree of psychopathy
It is characterized by the fact that there are compensatory mechanisms, but they are unstable and short-lived. Reason for decompensation ( exacerbation) can serve as the most insignificant moments. Work or study is intermittent - sometimes it rushes, then it resumes again. Existing abilities always remain unrealized. Conflicts are constantly present in a family or work team, and relationships with people are characterized by pathological dependence. Criticality to own state ( self-esteem) is unstable.Moderate degree of psychopathy
It is characterized by pronounced compensatory mechanisms, as a result of which exacerbations are rarely recorded. Breakdowns are usually short-lived, and their intensity is proportional to the severity of the trauma. The period of decompensation is manifested by sharpening of pathological features or behavioral disorders, but does not reach the level of psychosis. Social adaptation is present, but reduced or limited. Despite the presence of pathological features, productive activity can be maintained. Moreover, sometimes outstanding results can be achieved in a wide variety of areas.Relations with close people are distinguished by disharmony, frequent conflicts and pathological attachment.
Psychopathic development and marginal psychopathy
It happens that in the formation of psychopathy, the decisive factor is the adverse effects of the environment. Such psychopathy is also called sociopathy or marginal psychopathy. Numerous studies in this area have shown that difficult adolescents account for no more than 55 percent of all nuclear ( true) psychopathy. The share of the rest accounts for psychopathic development.In diagnosing this anomaly of character, it is important not only to identify the main accentuated features, but also to state the harmful influence of the environment. Often this is wrong defective) upbringing.
The most common types of defective parenting that influence the formation of psychopathy are:
- Hypoprotection. This type of defective upbringing is characterized by a lack of care and control over behavior. At the same time, hypoprotection is not limited to meeting essential needs, that is, children do not go naked and hungry. Basically, this concerns the lack of attention, care and true interest of parents in the affairs of a teenager. Hypoprotection can also be hidden, when control over the behavior of a teenager seems to be carried out, but in fact it is only a formalism. This type of upbringing is especially dangerous when accentuated by unstable and conformal types. As a result, teenagers find themselves in asocial companies and quickly adopt a bad lifestyle. Also, the lack of care is very detrimental in hyperthymic, epileptoid and schizoid accentuation.
- Dominant overprotection. This type of defective parenting is characterized by overprotectiveness, petty control, and even surveillance. Such constant control grows into a whole system of permanent prohibitions. In turn, constant prohibitions and the inability to make at least minor decisions of their own confuse the teenager. Very often, children and adolescents create the following system of values - everything is impossible for him with adults, but everything is possible for his peers. This type of upbringing does not allow a teenager to analyze his own actions and learn independence. In addition, a sense of responsibility and duty is suppressed, the teenager ceases to be responsible for his own actions. Hyperprotection is most dangerous for hyperthymic adolescents, since it leads to a sharp increase in the emancipation reaction. Teenagers, or even children, rebel against oppression in the most aggressive ways.
- Emotional rejection. Characterized by emotional coldness, lack of care and affection. With this type of defective parenting, the child or adolescent constantly feels that he is burdened and that he is a burden in the life of his parents. Often such defective parenting takes place within the framework of hidden emotional rejection on the part of parents, when they do not recognize the true hardships with their son or daughter. Allegedly, common sense suppresses in them this rejection of children as unworthy. Sometimes such rejection turns into a reaction of hypercompensation in the form of emphasized care and exaggerated attention. However, such a false attitude is well felt by a child and especially a teenager. A schizoid teenager reacts to such insincerity by withdrawing into himself, erecting an even greater wall between himself and his family. The unstable type rushes to look for an outlet in the company of friends.
- terms of abusive relationships. This type of defective upbringing is manifested by open and severe reprisals for petty offenses. At the same time, very often the child is simply “teared off evil”. However, abusive relationships are not limited to a child or teenager. A similar heavy and harsh atmosphere dominates the entire environment. Very often, brutal reprisals are hidden from prying eyes, and the family looks “healthy” in appearance. Education in conditions of cruel relationships is very dangerous for the epileptoid and conformal types. In this case, there is a high risk of psychopathic development. However, mental indifference and beatings are reflected in an unhealthy way on other types of personalities. In such families, the highest risk of developing psychopathy.
Diagnosis of character accentuations and psychopathy
Various questionnaires and tests are used to diagnose accentuated personalities. The most universal and well-known is the MMPI test - the Minnesota multidimensional personality questionnaire. It contains 550 questions ( abbreviated version 71) and 11 scales, 3 of which are evaluative. They are called evaluative, as they measure the sincerity of the subject and the degree of reliability of the results. The remaining 9 scales are basic. These scales assess personality traits and determine its type.
The characteristics of the base scales in the MMPI test are as follows:
- first scale ( hypochondria scale) measures the features of the astheno-neurotic personality type;
- second scale ( depression scale) indicates a hypothymic personality type;
- third scale ( hysteria scale) designed to identify individuals prone to neurotic conversion reactions ( hysterical) type;
- fourth scale ( psychopathy scale) - diagnoses a sociopathic personality type;
- fifth scale- is not used to diagnose a personality type, but is used to determine male or female personality traits ( imposed by society);
- sixth scale ( paranoid scale) characterizes touchiness and diagnoses the paranoid type;
- seventh scale ( anxiety and psychosis) is intended for diagnosing an anxious and suspicious personality type;
- eighth scale ( schizophrenia and autism scale) determines the degree of emotional alienation, indicates the schizoid type and the autistic spectrum;
- ninth scale ( hypomania scale) indicates a hyperthymic personality type.
In addition to the MMPI test, the Cattell questionnaire and the Schmishek test are used in the diagnosis of accentuations and psychopathy. The first questionnaire is a widely used method for assessing the individual characteristics of a person and is intended to describe individual-personal relationships. The Schmishek test is focused on diagnosing accentuation according to Leonhard.
Schmishek's test for diagnosing the type of accentuation according to Leonhard
The Shmishek Questionnaire is a personality questionnaire that is designed to diagnose the type of personality accentuation according to Leonhard. The test consists of 97 questions ( there is also an abbreviated version) to which you need to answer “yes” or “no”. Next, the number of answers that matched the key is multiplied by the value of the coefficient that corresponds to each type of accentuation. If the resulting figure is more than 18, then this indicates the severity of this type of accentuation, while the maximum indicator is 24 points.There are two versions of this technique - adult and children.
They consist of the same number of questions and, accordingly, have the same types of accentuations. The difference lies in the wording of the questions, i.e. children's version contains questions adapted for children, adults - for adults. The theoretical basis of both options is the theory of accentuated personalities, according to which all personality traits are divided into basic and additional. The main features are the core of personality, they determine the character of a person.
Accentuation of character is an excessive manifestation of certain personality traits. As a result, selective vulnerability to some psychogenic influences is observed while maintaining resistance to others.
concept
The concept of "accentuated personality" was introduced by the German psychiatrist, psychopathologist Karl Leonhard. His classification of personalities had much in common with the concept of "latent psychopathy", proposed earlier by the Soviet scientist Pyotr Gannushkin. However, it was developed by Leonhard into an independent theory.
The scientist presented his reflections on the typology of character in the work "Accentuated Personalities". In the first part of the monograph, a classification and analysis of various accentuations is given, in the second - accentuated types are considered on the example of the heroes of classical works of world literature.
Although according to International classification ICD-10 diseases, accentuated personality traits are included in the list of problems associated with difficulties in organizing a normal lifestyle (class 21 / paragraph Z73.1), the presence of accentuation does not equate to a mental disorder!
At first glance, Leonhard's character accentuations are similar to personality disorders, which leads to the assumption that there is a connection between them. However, the scientist only sought to identify those personality traits that bring difficulties to their owners in life. When describing accentuations, Leonhard turned to the negative manifestations of certain character traits in an extreme, most pronounced form. Therefore, his characterization of psychological types is perceived as an illustration of human shortcomings, painful patterns of behavior. However, according to Leonhard, accentuations are still a manifestation of the clinical norm, albeit in a pointed form, therefore they cannot be used as a psychiatric diagnosis.
Psychologists and psychotherapists around the world are actively interested in issues of accentualization, since the disproportionate development of certain personality traits creates conditions for the formation of appropriate mental or psychosomatic disorders.
In Russian psychology, Leonhard's typology was developed and supplemented by the scientist Andrey Lichko, who changed the original term "accentuated personality" to "accentuation of character". After all, an accentuated personality, according to a Soviet psychiatrist, is too complex a concept, more in line with the idea of psychopathy.
Correspondence table of accentuations according to Leonhard and Lichko.
| № | K.Leonhard
(questionnaire H. Smishek) |
A.E.Lichko
(questionnaire PDO) |
| 1. | – | Astheno-neurotic |
| 2. | dysthymic | – |
| 3. | Demonstrative | hysterical |
| 4. | – | Unstable |
| 5. | stuck | – |
| 6. | Pedantic | Psychasthenic |
| 7. | – | Schizoid |
| 8. | Hyperthymic | Hyperthymic |
| 9. | – | – |
| 10. | Excitable | epileptoid |
| 11. | Anxious and fearful | sensitive |
| 12. | Cyclothymic | Cycloid |
| 13. | Affectively exalted | labile hysteroid |
| 14. | emotive | Labile |
| 15. | – | Conformal |
| Total | 10 | 12 |
Types of accentuations
Allocate into separate groups types of temperament and character accentuation according to Leonhard.
Temperament
To temperament, as a biologically conditioned formation, the scientist attributed six types of accentuations. Let's talk briefly about each of them.
- Hyperthymic (hypomanic) temperament. It is characterized by a predominance of an optimistic mood, a thirst for activity, a focus on success, and sociability. In the negative, superficiality develops, the inability to bring the matter to the end. There is a violation of ethical standards, a waste of opportunities.
- Dysthymic type (subdepressive). The opposite of hyperthymia. Differs in orientation to failure, pessimism, serious ethical position, extreme passivity in actions, lethargy.
- Affectively labile type (cyclomic). It is characterized by a frequent change of hyperthymic and dysthymic states.
- Anxious. Characterized by the inability to defend their point of view in the dispute, timidity, timidity, alertness, humility, humiliated position. Compensation is possible in the form of feigned self-confidence or even impudent behavior.
- The affective-exalted type is distinguished by the intensity of experiences, violent emotional reactions, and a tendency to extreme manifestations of feelings (enthusiasm, despair). Easily charged with the mood of others.
- The emotive type is characterized by the ability to deeply feel, empathize. Differs in impressionability, kindness, compassion.
Character
The classification of character according to Leonhard is represented by four types.
- Demonstrative (hysterical) type. The peculiarity of accentuation is a hypertrophied tendency to repress. This explains the property of a hysteric to embellish reality. A person, as it were, enters the desired image, starting to believe his fantasies. Thanks to this trait, it easily adapts to the environment, instilling in itself a feeling of love, sympathy for others. The notorious "need for recognition", as one of the motives of the demonstrative type, is exaggerated. Rather, the passion for self-praise is associated with the ability to displace objective information about oneself. In an ordinary person, if they want to embellish the real state of things, the brakes are turned on. The hysteric tends to forget himself, which often leads to rash acts.
- Pedantic character. In contrast to the demonstrative type, the repression mechanism is poorly developed. People with this type of personality are not able to displace doubts, discard irrelevant details of the issue, so they can hardly choose any solution. Hence indecision, scrupulousness in work, hypochondria.
- Stuck type. Differs in resistance of affective reactions. A tendency to ideas that completely take over the thinking of a person. Stuck affect is most clearly manifested in the case when the personal interests of a person are affected. The affect in these cases turns out to be a response to wounded pride, as well as to various forms suppression, although objectively moral damage may be negligible. As a result, the stuck type develops traits such as suspicion, hostility, jealousy, and morbid ambition.
- Excitable type (epileptoid). It is characterized by following the lower instinctive impulses and ignoring the voice of reason. As a result, impulsiveness, intemperance, exactingness, intolerance, irascibility, conflict develop.
extraversion/introversion
Character types according to Leonhard also include extraverted and introverted personality accentuations.
The psychiatrist's understanding of extra-, introversion differs from the popular definitions of these terms by Eysenck and Myers, and Briggs in socionics.
Due to the fact that most psychologists rely on the interpretation of terms according to Eysenck, and psychiatrists - according to Leonhard, such a terminological discrepancy creates a problem in finding a common language between specialists.
According to Leonhard, an extroverted personality type is a conformist who does not subject to special analysis information coming from outside, and therefore easily amenable to other people's influence. An introvert, on the other hand, does not blindly give in to the sensations of the present moment, focusing primarily on previous life experience and his own conclusions. Here, Leonhard's opinion coincides with the point of view of Carl Jung, who attributed the features of thinking types to introverts, and ethical (experiencing) types to extroverts.
Methods for diagnosing personality
Leonhard considered observation and conversation to be the most reliable diagnostic methods. In a personal conversation, the scientist should not study the verbal information coming from the patient, but focus on his facial expressions, changes in the intonation of the voice. The study of the patient's behavior at work, in a relaxed home environment, in communication with other people, according to Leonhard, provides comprehensive information about the characteristics of his personality.
Character (Greek - sign, distinctive property, distinctive feature, feature, sign or seal) - the structure of persistent, relatively constant mental properties that determine the characteristics of the relationship and behavior of the individual.
When they talk about character, they usually mean by this just such a set of properties and qualities of a personality that impose a certain imprint on all its manifestations and deeds. Character traits are those essential properties of a person that determine a particular way of behavior, way of life. The static character is determined by the type of nervous activity, and its dynamics is determined by the environment.
Character is understood as:
system of sustainable motives and ways of behaving, forming a behavioral type of personality;
a measure of the balance of the inner and outer worlds, the features of an individual's adaptation to the reality around him;
distinctly expressed certainty of the typical behavior of each person.
Character accentuations
The concept of "accentuation" was first introduced by the German psychiatrist and psychologist Karl Leonhard.
Definition. Accentuation is the disharmony of character development, which manifests itself in the excessive severity of its individual features or compounds, causing an increased vulnerability of the individual to certain types of influences and making it difficult to adapt to some specific situations.
Accentuation is not a disease, not a pathology, not a psychopathy, but an extreme expression of the norm. This is a sharpening of any individual traits, which, under certain unfavorable conditions, can lead to pathology - psychopathy.
The famous Soviet psychiatrist P. B. Gannushkin formulated three criteria for psychopathy:
1. Stability over time. A character can be considered pathological, that is, regarded as psychopathy, if it is relatively stable over time (it changes little during life).
2. The totality of the manifestation of character. With psychopathy, the same character traits are found in all spheres of human life: in production activities, at home, in communication with friends and relatives, etc.
3. Social maladaptation. A person constantly has difficulties in life. Moreover, these difficulties are experienced either by himself or by the people around him.
In the case of character accentuations, there may not be any of the listed signs of psychopathy, or at least all three signs are never present at once.
The absence of the first sign is expressed in the fact that the accentuation of character is manifested only at certain stages of personality development. Most often, it is formed in adolescence, and smoothes out when growing up.
The absence of the second sign means that the traits of an accentuated character do not appear in any situation, but only in special conditions. At the same time, it should be noted that the selective vulnerability of character traits in relation to certain types of influences can very often be combined with a good or even increased resistance of this trait to other influences.
Social maladjustment with accentuation either does not occur at all, or may be temporary, of a short duration. Difficulties in adapting the personality in some specific situations with a certain accentuation of character can be combined with good and even increased abilities for social adaptation in other situations.
Types of character accentuations
Depending on the degree of expression, there are explicit and hidden (latent) accentuations. Explicit accentuations appear relatively constantly; with hidden accentuations, pointed character traits are not detected until the person falls into extreme conditions. Under these conditions, hidden accentuations turn into explicit ones. In extremely unfavorable conditions for the personality, character accentuation can lead to pathological personality changes - psychopathy.
Based on this theory of character accentuation, various classifications were created. The most famous are the classifications of K. Leonhard and A. E. Lichko.
Classification of character accentuations (according to K. Leonhard)
Demonstrative type. The main feature of a demonstrative personality is the need to impress, to attract attention, to be in the center of events. This is manifested in vain, often deliberate, behavior, in particular, in such traits as self-praise, perception and presentation of oneself as the central character of any situation. Much of what such a person says about himself often turns out to be the fruit of his imagination or a much embellished account of events.
Pedantic type. External manifestations of this type are increased accuracy, the desire for order, indecision and caution. Before doing anything, such a person thinks everything over for a long time and carefully. Behind external pedantry are the unwillingness and inability to make quick changes, the lack of desire to take responsibility. These people love their usual work, conscientious in everyday life.
Stuck type. The stuck type of personality is distinguished by a high stability of affect, the duration of an emotional response, experiences. Insulting personal interests and dignity, as a rule, is not forgotten for a long time and is never forgiven just like that. In this regard, people around often characterize representatives of this type as touchy, vindictive and vindictive people. The duration of experiences is often combined with fantasizing, carrying out a plan of revenge on the offender.
Excitable type. A feature of an excitable personality is a pronounced impulsive behavior. The manner of communication and behavior largely depends not on the rational comprehension of one's actions, but on impulse, attraction, instinct or uncontrollable impulse. In the field of social interaction, representatives of this type are characterized by extremely low tolerance.
Hyperthymic type. A noticeable feature of the hyperthymic personality type is the constant stay in high spirits, even in the absence of any external reasons for this. High spirits are combined with high activity and a thirst for activity. Hyperthyms are characterized by such qualities as sociability, increased talkativeness, and an optimistic outlook on life. Difficulties are often overcome without much difficulty.
Dysthymic type. A dysthymic personality is the opposite of a hyperthymic one. Dystimics tend to focus on the dark, sad side of life. This is manifested in everything: in behavior, and in communication, and in the peculiarities of the perception of life, events and other people (socio-perceptual features). Usually these people are serious by nature, they are not characterized by activity.
Affectively labile type (cyclothymic type). An important feature of the cyclothymic type is the change of hyperthymic and dysthymic states. Such changes are frequent and systematic. In the hyperthymic phase in cyclothymes, joyful events cause not only joyful emotions, but also a thirst for activity, increased activity. In the dysthymic phase, sad events cause them not only grief, but also a state of depression. In this state, slowness of reactions, thinking, and emotional response are characteristic.
Affectively exalted type (exalted type). The main feature of an exalted personality is a violent (exalted) reaction to what is happening. They easily get excited by joyful events and fall into despair from sad ones. They are distinguished by extreme impressionability about any event or fact. At the same time, inner impressionability and a tendency to experience find a vivid external expression in their behavior.
Anxious type. The main feature of this type is increased anxiety about possible failures, concern for one's fate and the fate of loved ones, while there are usually no objective reasons for such concern or they are insignificant. They are distinguished by timidity, sometimes humility. Constant alertness to circumstances is combined with self-doubt.
Emotive type. The main feature of an emotive personality is high sensitivity. Such qualities as kindness, kindness, sincerity, emotional responsiveness, highly developed empathy, increased tearfulness are characteristic (as they say, ``eyes in a wet place'").
Extrovert type. Such a person is easily influenced by the environment, constantly looking for new experiences. The opinion of such people is not stable, since new thoughts expressed by others are easily accepted on faith and are not internally processed. A characteristic feature is impulsiveness of actions.
introverted type. This type is characterized by reliance on their life experience. This type is not affected by various situations. The degree of immersion in the inner world leads a person to separation from reality. Characterized by an accentuated tendency to think and a weak readiness for action.
Structure of character To determine the structure or structure of a person's character means to single out the main components or properties in the character and to establish the specific features caused by them in their relationship and interaction. In the structure of the existing character, we must single out two sides: content and form. The content includes features that express the orientation of the individual (sustainable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relations to the surrounding reality and representing individually peculiar ways of implementing these relations. In the content of the character, one or the other component can come to the fore, depending on the way of life, educational influences and the requirements of the surrounding reality. This or that orientation of the personality leaves an imprint on all human behavior, although it is determined by an integral system of relations. In different forms of character, ways of manifesting relationships, fixed emotional-volitional characteristics of behavior, temperament are expressed. People differ from each other in habits, behavior. Intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits are related to form. “In the system of personality, four groups of character traits are distinguished, forming symptom complexes. Snmptomocomilexes are systems of interrelated mental properties. 1. Features that characterize a person’s attitude to other people, to a team, to society (sociability, sensitivity, responsiveness, respect for other people and their opposite features - isolation, callousness, callousness, rudeness, contempt for people). 2. Features that show a person’s attitude to his day (hard work, a penchant for creativity, conscientiousness, responsibility, initiative, perseverance and their opposite features - laziness, a tendency to routine work, dishonesty, irresponsibility, passivity). 3. Features that show how a person relates to himself (self-esteem, pride, self-criticism, modesty and their opposite - self-conceit, arrogance, vanity, arrogance, touchiness, shyness, selfishness, self-centeredness). 4. Features that characterize a person's attitude to things (neatness or carelessness, careful or careless handling of things) ". “Depending on this or that structure of character, a person exhibits certain traits of behavior. The number of these traits is great. But it is possible to identify the main groups or types of character traits. These include: a) moral (sensitivity, attentiveness, delicacy); b) strong-willed (temper, passion, tenderness); c) emotional (decisiveness, perseverance, firmness). More clearly, one can define the main synthetic properties of a positive nature. “Among them, the following stand out: - Moral education of character. It characterizes a person in terms of direction and form of behavior. - Completeness of character. It testifies to the versatility of the aspirations and hobbies of a person, the variety of activities, such people are distinguished by inner wealth and activity. - Integrity of character. This is the unity of a person's mental make-up, the consistency of his relationship to various aspects of reality, the absence of contradictions in aspirations and interests, the unity of word and deed. - Definiteness of character. It is expressed in the stability of behavior, which in all cases corresponds to established beliefs, moral and political ideas and concepts, the main direction that makes up the meaning of life and activity of the individual. You can tell in advance about such a person how he will behave in certain conditions of life. - Strength of character. This is the energy with which a person pursues the goals set for himself, this is the ability to be passionately carried away and develop a great effort of strength when meeting with difficulties and obstacles, this is the ability to overcome them. - Strength of character. It manifests itself in the sequence of actions and perseverance of a person, in the conscious upholding of views and decisions. - Balance of character. This is the most optimal ratio of restraint and activity for activity and communication with people, developed evenness of behavior. These properties of character are in a complex, sometimes contradictory relationship. All these properties are not a natural gift, but the result of life influences, upbringing and self-education. But self-education is due to the corresponding motivation, which depends on mental processes and states. So, character is a set of individually peculiar properties of a personality, determined by its relations and manifested in the ways of activity typical for a given personality. In the character of each person one must see the unity of stable and dynamic properties. "Character can mask one of the innate manifestations, enhance others, inhibit others due to the formation and strengthening of new reflex connections." Consequently, from a natural-science point of view, character is an alloy of traits such as nervous activity and life impressions, fixed in the form of certain temporary nerve connections in the cerebral cortex. Character is a consequence of the reflection of the complexity of life experiences, is formed in the process of active interaction between the individual and the environment. Character finds its expression not only in deeds and actions, but also in speech, facial expressions and pantomime, and also leaves a seal on appearance personality and is reflected in a typical posture. Character, reflecting life, in turn affects the way of life. Character is of great importance not only for the individual, but also for society. Character is a holistic formation, a system of properties of personalities that are in certain relationships to each other. “In the structure of character, content and form are distinguished. Content of character reflects the social impact of influence, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, that is, her material and spiritual needs, interests, ideals and social attitudes. In different forms of character, ways of manifesting relationships, fixed emotional-volitional characteristics of behavior, temperament are expressed. People differ from each other in habits, manners of behavior. The character is influenced by needs, intelligence and abilities, will, emotions, orientation, temperament. The totality of distinctive essential, typical features forms a type of character that reflects the typical conditions of people's lives. 2. Traits of character Character is an inseparable whole. But it is impossible to study and understand such a complex whole as character without highlighting individual aspects or typical manifestations (character traits) in it. Common features character are manifested in the relationship of the individual to social duties and duty, to people, to himself. The attitude to social duties and duty, first of all, is manifested in the attitude of the individual to social work. In this regard, such character traits as diligence, conscientiousness, perseverance, frugality, and the opposite of them - laziness, negligence, passivity, wastefulness are revealed. A person's attitude to work has a decisive influence on the formation of his other personal qualities. D. I. Pisarev wrote: "Character is tempered by labor, and whoever has never earned his own daily food by his own labor, for the most part remains forever a weak, sluggish and spineless person." Attitude towards people clearly appears in such character traits as sociability, politeness, goodwill, etc. The antipodes of these traits are isolation, tactlessness, malevolence. As V. Hugo stated, "every person has three characters: the one that is attributed to him; the one that he attributes to himself; and, finally, the one that is in reality." In order to clarify the essence of his character, it is useful for a person to know the opinion of himself of the team in which he works and spends a significant part of his life. And above all, how orderly his relations with people are, how much people need him, how authoritative he is among them. Attitude towards oneself is manifested in self-assessment of one's actions. Sober self-assessment is one of the conditions for personal development, helping to develop such character traits as modesty, adherence to principles, self-discipline. Negative character traits are increased conceit, arrogance and boasting. A person with these traits is usually quarrelsome in a team, involuntarily creates pre-conflict and conflict situations in it. Another extreme in a person's character is also undesirable: underestimation of one's own merits, timidity in expressing one's positions, in defending one's views. Modesty and self-criticism must be combined with a heightened sense of self-worth, based on the awareness of the real significance of one's personality, on the presence of certain successes in work for the common good. Principle is one of the valuable personal qualities that give the character an active orientation. Volitional character traits. Will is understood as a complex mental process that causes the activity of a person and awakens him to act in a directed way. Will is the ability of a person to overcome obstacles, to achieve the goal. Specifically, she acts in such character traits as purposefulness, determination, perseverance, courage. These character traits can contribute to the achievement of both socially useful and anti-social goals. To do this, it is important to determine what the motive of a person's volitional behavior is. "A brave act, the motive of which is to enslave another person, to seize someone else's property, to promote oneself, and a brave act, the motive of which is to help a common cause, of course, have completely different psychological qualities." According to volitional activity, characters are divided into strong and weak. People with a strong character have stable goals, are proactive, boldly make decisions and implement them, have great endurance, are courageous and bold. People in whom these qualities are weakly expressed or some of them are absent are classified as weak-character. They are characterized by a passive manifestation of their business and personal qualities. Often such people, having the best intentions, do not achieve significant results in work, study. Many of them sincerely experience their inability to act independently, persistently and decisively. Volitional qualities can be cultivated in a person. IP Pavlov emphasized that a person is the only system capable of regulating itself over a wide range, that is, it can improve itself .. Weak-willed people with thoughtful pedagogical work with them can become actively active. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the individual characteristics of a person, for example, his temperament. So, it is easier for a choleric person to develop activity and determination than for a melancholic person. A person himself must train his will from a young age, develop such qualities as self-control, activity, courage.
PSYCHOPATHY If the accentuation of character is an extreme version of the norm, then psychopathy is a pathology of character. According to P. B. Gannushkin, "Psychopathies are anomalies of character that determine the entire mental appearance of an individual, imposing their imperious imprint on his entire mental warehouse, do not undergo any drastic changes during life and prevent him from adapting to the environment" . To more comprehensively define psychopathy, several definitions of this concept can be considered. In Ball's words, "Psychopathic personalities are permanent residents of the borderline between mental health and mental illness, as unfortunate biological variations, as having gone too far away from a certain average level or normal type." Schneider: "Psychopathic personalities are such abnormal personalities, from whose abnormality either they themselves or society suffer." Kraepelin speaks of psychopathic personalities as infantile (partial, uneven infantilism; more often manifested in the field of will and feelings): “The impression of something underdeveloped, childish, for example, increased suggestibility, a tendency to exaggerate, excessive fantasy in hysterics, weak will in unstable …". Gannushkin-Kerbikov criteria for psychopathy Character pathology (psychopathy) is always characterized by three features (Gannushkin-Kebrikov criteria): 1) totality; 2) stability; 3) disadaptation. The absence of at least one criterion excludes psychopathy. Classifications of psychopathy There are several classifications of psychopathy on various grounds. Psychopathies can be classified according to severity: severe, severe, moderate. Psychopathies can be divided according to the cause of occurrence: 1. Constitutional (or true, genuine, "nuclear"). In the emergence of constitutional psychopathy, the decisive factor belongs to heredity. They often include such types of psychopathy: cycloid, schizoid, psychasthenic, epileptoid. 2. Acquired (psychopathic or pathological development). With psychopathic development, the main thing is improper upbringing, the negative influence of the environment. In this case, excitable, hysterical, unstable psychopathy is revealed. 3. Organic. The latter develop as a result of the action on the brain of prenatal, natal and early postnatal (the first 2-3 years) pathological factors (intoxication, infections, traumatic brain injury, etc.). After an organic brain lesion, excitable and unstable psychopathy is more often noted. Different authors offer different typologies of psychopathy and character accentuations. For example, the classification proposed by A. E. Lichko looks like this: hyperthymic, cycloid, labile, astheno-neurotic, sensitive, psychasthenic, schizoid, epileptoid, hysteroid, unstable, conformal In addition to certain types of psychopathy, Lichko also distinguishes mixed ones, for example: hyperthymic-unstable , sensitive-psychasthenic, etc. E. G. Eidemiller offers his own classification, close to Lichko's typology, in his method of auto-identification and identification by verbal characterological portraits. A somewhat different classification of accentuations of character traits (demonstrative, pedantic, stuck) and accentuations of temperament traits (hyperthymic personality, dysthymic, affective-labile, affective-exalted, anxious), as well as combinations of accentuated character traits and temperament (extroverted and introverted personalities) was proposed by K. . Leonhard. An interesting description of different types of character is offered by D. Dril. He explores the antisocial behavior of "nervous tantrums, alcoholics, epileptics", and also analyzes some diseases, criminal cases, the causes of crimes and the connection with character traits. In addition, Dril characterizes some characters from fiction (for example, the type of Rudin, Oblomov). Gives a general description of "impoverished natures". F. Scholz describes the pathology of children's characters, the formation of character accentuations and psychopathy in accordance with different types of upbringing, heredity. He uses simple names for different types of character, such as: capricious child, fearful, arrogant (abnormalities in the field of feelings and sensations), windy child, curious and secretive (abnormalities in the field of feelings and impressions), restless, greedy, prone to destruction (abnormalities in the field of will and action). Offers methods of correction, education for children with different types of character. V. V. Pushkov and G. A. Kharitonov consider the dependence of psychopathic disorders in adolescents on their age, gender, upbringing conditions, and the presence of organic disorders. The following methods are used to diagnose character accentuations and psychopathy: PDO (pathocharacterological diagnostic questionnaire), Eidemiller identification method, Leonhard-Shmishek method, MMPI. 39. Professional selection. Methods of professional selection.
Professional selection is a procedure for probabilistic assessment ((Professional Fitness)) of a person, studying the possibility of mastering a certain specialty, achieving the required level of skill and effective performance of professional duties. There are 4 components in professional selection: medical, physiological, pedagogical and psychological. In its essence and criteria, professional selection is a socio-economic event, and in terms of methods - biomedical and psychological.
The concepts of "professional selection" and "psychological selection" are often identified, since the essence of the latter is the diagnosis and prediction of abilities. The main stages of psychological professional selection:
1) Extraction and primary processing of the necessary initial diagnostic information;
2) Formulation of forecasts of ability for this type of professional activity and assessment of the expected level of suitability of the subject;
3) Verification of forecasts based on data on the actual effectiveness of the professional activities of selected individuals.
The system of psychological professional selection includes a complex of special diagnostic methods, technical means and standardized procedures. Also, methods of generalization, interpretation of the received diagnostic information and forecasting of the success of the activity are used.
The condition that determines the practical expediency of psychological professional selection is the proof of its socio-economic justification, the availability of a reasonable and proven selection system, and experienced diagnosticians.
Occupational selection consists in a scientifically based admission of a person to a certain work in the event that he has the necessary inclinations, sufficient physical and educational training. Professional selection is usually preceded by professional selection. Professional selection serves to determine the range of professions that are most suitable for a given person, that is, it helps him choose a profession using scientifically based methods and means. For the purposes of professional selection (vocational selection), questionnaire, instrumental and test methods are used.
MAIN METHODS OF PROFESSIONAL SELECTION OF CANDIDATES
Preliminary analysis of personal data (short registration form, resume, letter of application) - a comparison of requirements, capabilities, qualifications, experience, personal characteristics, etc. is carried out. candidate, the degree of his compliance with the “ideal” candidate.
Preliminary screening interview (usually telephone) - preliminary identification of missing information.
Analysis of a completed detailed questionnaire or a special questionnaire.
The main interview (a series of interviews) - a description of the life path of the applicant and his characteristics from the point of view of psychology is formed - strengths and weaknesses, personality traits, the ability to perform the functions of an “ideal” candidate, the ability to immediately begin to effectively fulfill their duties - without “buildup”.
Collecting information about the candidate (from other people), checking reviews and recommendations - the characteristics of the candidate and his compliance with the “ideal” candidate (from subordinates, colleagues, managers) are being clarified.
ADDITIONAL METHODS OF PROFESSIONAL SELECTION OF CANDIDATES
1) Testing abilities (IQ, attention span, etc.) - an assessment of the level and structure of intelligence (mental abilities), an assessment of the level of memory, attention, etc. is carried out.
2) Psychological testing - possible behavior is predicted in various production situations, assessment of the compliance of personal requirements for a candidate for the position in question.
3) Testing knowledge and skills, performing trial tasks - passing standardized tests or completing professional tasks, preparing documents (for example, a “Business Plan”, etc.)
4) Sociometric assessment - assessment of business qualities in a group.
5) Assessment Center - involves the participation of the candidate in a special seminar lasting 1-2 days. The assessment center program includes business games, group exercises, testing and professional assignments.
6) Expert assessments.
7) “Exotic” methods - a polygraph test (lie detector), a security check, a medical examination (health and stamina, attitudes towards alcohol and drugs, a check for the absence of a criminal past are revealed).
It is possible to apply several methods of verification at the same time.
1.1 Description of professional selection methods
As a rule, the professional selection of personnel covers two areas: an assessment of the professional knowledge and personal qualities of a candidate or employee. The employee is needed by the organization as -
The worker is a specialist, a professional,
An employee is a performer of a certain work.
The worker is a person.
1.2 Professional selection based on professional qualities. Application of special questionnaires, professional questionnaires, work with resumes
The easiest way to evaluate professional knowledge is to ask a specialist to do it - an expert. For example, ask for an auditor's report on professional qualities current or future chief accountant.
Another way. Prepare special questionnaires or tasks to reveal the true knowledge of a specialist. (Appendix No. 1)
Method three. Ask him to complete pre-conceived tasks: for example, in order to determine the degree of computer proficiency, ask the future secretary to find the right file and prepare some kind of letter.
A lot of useful information about the level of a candidate can be obtained from questionnaires and resumes. The questionnaire is a specially designed questionnaire that includes a list of certain qualities and answer options. At the same time, the list of qualities that a specialist should possess depends on the scope of his activity and position.
Analysis of resumes and personal data allows you to identify the compliance of the applicant's education with the minimum qualification requirements, the correspondence of practical experience to the nature of the activity, the presence of restrictions of any kind on the performance of job duties, and readiness to accept additional workloads. This contributes to further narrowing the circle of applicants for the position. (Appendix No. 2, 3).
1.3 Professional selection for personal business qualities. Definition of psychological professional suitability
During professional selection, not only the professional experience of potential candidates is evaluated, but it is also necessary to study the professional suitability of the candidate - the degree to which his psychological characteristics correspond to the requirements of a particular position (job). This is usually done by a psychologist. What is Psychological Fitness?
For the correct conduct of professional selection, it is necessary to understand the meaning and objectives of the study of professional suitability. This understanding is based on the basic criterion of professional suitability (i.e., correct for any profession). A person has the necessary degree of professional suitability if:
His individual psychological qualities ensure success in this particular activity (that is, they allow him to perform work with the required quality and at the right time);
At the same time, the person himself, at least, does not bear any losses (the state of health does not worsen, neurotic traits do not become active, the personality does not deform, etc.).
Often, the employees themselves, and the management of the organization, do not attach much importance to psychological fitness. However, practice shows that if an employee is psychologically unsuitable, then this is reflected in the quality and timing of the work performed and the microclimate of the team in which he works. The employee himself also suffers: he fails to achieve the desired professional successes, or they are given too much effort, and, consequently, promotion is difficult, the desired social and material status is not achieved, well-being worsens (both from physical overstrain and overload of some functions, and from constant feeling dissatisfaction with work), spoil the character and relationships with others.
Thus, people who see in the phrase "professional selection" a meaning that discriminates against an employee are completely wrong.
What is a knowingly unsuitable candidate?
Two groups can be distinguished here: qualities that are a contraindication for almost any activity (with rare exceptions), and features that are specified by management. The first ones include:
mental illness;
neurotic personality warehouse with all the signs of its actualization;
personality deformation.
The main reason why the management of most organizations tries to avoid hiring people with mental illness is the possible unpredictability of their behavior and the high probability of sudden and prolonged absence from the workplace.
The second group of people whose presence in the organization is undesirable are those with pronounced signs of neuroticism. For an employer who does not delve into subtle psychological matters, it is enough that such an employee is characterized by reduced efficiency, inattention, irritability, excessively violent reactions to people and circumstances, and frequent illnesses. For a psychologist, it is important to figure out whether such a state is temporary, situational (in which we accidentally found a person at the time of diagnosis) or persistent - inherent in this person and ready to be activated at any moment from the slightest trouble. The second option makes such a person undesirable for the organization.
The third group of people whose presence in an organization will no doubt add to its problems are those with personality deformities. A characteristic feature of such a person is the disharmony of the personal organization, which leads to an inadequate perception of himself and people. The consequence may be anger, uncriticality in assessing one's own actions, a striking discrepancy between ideas about oneself and the true personal appearance, an unreasonable fear of intrigues (deception, "setting up", slander, etc.) on the part of others and other similar features that negatively affect reality and people working nearby.
In addition, to screen out obviously unsuitable candidates, the management of the organization may establish additional requirements, for example, it is stipulated that persons with communication problems or with poorly formed speech skills, poor development of analytical abilities, etc., are considered unsuitable in advance.
The need to determine the professional suitability of personnel is due to two main reasons. Firstly, any organization in which a new person comes to work has its own established values, views on the world around us, its own specific features and basic (i.e. main) internal aspirations, on the basis of which joint activities are formed, the solution of common problems . It is very important that a new employee, in terms of his personal qualities, can successfully "fit" into the team, be compatible with other employees, increase, and not lower the potential of the team. This point is not always possible to solve even for experienced managers. The leader can be well versed in the business qualities of a new employee, but intuition sometimes fails. After some time, it turns out that a pleasant, sociable at first glance employee begins to change the positive psychological mood of other employees, “infect” them with negative emotions. It may well happen that after some time a previously successful team increasingly begins to fail even without visible conflict situations. Negative emotions, like viruses, spread from one to another, reducing performance at work and worsening interpersonal relationships. Such mistakes can be very costly. Secondly, the psychological assessment of an employee allows you to more accurately determine his resources, his internal potential, and, consequently, to find out in which workplace the employee will be more useful, whether you can expect rapid professional growth from him, what abilities should be developed, what personal characteristics he can strengthen, and how weaken collective work.
Determining the presence or absence of the qualities necessary to perform a certain job is carried out by psychologists using different methods. This is a diagnostic conversation, and the use of special psychological tests, and a business game, and others.
For example, the “probing questionnaire” method, which helps to isolate some important characteristics even before meeting with the candidate. The questionnaire is a simple personality test. It usually consists of four components:
* personal data;
* expert opinion.
A systematic analysis of this information gives a fairly accurate idea of the personality of the candidate due to the psychological overtones of most questions. (Appendix No. 4) For example, items 1-9 of the questionnaire are a survey taking into account the systematized psychoanalytic categories that provide the firm's psychologist with important additional information. In some cases, further testing, which requires the firm to spend time and money, becomes redundant.
From the answer to question 1, you can get additional information about the media and social environment of the candidate. Questions #2 and #4 deal with the professional motivation of the candidate. It is logical if the events of the candidate's life are related to the desired position. However, the exaggeration of the role of these events is alarming. Question number 3 determines the leadership qualities of the candidate. A positive answer to this question is important for candidates for leadership positions. From the answers to question number 5, the psychologist receives information that is of additional interest to the company. It is desirable that the firm could use the candidate's hobbies for their own purposes. Too many hobbies can negatively affect a candidate's assessment, as there is a risk that there will be no time left for work. Question No. 6, in addition to information about the candidate's social environment, evaluates the role of external and internal factors in a person's life. Externally controlled people are ideal performers, getting the job done quickly and accurately. These people can lead the unit. In the role of a higher-level manager, their effectiveness will be insufficient, because, as a rule, they avoid making decisions. Most often they are introverts. In contrast to this type, a person controlled from the inside is directed to the outside world (extrovert according to Eysenck). The extrovert's hobbies are active (sports, tourism), while the introvert prefers quieter activities (collecting, drawing, sewing). An extrovert is open to the outside world. He is more capable of independent action, of leadership than an introvert. The deepest meaning of questions No. 7 and No. 8 is in determining the candidate's self-esteem and the degree of his self-confidence. Question 9 is based on the accident-prone personality theory. According to this theory, some people attract accidents and provoke them. The severity of the misfortunes that happen to the candidate is alarming, as is their complete absence. Questions #10 and #11 assess the candidate's criticality and self-esteem.
The use of such a "probing questionnaire" requires psychological knowledge, intuition and the ability to read between the lines from a recruiting specialist.
Increasingly, especially when assessing highly qualified employees, it is necessary to use new, non-standard approaches in assessing personnel. For example, a special socio-genetic interviewing of the subject. This method was first applied by the famous American scientist, Doctor of Psychology and Physics Ch.K. Toychem and based on the study of a person's heredity according to his pedigree, the professional activities of his ancestors, their diseases, hobbies, positive and negative events in their biography. Secondly, you can use the latest psychological equipment - devices "Polytest" and "Photon-2m". These devices allow us to determine with great accuracy some properties of our nervous system. For example, by the speed of reaction to a moving object, the stability of the hands or the moisture content of our fingers. Thirdly, you can use various computer programs that have additional degrees of protection for the reliability of the results.
A very effective way to study psychological professional suitability is a diagnostic business game: the psychologist chooses a plot that is close in content to the planned professional activity and observes what qualities of the applicant are manifested. A business game can be combined with an interview and testing.
The specific approach to the study of professional suitability depends on several factors, primarily on the tasks that the organization's management sets for the psychologist.
In cases where the number of applicants is large, there is a shortage of time, there is a hiring for positions with a large turnover of personnel, the danger of "overseeing" a good applicant does not bother the management, one can limit oneself to only a "pilot" study to screen out people with undesirable qualities. For this, "selection by limiting qualities" is used. For a specific activity, one or two undesirable qualities are determined, and the psychologist directs all attention to the search for these qualities in applicants.
Important positive aspects of this approach are significant savings in the time and effort of the psychologist and the ability to get results relatively quickly. This “savings effect” can be enhanced by a psychologist using group diagnostics, when the necessary tests (for the previous example, these are tests of stability and switched attention in conditions of interference) are presented simultaneously (in parallel) to a whole group of candidates. This approach is often used with a large number of candidates in order to conduct more painstaking and detailed research with those remaining after dropping out. The decision on these candidates is usually made by the head of the personnel service.
The selection of candidates with certain qualities for a specific position requires more time, since in this case the psychologist must state the presence or absence of a whole group of qualities in applicants. In this case, diagnostic work is carried out individually, and only one or two tests can be presented to a small group of applicants (of such a size that the psychologist can pay attention to each of its members). Usually, such work is controlled by the head of the personnel service, but the head of the organization can himself trace the results of psychological diagnostics.
The most painstaking work awaits a psychologist in the case when an organization selects an employee for a responsible position, and the candidate’s failure to meet the requirements can have great consequences for the organization. Here, the psychologist is required to predict success and, possibly, correct undesirable traits, and this requires a comprehensive study of the personality of the employee and identification of his most important problems (i.e., although the most superficial, but problematic analysis). Such a study is necessary, as a rule, in the selection of middle and senior managers. This work is carried out only individually, and its results are brought to the head of the organization. Additional time should be provided for writing the conclusion, which is always better than verbal transmission of information, since it can always be returned to.
Often the head of the personnel service expects the psychologist to objectively assess the moral potential and predict the possible actions of the employee that can cause significant damage to the organization (such as a tendency to steal, abuse of office, etc.). Unfortunately, psychological knowledge is powerless here. With the help of psychological methods, it is possible to determine such qualities as insufficient social, emotional or ideological maturity of the applicant. The psychologist can identify in the applicant the traits of an unstable personality type, i.e., weakness of will and irresponsibility, a tendency to go along with one’s desires, excessive craving for pleasures. However, an employee with signs of these qualities will not necessarily be a robber or a spy for a competing firm, although he can be expected to make missteps in his work and stupid actions.
Some organizations use a "lie detector" (polygraph) - a device whose sensors register galvanic skin, cardiovascular and other reactions of the body to significant words related to the alleged unscrupulous plans of the candidate or the already committed reprehensible act of the employee. However, practice has shown that only very high-class specialists can correctly explain these reactions. Therefore, if it is necessary to study the moral principles of an employee or applicant, the good old way is the most effective - qualified and conscientious work of the security service.
A holistic picture of personality, compiled on the basis of individual traits of personality manifestations, is called accentuation. It affects the manifestations of all emotions, in particular, the emotion of fear.
Accentuation is the severity of any character trait, here it reaches the limit value, and is at the extreme limit of the norm. At the same time, individual character traits are excessively strengthened, and as a result, selective vulnerability appears in relation to certain psychogenic influences, and resistance to others is manifested.
The author of the theory of accentuation is psychiatrist K. Leonhard, he introduced the term "accentuated personality." Previously, the theory was called that, the theory of accentuated personality. Later, the theory of accentuation was clarified by A.E. Lichko, he also clarified the term, luring him to the term “character accentuation”, since character accentuation is more extensive, more suitable for psychopathy. Studies of accentuation were continued by Galushkin, Leonardov and formed the basis for personality research using tests.
- Each type of character accentuation (or personality accentuation) has its own characteristics in life, relations with the world and people. And since accentuation characterizes the speed and depth of psychological processes, it naturally affects the flow of emotions, and in particular the emotions of fear. There is an accentuation explicit and hidden. Explicit, is an extreme version of the norm, is distinguished by constancy, in a hidden feature, accentuations of a certain type of character are weakly expressed, but can be detected under the influence of a certain situation. As in the case of other personality characteristics, in particular temperament, the pure type is very rare. Usually, a person is referred to one type of accentuation that prevails over the others, but there are features of 2-3 types.
Accentuation according to Lagrande
In relation to character
- Hyperthymic- characterized by a desire for activity, the pursuit of experiences, optimism, and a focus on luck.
- dysthymic- characterized by lethargy, fixation on ethical aspects, sensitivity, feelings and fears, focus on failure.
- Affectively labile- characterized by mutual compensation of traits, focus on various standards and authorities.
- Affectively exalted- it is characterized by inspiration, elevated feelings, increased attention to the erection of emotions.
- alarming- characterized by cowardice, timidity, suggestibility, humility.
- emotive- characterized by kindness, fearfulness, compassion.
Accentuation in relation to character to society
- Demonstrative- be characterized by self-confidence, vanity, boasting, lies, flattery, focus on oneself as a standard.
- Pedantic- strict in fulfilling the requirements, to order. Characterized by indecision, conscientiousness, fear, fear of inconsistency with ideals. Often there is hypochondria.
- stuck- Suspicion, resentment, vanity, the transition from the rise to despair.
- Excitable- short temper, heaviness, pedantry, focus on instincts.
In relation to the personal level
- extrovert open, oriented towards the world and external stimuli.
- Introvert-closed, focused on oneself, one's emotions, feelings, internal stimuli.
The tendency to a certain type of accentuation is inherited i.e. genetically, along with other psychological characteristics. And you can find out your type by passing a specialized test.
Types of accentuation
Types of accentuation today are well-developed and researched character traits. Knowing your accentuation, you can slightly change your behavior and character, developing sides that are not characteristic of representatives of this accentuation, but it is impossible to completely change the nature of a person.
hysteroid type
Hysteroid (demonstrative). The hysterical type of character accentuation, the goal of all his activities is to attract attention, is characterized by extreme egocentrism, a desire for attention, recognition, reverence, admiration, surprise, a minimum of approval.
Almost all artists belong to the hysteroid type of personality accentuation. Fear in them causes the upcoming feeling of loneliness, they are also afraid that they will not be noticed, they will not be praised. They often become idols in the family, the fear for them of a possible removal from the pedestal, if such a child has a younger brother or sister, this is experienced as a real tragedy. Most often, it is these children who decide to get rid of a new relative.
Children of this type cannot stand it when others are praised in front of them, or when they pay attention to them. Hysteroids are distinguished by a tendency to suicidality, but as a rule it has a demonstrative character, or they can blackmail their loved ones with this. In a burst of inspiration and in front of the eyes fixed on them, they can lead the rest, and even reveal reckless courage. But, the problem of people with hysterical accentuation is that they quickly lose interest, give in to unexpected difficulties, and friends and like-minded people can easily be betrayed, they always turn out to be leaders for a short time, deprived of the eyes turned on them, immediately lose their enthusiasm.
In every situation, people with hysterical accentuation are looking only for attention to their person, and the opportunity to show, to distinguish themselves from the crowd. They are ready to sacrifice their reputation, family, friends and everything in general - for the sake of fame, glory. They do not want and cannot be alone, they are always the center of attention in a large company.
Hyperthymic
A hyperthymic (constitutionally excited) type of accentuation, characterized by a very great desire to communicate, such people cannot stand loneliness, are noisy, mobile, have an increased degree of independence, a penchant for mischief, they are always in high spirits, they have an early craving for leadership, they strive to command peers and those who obey.
In childhood, hyperthymics are very mobile, they lack a sense of distance in relationships with adults. A, overprotectiveness, absolute control and cruel dictate, combined with trouble family relations, as well as neglect, can serve as the basis for the development of hyperthymic-unsustainable psychopathy. The irresistible interest of people of the hyperthymic type, to everything that surrounds him, in childhood often leads to his troubles, and in adolescence this leads to illegibility in the choice of acquaintances. People of the hyperthymic type have an exaggerated self-confidence, their strengths, this encourages them to "show themselves", and appear before others in a favorable light, and even brag. Most people with a hyperthymic type of accentuations, it is the most common.
Asthenoneurotic
The asthenoneurotic type of accentuation is distinguished by isolation, increased fatigue, in particular from communication, anxiety, increased irritability, anxiety and concern for their fate.
In adolescents of this type, signs of neuropathy can be detected already from childhood - poor appetite, shyness, restless sleep and capriciousness, tearfulness, night terrors, nocturnal anuresis, stuttering, etc. Representatives of the asthenoneurotic type often have a tendency to hypochondria. Often they have a dependence of a bad mood on poor health, and they are also characterized by poor sleep at night and, accordingly, weakness in the morning and drowsiness in the afternoon. In people with asthenoneurotic accentuation of character, neuroses often occur in the form of neurasthenia.
psychosthenic
The psychosthenic type of character accentuation is distinguished by indecisiveness, a tendency to endless reasoning, a tendency to introspection, and even to delving into oneself, suspiciousness and fearfulness.
Psychasthenic children are timid. Sometimes, even in childhood, obsessive states already arise, especially phobias in particular - new objects, strangers, fear of a locked door and darkness. In adolescence, people with psychosthenic accentuation are characterized by indecision and a tendency to excessive reasoning, anxious suspiciousness and a passion for introspection, people of this type easily develop obsessions - obsessive fears of fear of thoughts, actions, rituals, ideas. Anxiety of the psychosthenic type is addressed to the possible, in the future.
For example, anxiety for the mother if she returns late, so that she does not fall under the wheels of a transport, or die from some kind of illness, although there are no prerequisites for this. To protect themselves from a constant feeling of anxiety for the future, they invent signs and rituals specifically for this purpose. In people with a psychosthenic type of accentuation, obsessive states easily arise.
schizoizny
The schizoid type of character accentuation is distinguished by its special isolation, unsociableness, secrecy, as if detachment and even some indifference to what is happening around him, and as a result of this, the inability to establish close emotional contact with others, has heightened feelings of how others relate to him.
Schizoid children can be identified before anyone else, from an early age they like to play alone, avoid noisy companies, do not reach out to peers, often keep around adults, are characterized by coldness, special restraint. In adolescence, fencing off from peers is even more striking. Often, people with a schizoid type of accentuation are simply unable to communicate with other children of their age.
Often schizoids themselves suffer from their isolation and loneliness. Sometimes they open, but more often not completely, more often they open in front of strangers. As a rule, schizoid teenagers stand apart from peer groups. Their isolation in adolescence makes it difficult to join the group, and their resistance to collective influence and the general atmosphere, and non-conformity makes it almost impossible for them to join the group, they not only do not want to submit to it. Reactions and hobbies in schizoid adolescents are expressed more clearly than other specific behavioral reactions of this age. Hobbies are often distinguished by unusualness, strength and stability.
sensitive
The sensitive type of accentuation is characterized by overly pronounced sensitivity and impressionability, often they have a feeling of their own inferiority, and this type is also shy, timid, and touchy. From childhood, fear, fearfulness, and even cowardice appear. And at school they are afraid of crowds of peers, noisy companies, turmoil and fights at breaks, but if he is already used to it, even suffering from some classmates, they no longer want to move to another class.
People with a sensitive type of accentuation are often afraid of various exams, checks and controls. Often embarrassed or afraid to answer in front of the class. At 16-19, 2 main qualities of the sensitive type appear, "extreme impressionability" and "a pronounced sense of one's own insufficiency" (Gannushkin, 1964).
To compensate for their feelings of inferiority, such adolescents unconsciously choose the overcompensation reaction. They find self-affirmation precisely in those areas where they especially feel their inferiority. As a result of the action of the same reaction of hypercompensation in adolescence, people of a sensitive type find themselves in public positions (for example, class leaders, etc.). Adolescents of a sensitive type of character accentuation do not fence themselves off from comrades, but are very picky in choosing friends, prefer a close friend than a large company, are very attached in friendship and close relationships.
epileptoid (excitable)
The epileptoid type of accentuation is thorough, conservative, pedantic and scrupulous both in work and in personal life. Has a low speed of thinking, emotional inertia, a tendency to periods of dreary-evil mood with the accumulation of irritation and the search for an object on which it could be thrown out.
Already in early childhood, such children can cry for a long time, for hours, and it is impossible to console or distract them. They are distinguished by frequent whims, a tendency to deliberately bring others around, and frown and anger.
Sadistic inclinations may appear early in them - they like to torture animals, and also surreptitiously bully the younger, weak, helpless, in short, those who cannot fight back. In the company of children, they claim absolute leadership, even the role of a master who sets his own rules in games and relationships, dictating to everyone and everything.
Such children have an extraordinary thrift with their things and toys, and an attempt to encroach on their property causes an extremely vicious reaction. At school, scrupulousness to trifles in keeping notebooks and studying, but increased accuracy can turn into an end in itself and completely obscure the study itself. In adolescence, epileptoids are characterized by increased concern for their health, and "fear of infection" restrain casual relationships, make them prefer permanent partners. They are characterized by explosive affects, which are not only strong, but also long-lasting.
Labile (emotionally labile, reactively labile)
Labile type of character accentuation - can be characterized by the inconstancy of nature. People with a labile type of accentuation have an extremely changeable mood, which can change too quickly and often, even from an insignificant occasion. In childhood, they do not differ from their peers, sometimes they have a tendency to neurotic reactions. But, almost all labile children have a lot of infectious diseases caused by conditionally pathogenic flora.
Their mood is characterized not only by frequent and abrupt changes, but also by their significant depth. Everything depends on the mood at this particular moment in representatives of this type: appetite, sleep, well-being, and ability to work, and the desire to be alone or go to a noisy society, to a company. They are capable of deep feelings, sincere affection and friendship. This is mainly reflected in their relations with relatives and friends, but only with those from whom they themselves receive love, care and participation.
Attachment to close relatives persists, despite the frequency of fleeting quarrels, the ease and ease of their occurrence. In adolescence, people of the labile type are sensitive to various signs of attention, praise, gratitude, and encouragement, and censure, reprimands, and condemnation are deeply experienced and can invade him into hopeless despondency. Such people do not aspire to leadership. They have a hard time dealing with loss or emotional rejection from familiar faces.
Infantile dependent
Infantile-dependent (conformal) type of accentuation. People who treat him constantly play the role of an “eternal child”, they avoid responsibility for their actions, and prefer to delegate it to others, if they have committed an act that ended in failure, they will still find the last one on whom this failure can be blamed.
A person with this type of accentuation is constantly ready to obey the majority, he is distinguished by banality, stereotypedness, a tendency to benevolence and conservatism. The main character trait is also their main problem - constant and excessive conformity to the immediate, familiar environment, and at the same time distrust of strangers. Their main feature and life rule is to think "like everyone else", act "like everyone else", dress like everyone else, have furniture like everyone else, they prefer to have hobbies like everyone else. The same applies to worldview and judgments.
By "everyone" they mean the usual close environment. They are afraid to stand out. Of course, in a normal environment, this is good people and workers. But, having got into a bad environment, thanks to their conformity, they begin to approve both it and the actions of others, over time they learn habits and customs, a manner of behavior, even if this contradicts his previous habits, and no matter how harmful it may be. Adaptation, in people with an infantile-dependent type of accentuation, is quite difficult, but when it is done, the new environment becomes the same dictator of behavior as the previous one used to be. Therefore, adolescents with a conformal type of accentuation "for company" become addicted to drugs and alcohol, and may be involved in group offenses.
Unstable (unstoppable)
Unstable type of accentuation, has a constant craving for positive emotions, even dependent on them, he wants to have fun, get pleasure, he is distinguished by idleness, weakness, weakness of character, cowardice, idleness, especially in studies, work and the performance of his duties, he is not particularly zealous. There is no desire to learn to work, he exerts diligence only under strict control.
People with this type of accentuation are distinguished by the fact that they imitate only images and behaviors that promise immediate pleasure, a constant change of light impressions and entertainment. They freely go to petty crimes, more often petty thefts, they start smoking and drinking early. Being teenagers tend to get out of the custody of their parents, it is all connected with the theme of the same entertainment change of impressions. Studying, people with an unstable type of accentuation are easily abandoned, and work only when absolutely necessary. The reaction of emancipation in unstable adolescents is closely associated with the same desires for pleasure and entertainment.
They are unable to occupy themselves, therefore, people with an unstable type of accentuation badly endure loneliness and are afraid of it, they are early drawn to street teenage groups and groups. Cowardice and an insufficient level of initiative do not allow them to take the place of a leader in them, they usually become an instrument of such groups. Their hobbies are almost entirely limited to the informative and communicative type of hobby, and gambling. The unstable need to be constantly monitored, neglect, connivance, open up the possibility for idleness and idleness.
character accents. Typology of accentuated personalities by K. Leonhard. Typology of character accentuations of adolescents A.E. Lichko.
Accentuations- excessively pronounced character traits. Depending on the level of expression, two degrees of character accentuation are distinguished: explicit and hidden. Explicit accentuation refers to the extreme variants of the norm, it is distinguished by the constancy of the features of a certain type of character. With hidden accentuation, the features of a certain type of character are weakly expressed or do not appear at all, but they can be clearly manifested under the influence of specific situations. Character accentuations can contribute to the development of psychogenic disorders, situationally caused pathological behavioral disorders, neuroses, psychoses. However, it should be noted that character accentuation should by no means be identified with the concept of mental pathology. A rigid boundary between conditionally normal, "average" people and accentuated personalities does not exist. Identification of accentuated personalities in a team is necessary to develop an individual approach to them, for professional orientation, to assign a certain range of duties to them, with which they are able to cope better than others (due to their psychological predisposition).
Typology of characters A.E.Lichko
This classification is based on observations of adolescents. According to Lichko, character accentuation is an excessive strengthening of individual character traits, in which deviations in psychology and human behavior that do not go beyond the norm, bordering on pathology, are observed. Such accentuations as temporary states of the psyche are most often observed in adolescence and early adolescence.
1) Hyperthymic type. Adolescents of this type are distinguished by mobility, sociability, and a tendency to mischief. They make a lot of noise in the events taking place around them, they love restless companies. With good general abilities, they show restlessness, lack of discipline, and study unevenly. Their mood is always good and upbeat. With adults - parents and teachers - they often have conflicts. They have many different hobbies, but as a rule, superficial and quickly passing. Adolescents of this type often overestimate their abilities, they are too self-confident, they strive to show themselves, to impress others.
2) Cycloid type. It is characterized by increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Teenagers of this type prefer to be at home alone, instead of going somewhere with their peers. They are hard going through even minor troubles, they react extremely irritably to comments. Their mood periodically changes from elated to depressed with periods of about two to three weeks.
3) Labile type. This type is extremely changeable in mood and, moreover, it is often unpredictable. Reasons for an unexpected change of mood can be the most insignificant. The behavior of these teenagers largely depends on the momentary mood. The present and the future, according to the mood, can be colored either with iridescent or gloomy colors. Such teenagers, being in a depressed mood, need help and support from those who can improve their mood, who can distract, cheer up and entertain.
4) Asthenoneurotic type. This type is characterized by increased suspiciousness and capriciousness, fatigue and irritability. Especially often fatigue manifests itself when performing difficult mental work.
5) Sensitive type. He is oversensitive to everything. These teenagers do not like big companies, too gambling, outdoor games. They are shy and timid in front of strangers and therefore often give the impression of isolation. They are open and sociable only with those who are familiar to them. They are distinguished by obedience and show great affection for their parents. These adolescents develop a sense of duty quite early, and high moral demands are made on themselves and on those around them. What they lack in ability, they often make up for in challenging activities and increased diligence.
6) Psychasthenic type. It is characterized by accelerated and early intellectual development, a tendency to reflection and reasoning, to introspection and evaluation of the behavior of other people. Such teenagers are often strong in words, not in deeds. Their self-confidence is combined with indecision.
7) Schizoid type. These teenagers are not very attracted to their peers, they prefer to be alone, to be in the company of adults. They often demonstrate outward indifference to the people around them, lack of interest in them, they poorly understand the state of other people, their experiences, they do not know how to sympathize. Their inner world is often filled with various fantasies, some special hobbies.
8) Epileptoid type. These teenagers often cry, harass others, especially in early childhood. They love to torture animals, tease the younger ones, mock the helpless. In children's companies, they behave like dictators. Their typical features are cruelty, dominance, selfishness.
9) Hysteroid type. The main feature of this type is egocentrism, a thirst for constant attention to one's own person. For them, an urgent need is the desire to attract the attention of others, to listen to admiration and praise in their address. These adolescents are characterized by claims to an exclusive position among their peers, and in order to influence others, to attract their attention, they often act in groups as instigators and ringleaders. But without real abilities - to be a leader, they often fail.
10) Unstable type. Adolescents of this type show an increased inclination and craving for entertainment, and indiscriminately, as well as for idleness and idleness. They do not have any serious, professional interests, they almost do not think about their future at all.
11) Conformal type. This type demonstrates thoughtless submission to any authorities. For them, the main life credo is "to be like everyone else." This is the type of opportunist who, for the sake of his own interests, is ready to betray a comrade, to leave him at a difficult moment, but no matter what he does, he will always find a “moral” justification for his act.
Typology of characters by K. Leonhard
Close to the classifications of A.E. Lichko is the typology of characters proposed by the German scientist K. Leonhard. This classification is based on an assessment of a person's communication style with other people.
1) Hyperthymic type. He is characterized by extreme contact, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes. He often spontaneously deviates from the original topic of conversation. Such a person has episodic conflicts with people around him due to an insufficiently serious attitude to his official and family responsibilities. Of the positive features: energy, thirst for activity, optimism, initiative. Repulsive features: frivolity, a tendency to immoral acts, increased irritability, insufficiently serious attitude to their duties. They hardly endure the conditions of discipline, monotonous activity, forced loneliness.
2) Disty type. It is characterized by low contact, laconicism. Such people are homebodies, burdened by a noisy society, rarely come into conflict with others. They highly value those who are friends with them, and are ready to obey them. Their positive features: seriousness, conscientiousness, a sense of justice. Negative Traits: passivity, slowness of thinking, slowness of individualism.
3) Cycloid type. He is characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings, as a result of which the manner of communicating with people around him also often changes. In a period of hung mood, they are sociable, and in a period of depression, they are closed.
4) Excitable type. This type is characterized by low contact in communication, slowness of webral and non-webral reactions. Often they are boring and gloomy, prone to rudeness and abuse, to conflicts in which they themselves are the provocative side. They are quarrelsome in the team, powerful in the family. In an emotionally calm state, people of this type are often conscientious, accurate, and love animals.
5) Stuck type. He is characterized by moderate sociability, tediousness, a tendency to moralizing, and taciturnity. In conflicts, he usually acts as an initiator. He strives to achieve high results in any business he undertakes. Particularly sensitive to social justice, at the same time touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vindictive, arrogant, ambitious, jealous, makes exorbitant demands on relatives and subordinates at work.
6) Pedantic type. Rarely enters into conflicts. In the service, he behaves like a bureaucrat, presenting many formal requirements to others. Sometimes he harasses the household with excessive claims to accuracy. Positive traits: conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness, reliability in business. Negative - formalism, boringness, grumbling.
7) Alarm type. People of this type are characterized by low contact, timidity, self-doubt, minor mood. They rarely come into conflict, in conflict situations they seek support and support. Attractive features: friendliness, self-criticism, diligence.
8) Emotive type. These people prefer communication in a narrow circle of the elite, with whom good contacts are established, whom they understand "perfectly". Grievances are in themselves, not splashing out. Attractive features: kindness, compassion, rejoicing in the success of others, a heightened sense of duty. Repulsive features: excessive sensitivity, tearfulness.
9) Demonstrative type. This type of people is characterized by the ease of establishing contacts, the desire for leadership, the thirst for power and praise. It has attractive features: courtesy, artistry, the ability to captivate others, originality of thinking and actions. Their repulsive features: selfishness, hypocrisy, boasting, shirking work.
10) Exalted type. He is characterized by high contact, talkativeness, amorousness. Such people often argue, but do not bring matters to open conflicts. They are attached and attentive to friends and relatives. They are altruistic, have a sense of compassion, good taste, show brightness and sincerity of feelings. Repulsive features: alarmism, susceptibility to momentary moods.
11) Extroverted type. It is distinguished by high contact, such people have a lot of friends, acquaintances, they are talkative to the point of talkativeness. Rarely come into conflict. In communication with friends, at work and in the family, they often give up leadership to others, prefer to obey and be in the shadows. Attractive traits: willingness to listen carefully to others, diligence. Repulsive features: susceptibility to influence, frivolity, thoughtlessness of actions, passion for entertainment, participation in the spread of gossip and rumors.
12) Introverted type. He is distinguished by very low contact, isolation, isolation from reality, and a tendency to philosophize. Such people love solitude; rarely come into conflict with others. Often they are emotionally cold idealists, relatively weakly attached to people. Attractive features: the presence of strong convictions, adherence to principles, restraint. Repulsive features: stubbornness, rigidity of thinking.
This classification refers mainly to adults and represents the typology of characters mainly in terms of attitude towards people.
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