At first glance, it seems that the psyche is a phenomenon that is well known to everyone. Indeed, each of us knows well that the psyche is our perception of objects and phenomena of the external world, the processes of thinking, our experiences and desires. The psyche remains with us not only during waking hours, but also during sleep, revealing itself in the form of intricate dreams.
However, when trying to somehow understand the essence of the psyche, to give it a clear definition, it immediately turns out that external representations alone are not enough to answer the question of what the psyche is. It turns out, for example, that in the structure of this complex phenomenon it is difficult to separate those aspects of the psyche that belong to us from those aspects of it that belong to the outside world.
Psychologists have long noticed that the psyche literally dissolves in all images of the world and nowhere acts as a separate object, remaining mysterious and indefinite in its nature and structure.
This enigma gives rise to many attempts to give a more or less clear definition of the essence of the psyche.
The nature of the psyche
Most often, the psyche is defined by a simple enumeration of certain types of mental phenomena. Many dictionaries and textbooks indicate that the psyche is our sensations, thinking, memory, feelings, etc. Such a definition of the essence of the mental by enumerating its constituent elements comes from the idea that parts are always simpler than the whole and through them it is easier to understand the whole. But this overlooks the fact that the whole is not reduced to the sum of its constituent parts, that the whole is something other than its constituent parts, it contains some new qualities that none of the parts have. As a result, it turns out that with such an approach, the essence of the psyche as a whole remains unrevealed. Here the situation is similar to that which also arises before a chemist who would like to understand what water is, while confining himself only to the study of the properties of hydrogen and oxygen, of which, as is known, water consists.
Another popular way of explaining the psyche is to indicate its location in the body, its connection with the brain, the nervous system. Through such localization, a clearer description of the psyche is achieved, however, only by indicating its connection with a specific part of the organism. However, the weakness of this definition also lies in the fact that in reality the psyche is a function not only of the brain and even not only of the nervous system, but a product of the activity of the whole organism as a whole. In addition, this or that organ does not at all determine the nature of the function that it performs. The situation is just the opposite: it is the need for the implementation of a certain function that gives rise to this or that organ and the corresponding physiological process. It was not the brain that gave rise to the psyche, but, on the contrary, the need for a developed mental function for the body at a certain stage led to the formation of the nervous system and the brain. Just as it was not the heart that gave rise to the function of blood circulation, but the need for this function that arose, as a result of long evolution, led to the formation of the heart and the circulatory system in some animals.
Hence it becomes clear that a meaningful explanation of the psyche is possible only by elucidating that special vital task, the function that it performs in the body. The correct definition of the psyche presupposes not only the elucidation of its constituent elements and not only the establishment of those organs with which it is connected, but, first of all, the answer to the question: what special task, function does the psyche perform in the life of the organism?
Therefore, in modern science, the psyche is increasingly defined as a function of the nervous system that ensures the organization and optimal behavior of the body to realize its needs and the motives, desires, goals, value orientations, relationships, etc. formed on their basis.
It is widely accepted that all animals have a mind, and some modern psychologists believe that it even exists in an elementary form in plants. At the same time, it is especially emphasized that in humans and animals, the brain performs the task of regulating their behavior in environment, acting in accordance with the laws of information and energy supply of the body.
In this regard, it should be noted that in the historically established materialistic philosophical tradition, which was adhered to by Soviet psychology, when defining the psyche, emphasis was placed on the function it performs as a "reflection of objective reality." But at the same time, the most important thing for characterizing the essence of the psyche remained in the shade - the question of why a living organism, a person, needs this very “reflection”.
Of course, the processes of "reflection", expressed in sensations, perceptions, ideas and reflections, enable the individual to understand the features of the current life situation. But this is only the initial stage of the functioning of the psyche.
Its most important task is to organize, on the basis of the analysis, expedient behavior for the implementation of the current needs, desires, and goals chosen by the subject. Thus, it turns out that the “reflection” itself, as well as psychomotor processes, and speech, and consciousness, are only mental components that are subordinate to the basic foundations of the psyche in the form of needs and urges that trigger the entire mental process as a whole and manage them.
“Reflection” is only a primary mental cognitive process that “works” to satisfy some basic desires and interests. Therefore, the activity of reflective processes is always maintained or terminated depending on the degree of satisfaction of the need that caused it.
So, the main function of the psyche is to organize and implement the optimal behavior of the organism to meet the needs of the individual, taking into account its capabilities and the characteristics of the environment.
In the proposed definition of the psyche, as you can see, the main emphasis is on its organizing, controlling role, and not on its subordinate "reflection". Needs are closely intertwined with the psyche, initially built into the body. According to many Western and Russian psychologists, it is the needs that form the core of the psyche (Sigmund Freud, Kurt Lewin, William McDougall, Lev Vygotsky, Abraham Maslow, etc.). While interpreting the essence and structure of the psyche in different ways, these psychologists were nevertheless unanimous in recognizing that it is needs that generate and organize behavior and determine its general direction. On this foundation, cognitive and motor processes are formed, the work of consciousness is carried out, without which the effective fulfillment of needs, of course, is impossible.
It is easy to see that in the proposed understanding of the essence of the psyche, an explanation is proposed based on the recognition of its close connection with the work of the human body, i.e. with material organs and processes. However, as shown in Chap. I of this manual, the image of the psyche for a long time was formed in the course of solving the general philosophical problem of the relationship between spirit and matter.
Moreover, philosophers have long held different positions on whether the spirit can exist outside the mother, and the soul can live apart from the body. As a result, two different understandings have developed: materialistic and idealistic. The problem of priority, the primacy of matter or consciousness still divides philosophers.
According to the materialistic approach, mental phenomena are a property of highly organized living matter to reflect reality in the form of mental images.
In the view of materialists, psychic phenomena arose as a result of a long biological evolution of living matter and at present represent the highest result of development achieved by it.
At first, living matter had only the biological properties of irritability and self-preservation, manifested through the mechanisms of metabolism with the environment, its own growth and reproduction. Later, already at the level of more complexly organized living beings, sensitivity and the ability to learn were added to them.
In the process of evolutionary self-improvement of living beings, a special organ emerged in their organisms, which assumed the function of managing development, behavior and reproduction - nervous system. As it became more complex and improved, the forms of behavior and activity developed, as well as the emergence of more complex forms of mental reflation of life activity.
The human psyche is qualitatively more high level than the psyche of animals. Consciousness, the human mind developed in the process labor activity, which arose out of the need to joint action for getting food. The manufacture and use of grud tools, the division of labor contributed to the development of abstract thinking, speech, and the development of socio-historical relations between people. In progress historical development society, a person changed the ways and methods of his behavior. Natural inclinations and functions were transformed into higher mental functions - specifically human, socially and historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception. Their effectiveness increased through the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The totality of higher mental functions forms the consciousness of man.
Philosophers-idealists present the matter quite differently. According to them, the psyche is not a property of living matter and is not a product of its development. It, like matter, exists forever.
The genesis of the psyche on the basis of matter is completely rejected. On the other hand, the own evolution of the mental is recognized, its movement from lower forms to higher ones. Idealism is thus the philosophical antipode of materialism.
The classic example of idealism created Plato. In his teaching, the world of things and people is declared to be derived from intelligible ideas, eternal, unchanging and perfect, which exist more realistically than mortal and changeable things. The spiritual, according to Plato, is essential, substantial, and therefore more real than the corporeal. The spiritual in a person, his thoughts, concepts, images, is a manifestation of the spiritual, objectively existing outside of a person.
Platonism is a variety of idealism, which later became known as objective. By virtue of its proximity to religion, objective idealism reigned supreme in the philosophy and psychology of the Middle Ages.
In modern times, subjective idealism takes shape in the philosophy of George Berkeley and David Hume.
Berkeley's creed of subjective idealism says: "To exist is to be in perception." Subjective idealism thus takes an extremely anti-realistic position, denying the existence of anything outside the sphere of our experience (both things and incorporeal ideas). Being in subjective idealism coincides with experience, with the consciousness of the cognizing subject, which is the only reality available to us.
The most popular idealist currents at present are neo-Thomism and existentialism.
The first of these currents is based on the concept objective idealism in and the content of the second is close subjective idealism.
Neo-Thomism, or New Thomism, - philosophy of modern Catholicism.
This philosophical direction is an updated Thomism, those. the philosophy of Thomas (lat. Tohmas) Aquinas, 13th century philosopher In 1879 neo-Thomism was recognized by the head catholic church and since that time has been an important part of the doctrine of Catholicism. Neo-Thomism is the most deeply developed version of modern religious philosophy. Its famous representatives are E. Zhipson. J. Maritain, K. Wojtylla (Pope Paul) and others.
Referring to the inability of modern science to give clear answers to such complex questions as the origin of the universe, the emergence of life, the origin of man, and others, neo-Thomists again try to prove the existence of God. According to neo-Thomists, the belief of medieval philosophers that matter, like consciousness, are the result of divine creation, was completely correct and has enduring significance. And all the philosophical teachings of the New Age, especially the teachings of a materialistic wing, which criticized this conviction, represent an uninterrupted chain of delusions and errors, which gave rise only to chaos in the minds and confusion in public life.
The psyche for neo-Thomists is in no way connected with matter, it exists independently as an active substance. The very possibility of self-movement of matter, the possibility of its transition from lower forms to higher forms, and even more so the possibility of generating consciousness by matter, is denied. The living, say the neo-Thomists, can never emerge from the inanimate, the sentient from the non-sentient, the rational from the unintelligent.
All these miraculous transformations which the modern science, could only happen as a result of divine intervention at each of these stages of development. In these great deeds, God visibly showed such qualities as love and the desire for creativity, which he passed on to his highest creation - man.
From this follows the main conclusion of neo-Thomism that human consciousness is not material, but divine in its origin, and the mind is the "heavenly gift" of the creator. But since human consciousness is a creation of God, a person feels and thinks without having any connection with the sense organs and the brain.
Fine, one currently popular idealistic philosophical movement dealing with the problems of the psyche and consciousness is existentialism, philosophy of existence(from lat. Existence).
The most prominent representatives of existentialism are Russian philosophers Nikolai Berdyaev and Lev Shestov, German philosophers Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers, French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.
The central category in this philosophy is the concept human being, or existence. Moreover, the existence of the human race is characterized as unique, unrepeatable, one of a kind. Human existence is fundamentally different from the existence of other objects and living beings. J.-P. Sartre points out that the philosophy of existentialism opposes both the assertions of traditional religion that man and his psyche were created by God, and against the ideas of materialists that supposedly man was created by nature. In fact, there is an "absolute leap" between matter and human consciousness.
But at birth, a person receives his spiritual world not in a finished form, but only in the form of its outline, project.
Improving his inner world, in the course of life a person must create himself. It is this “incompleteness” of a person that gives rise to an urgent need for everyone to create himself, as well as the corresponding psychological consequences in the form of a sense of care, anxiety, responsibility, and sometimes despair that accompany and color human existence. Against the background of general social pessimism and disappointment, this single existence is the only, stable, unshakable value that allows a person to preserve the freedom of the individual and the dignity of his "I".
The most important point in the philosophy of existentialism is the thesis of the unknowability of human existence both by the methods of science and by the methods of religious-idealistic doctrines. According to K. Jaspers, the only way to characterize existence is not “knowledge”, but only “appeal to the possibility”, and all existential philosophy is only an “infinite approximation” to clarifying the nature of human existence and consciousness.
In existentialism philosophical knowledge closely intertwined with psychology, such psychological concepts as suffering, despair, tragedy, melancholy, fear, absurdity, responsibility, mental illness, etc. became the main categories of existentialism.
Transpersonal psychology adjoins the philosophy of existentialism, considering a person as a cosmic, spiritual being, inextricably linked, like all mankind, with the Universe.
Human consciousness is considered here as part of the global information network.
As an independent branch of psychological science, transpersonal psychology took shape in the 1960s. of the last century, standing out from humanistic psychology.
Transpersonal psychology takes most of its materials from the interpretation of dreams, experiences after taking soft drugs, oriental meditation practices, altered states of consciousness during intense breathing, which create special conditions for the brain to work. Representatives of transpersonal psychology ( Stanislav Grof, Abraham Maslow, etc.), as a rule, they admit the existence of Higher powers, but avoid recognizing their connection with any particular religion.
Supporters of the new direction believe that just as there are several ways of knowing, in the same way there are many states of consciousness, and all of them are important for psychology. Moreover, altered states of consciousness function according to laws that are different from those according to which normal consciousness functions. So, ordinary consciousness acts in accordance with the laws of logic and is expressed in words and numbers, and what transpersonal psychology describes is more related to the work of the right hemisphere and is expressed in images rather than concepts.
Representatives of the new psychology mostly focused on Eastern practices, organized seminars on the development and use of meditation and breathing techniques.
It should, however, be avenged that the assessment of transpersonal psychology in modern times is ambiguous.
It is recognized that the merit of the new direction lies in the discovery of the connection between man and the cosmos, the possibility of human consciousness going beyond ordinary barriers, overcoming spatial and temporal restrictions during transpersonal experiences, etc.
But at the same time, it is noted that the way of studying the human psyche proposed by the new direction is very dangerous, since the proposed methods are designed to penetrate into the spiritual space of the individual by destroying its defense mechanisms. Since transpersonal experiences occur when a person is intoxicated with psychedelics, hypnosis, or enhanced breathing, they cannot lead to a person's spiritual and physical recovery.
Thus, as we see, for centuries there has been a debate about the psyche as the most mysterious phenomenon that exists in the world. Two opposing approaches that have long existed in the interpretation of this essence (materialistic and idealistic) are now being integrated by modern psychological science, which interprets the psyche as the embodiment of the indissoluble unity of objective and subjective being, the coexistence of external and internal, bodily and spiritual.
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Psychological essence of thinking.
Psychology, unlike other sciences, studies the thinking of a particular person in his real life and activities. The psychological study of the nature of thinking proceeds from the distinction between sensory and rational cognition, the difference between thinking and perception. The latter reflects the world in images, the objects of the world appear in perception from the side of their external, sensually reliable properties. In perception, things, phenomena and properties are given in their individual manifestations, which are “connected, but not connected”. But for the orientation of man in the natural and social world, it is not enough sensory perception, because:
First, the essence of objects and phenomena does not directly coincide with their appearance comprehensible.
Secondly, the complex phenomena of the natural and social world are inaccessible to perception, they are not expressed in visual properties.
Thirdly, perception is limited to the reflection of objects and phenomena at the moment of their direct impact on the human senses. But with the help of perception it is impossible to know the past (which has already happened) and to foresee the future (which is not yet).
Thus, thinking begins where sensory cognition is no longer sufficient or even powerless. Thinking continues and develops the cognitive work of sensations, perceptions and ideas, going far beyond their limits. We can easily understand, for example, that an interplanetary ship moving at a speed of 50,000 kilometers per second will move to a distant star six times slower than a beam of light, while directly perceive or imagine the difference in the speed of bodies moving at a speed of 300,000 kilometers per second and 50,000 kilometers per second, we are not able to. In the real cognitive activity of each person, sensory cognition and thinking continuously pass one into the other and mutually condition each other.
Thinking reveals what is not directly given in perception, it reflects the world in its essential connections and relationships, in its diverse mediations. The main task of thinking is to identify essential, necessary connections based on real dependencies, separating them from random coincidences in time and space.
In the process of thinking, a transition is made from the accidental to the necessary, from the individual to the general. Significant connections with necessity are common under manifold changes in unimportant circumstances. Therefore, thinking is defined as a generalized reflection of reality. All thinking takes place in generalizations. “Thinking,” S.L. Rubinshtein emphasized, “is the movement of thought, revealing the connection that leads from the individual to the general and from the general to the individual.”
In the process of thinking, the subject uses various kinds of means developed by mankind in order to penetrate into the essential connections and relations of the objective and social world: practical actions, images and ideas, models, schemes, symbols, signs, language. Reliance on cultural means, tools of knowledge characterizes such a feature of thinking as its mediation.
Traditional definitions of thinking, which can be found in most textbooks on psychology, usually fix its two features: generalization and mediation. Thinking is a process of generalized and mediated reflection of reality in its essential connections and relations.
Thinking is a process of cognitive activity in which the subject operates with various types of generalizations, including images, concepts and categories.
The appearance of speech in the process of human evolution fundamentally changed the functions of the brain. The world of inner experiences and intentions has acquired a qualitatively new apparatus for encoding information with the help of abstract symbols. This not only made it possible to transfer information from person to person, but also made the process of thinking qualitatively different. We better realize, understand a thought when we dress it in a linguistic form. Outside of language, we experience vague urges that can only be expressed through gestures and facial expressions. The word acts not only as a means of expressing thought: it rebuilds the thinking and intellectual functions of a person, since the thought itself is accomplished and formed with the help of the word.
The essence of thinking is in performing some cognitive operations with images in the internal picture of the world. These operations allow you to build and complete the changing model of the world. Thanks to the word, the picture of the world becomes more perfect, differentiated, on the one hand, and more generalized, on the other. Joining the direct image of the object, the word highlights its essential elementary or complex features that are directly inaccessible to the subject. The word translates the subjective meaning of the image into a system of meanings, which makes it more understandable both to the subject himself and to others around him.
Introduction
1. general characteristics child development during preschool childhood
1.1 Formation of social forms of the psyche and moral behavior
1.2 Development of the basic properties of perception
2. The psychological essence of the game of a preschooler
2.1 Major game theories in the psychological literature
2.2 The main types of games, features of the role-playing game of a preschooler
2.3 The meaning of the game and its influence on the development of the preschooler
Conclusion
Glossary
List of abbreviations
Bibliography
Introduction
According to Ya. Kolominsky, “in the rationalizing mind of a modern person, a question sometimes arises that only at first glance may seem idle: why do we need childhood? Is it permissible in our fast-paced age, when there is a chronic lack of time to master the avalanche-like flow of information, and even more so to multiply it and use it in practice, is it permissible to spend the first ten - and isn't it the best? - years for games, for Dr. Aibolit, for counting sticks? Maybe the slogan is hopelessly outdated: “Play, children, frolic in the wild, is this what you have been given a red childhood for?” However, the professor himself refutes this assumption, arguing that childhood, as a special qualitatively unique period of the existence of living beings, is a product of evolution, and human childhood itself is also the result of historical development 1 .
The complexity and inconsistency of the game do not cease to attract the attention of researchers. However, the already known laws of the game allow teachers to widely use this valuable activity of children for the successful solution of many educational problems. To do this, the teacher must be able to manage the game of children, use it in pedagogical work.
Play is one of the main activities in the course of human development. Activity is the active interaction of a living being with the surrounding reality, during which it acts as a subject that purposefully acts on an object and thus satisfies its needs.
Consequently, the game as a type of activity is aimed at the child's knowledge of the world around him through active participation in the work and everyday life of people. This is the purpose of the game, although, of course, neither the child nor the adults intentionally set it. This goal merges with the motive of the game, since the only impulse that directs the activity of the child to play is his irrepressible and ardent desire for knowledge and active participation in the life and work of adults, with their practical actions, concerns and relationships. The means of the game are, firstly, knowledge about people, their actions, relationships, experiences, expressed in images, speech, experiences and actions of the child. Secondly, methods of action with certain objects (with a steering wheel, scales, thermometer) in certain life circumstances. And, thirdly, those moral assessments and feelings that appear in judgments about good and bad deeds, about useful and harmful actions of people.
The result of the game is a deeper understanding of children about the life and activities of adults, about their duties, experiences, thoughts and relationships. The result of the game are also friendly feelings that are formed during the game, a humane attitude towards people, a variety of cognitive interests and mental abilities of children. The game develops observation and memory, attention and thinking, creative imagination and will. The most important result of the game is the deep emotional satisfaction of children with the very process of the game, which best meets their needs and opportunities for effective knowledge of the world around them and active communication with people.
The management of the game is the use by the teacher with the greatest completeness of those huge educational and educational opportunities that are inherent in this amazing activity of the child.
1. General characteristics of the mental development of the child during preschool childhood
Preschool age is a period during which further intensive formation and development of the psyche takes place (a regular change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations), the emergence of various qualitative formations both in the development of psychophysiological functions and in the personal sphere. There is a colossal enrichment and ordering of the child's sensory experience, mastery of specifically human forms of perception and thinking, rapid development of the imagination, formation of the beginnings of voluntary attention and semantic memory.
1.1 Formation of social forms of the psyche and moral behavior
This period is extremely important in terms of the genesis and formation of social forms of the psyche and moral behavior. The predominance of topics related to the image of a person in the work of a preschooler testifies to his predominant orientation to the social environment. Thus, a broad basis is created for the formation of primary forms of socially significant qualities (i.e., it contributes to the socialization of the individual - the process and result of the active appropriation of a person by norms, ideals, value orientations, attitudes and rules of behavior that are significant for his social environment).
By the end of preschool age, there is a transition from an emotional direct relationship to the outside world to relationships that are built on the basis of the assimilation of moral assessments, rules and norms of behavior. The formation of moral concepts in preschool age occurs in various ways. Thus, in communicating with adults, a child often learns moral concepts in a categorical form, gradually clarifying and filling them with specific content, which speeds up the process of their formation and at the same time creates the danger of their formal assimilation. Therefore, it is important that the child learns to apply them in life in relation to himself and others. This is essential, first of all, for the formation of his personal qualities.
Personality develops in the process of real interaction of the child with the world, including the social environment, and through the assimilation by him of the moral criteria that regulate his behavior. This process is controlled by adults who contribute to the selection and training of socially significant qualities. The independence of the child begins to manifest itself in the case when he applies moral assessments to himself and others and regulates his behavior on this basis. This means that at this age such a complex personality property as self-awareness develops.
New high-quality education occurs due to many factors: speech and communication with adults and peers, various forms of cognition and through inclusion in various types of activities (game, productive, household). All this contributes to a better adaptation of the child to social conditions and the requirements of life 2.
The leading form of the psyche at this time is the representation, which is intensively developed in various types of play and productive activities (drawing, modeling, design). Representations leave an imprint on the entire process of mental development. Various forms of the psyche are most successfully formed if they are associated with secondary images, i.e. with presentations. Therefore, such forms of the psyche as imagination, figurative memory and visual-figurative thinking are rapidly developing.
Not only various mental functions, but also the child's speech and its development during this period are mainly connected with ideas. The understanding of speech by children largely depends on the content of those ideas that arise in them in the process of its perception. The development of mental functions in preschool age is complicated by the fact that in the process of communication, cognitive and practical activity, social forms of the psyche are actively formed, not only in the perceptual sphere, but also in the field of memory. By the end of preschool age, verbal-logical thinking appears.
An essential feature of preschool age is the emergence of certain relationships between the child and peers, the formation of a "children's society". The preschooler's own internal position in relation to other people is characterized by an increasing awareness of his own "I" and the meaning of his actions, a great interest in the world of adults, their activities and relationships.
The features of the social situation of the development of a preschooler are expressed in the types of activities characteristic of him, primarily in the role-playing game. The desire to join the world of adults, combined with the lack of knowledge and skills necessary for this, leads to the fact that the child masters this world in a playful way that is accessible to him. Particularly favorable conditions for the development of preschool children are created by the system of public preschool education. In preschool institutions, a program for teaching children is being implemented, the initial forms of their joint activities are taking shape, and public opinion is emerging. As the results of specially conducted studies show, the general level of mental development and the degree of readiness for schooling are on average higher in children brought up in kindergarten than children who do not attend kindergarten.
1.2 Development of the basic properties of perception
Two opposite tendencies are observed in the development of the main forms of perception. On the one hand, there is an increase in integrity, and on the other hand, the detailing and structure of the perceptual image is manifested.
The development of perception occurs especially effectively in conditions of specially organized sensory education. When teaching drawing, in the process of didactic games, preschoolers are systematically introduced to systems of sensory standards, taught methods of examining objects, comparing their properties with the mastered standards. This leads to the fact that the perception of the child becomes complete, accurate and dissected.
A special area for the development of perception is the formation of the aesthetic perception of works of art (paintings, musical plays).
From three to seven years there is a significant decrease in the thresholds of visual, auditory, skin-motor sensitivity. Visual acuity increases, the subtlety of distinguishing colors and their shades, phonemic and pitch hearing develops, the hand turns into an organ of active touch. But all these changes do not happen by themselves. They are a consequence of the fact that the child masters new actions of perception aimed at examining objects and phenomena of reality, their diverse properties and relationships. The actions of perception are formed in connection with the mastery of those types of meaningful activities that require the identification and consideration of the properties of objects and phenomena. For the development of visual perception of shape, size, color, productive activities are of particular importance - application, drawing, design. Tactile perception develops in the process of modeling, manual labor, phonemic hearing - in the process of speech communication, pitch hearing - in music classes.
Thus, preschool age is the initial stage in the formation of the subject of cognitive and practical activity. Various kinds of qualitative formations, such as personal properties, psychological structures of the subject of activity, communication and cognition, an intensive process of socialization of the natural forms of the psyche, its psychophysiological functions, create real prerequisites for the transition to the school period of life.
2. The psychological essence of the game of a preschooler
2.1 Basic game theory in psychological literature
The great importance of play in the lives of young children, the variety of games played by the same children, their similarity among children from different countries and different historical periods, prompted many scientists to look for an explanation of the nature and origin of this amazing children's activity.
The most common in the XIX and early XX centuries. were the following game theories.
Course work
General psychology
The psychological essence of attention and its properties
Goroshkov Sergey Evgenievich
Introduction
The concept of attention
1 Attention and consciousness
2 Physiological mechanisms of attention
3 Orienting reflex
5 Development of attention
Main types
1 Types of attention
2 Main properties
3 Absence
4 Psychologist in KRO classes
Conclusion
Glossary
Appendix
Introduction
The theme of this course work is the essence of attention and its properties.
Attention is the focus and concentration of consciousness on any object, phenomenon or activity. Attention can be represented as a cognitive process that ensures the ordering of information coming from outside, depending on the primacy and importance of the tasks facing the person.
Already from this definition, attention follows that it is characterized by a focus on what the consciousness is occupied with, and the concentration of consciousness on something that requires special awareness.
In the life of any person, there may be cases when something is better done with dispersed attention, and sometimes a person is required to clearly concentrate on a particular subject.
Dispersed attention is also obligatory for a person in the case when he needs to perform several actions at the same time. More difficulty in performing complex tasks is reduced in the case of constant attention training, and the performance of these tasks becomes habitual. A person achieves automatism, that is, automatic processing of information takes place, therefore, fewer cognitive resources are required to complete these tasks.
In modern psychology, attention studies are included, along with general psychology, into engineering psychology and labor psychology, neuropsychology and medical psychology, developmental and educational psychology.
The purpose of the study is to reveal the essence of attention and consider its properties.
Research objectives:
find out what attention is;
consider the theory of attention;
identify the properties of attention;
determine the main types of attention;
consider the development and defects of attention.
The object of this course work is attention in psychology, and the subject psychological entity attention and its properties.
When writing a term paper, the ideas of such authors as M.M. Ivanova, A.N. Leontiev, R.S. Nemov, V.S. Romanova and others were used.
Main part
attention distraction
1 The concept of attention
1.1 Attention and consciousness
If we single out the common thing that stands behind all examples of the connection between attention and memory, then we cannot do without consciousness. Attention is necessary in order to keep in the mind the momentary perceived, transient - otherwise it will not be able to become the property of memory. More attention is needed in order for the memory to again be in the mind, to rise from the depths of memory. Keeping the image and thought in the mind is behind the joint functioning of attention and perception, attention and thinking.
The problem of the connection between attention and consciousness began to be developed within the framework of tail philosophy. In Eastern philosophy, tradition has a special place for attention to both “concentration” and “correct vision”, “penetration” in achieving enlightenment, true divine wisdom. Without attention, "enlightened consciousness" is impossible. It is no coincidence that the practice and technique of meditation, based on the ultimate concentration of consciousness, is defined in the Eastern religious and philosophical tradition.
In the second half of the 19th century, a line of research began to actively develop in psychology, which notes the connection between attention and consciousness. The first direction is the classical psychology of consciousness, within which a systematic experimental study of attention began. Since then, psychology has developed a number of diverse ideas about the relationship between attention and consciousness, in which attention is assigned different roles.
The most common idea of attention in modern psychology is its interpretation as a mechanism of access to consciousness, which determines what of the perceived and experienced by us at the moment reaches consciousness and will affect our behavior. This process can be represented in different ways. For example, like a kind of laz, like that, through which Carroll's Alice tried to get into the magical garden in Wonderland, but did not fit completely. From the court follows the question: what and why remains outside of consciousness, occupies an important place in the modern psychology of attention.
V classical psychology consciousness, several more approaches to considering the relationship between attention and consciousness have been identified. Consciousness ceases as a structure similar to the visual field with a focus and periphery, and attention as a part of consciousness, its focus, a zone that has the greatest clarity and reporting of the contents of consciousness. However, here the question arises: how exactly do the individual components of individual experience find themselves in this zone? To answer this question, attention must be represented as a special process of transferring a certain content of consciousness, or its element, to its central part.
Attention can also be considered as one of the properties of consciousness or its inherent features. This property is the degree of subjective clarity of the impressions in the mind, which, in the case of a lack of attention, turn out to be vague, and in the case of the utmost attention, they appear to us most clearly.
On the initial stage talking about attention, the connection between attention and consciousness will allow us to approach the description of the subjective phenomena of attention and the fulfillment of the criteria for the presence of this elusive.
Consciousness is the ability to give an account of oneself, and therefore, it is through consciousness that we can know what it means to "be attentive" or "to be inattentive."
1.2 Physiological mechanisms of attention
The works of the outstanding Russian physiologists A.A. Ukhtomsky and I.P. Pavlov are of great importance for understanding the physiological foundations of attention. The idea put forward by IP Pavlov about the special reactions of an uneven system of orienting reflexes already contained a proposal about the reflex nature of involuntary attention. “We peer into the emerging image, listen to the emerging sounds; we strongly draw in the smell that has touched us ... ”- wrote I.P. Pavlov. Orientation reactions are very complex according to modern data. They are associated with the activity of a significant part of the body. The orienting complex includes both external movements (for example, the head towards the sound) and changes in the sensitivity of certain analyzers; the nature of metabolism changes; breathing changes; cardiovascular and galvanic skin reactions, that is, vegetative changes occur; there are simultaneous changes in the electrical activity of the brain. According to the ideas of I.P. Pavlov and A.A. Ukhtomsky, the phenomena of attention are associated with an increase in the excitability of certain brain structures as a result of the interaction of excitation and inhibition processes. I.P. Pavlov believed that at every moment in the cortex there is some area characterized by the most favorable, optimal conditions for excitation. It is this section that arises according to the law of induction nervous processes , according to which nervous processes that concentrate in one area of the cerebral cortex cause inhibition in other areas and vice versa. In the focus of excitation, new conditioned reflexes are easily formed, differentiation is successfully developed, this is currently the “creative department of the cerebral hemispheres”. The focus of optimal excitability is dynamic. “If it were possible to see through the cranium and if the place of the cerebral hemispheres with optimal excitability shone, then we would be on a thinking conscious person, as a light spot constantly changing in shape and size of bizarrely irregular outlines moves along his cerebral hemispheres, surrounded by everything else more or less significant shadow in the space of the hemispheres,” wrote I.P. Pavlov. This corresponds to the center of optimal excitation, its “movement” is a physical condition for the dynamics of attention. The position of I.P. Pavlov about the movement of foci of excitation along the cerebral cortex is confirmed by modern experimental studies (data by N.M. Livanov). The dominant principle is important for understanding the physiological mechanisms of attention. In the brain, there is always a dominant, dominant focus of excitation according to A.A. Ukhtomsky. A.A. Ukhtomsky characterizes the dominant as a constellation of "centers with increased excitability." A feature of the dominant as a dominant focus is that it not only suppresses newly emerging foci of excitation, but is also capable of attracting weak excitations to itself, thereby amplifying at the expense of dominating them even more. The dominant is a stable focus of excitation. “The name “dominant” means a more or less stable focus of increased excitability…” wrote A.A. Ukhtomsky. AA Ukhtomsky's ideas about the dominant make it possible to understand the nervous mechanism of prolonged intensive attention. The high efficiency of all cognitive processes with directed concentration is determined by the most favorable conditions for brain activity that arise in centers with increased excitability. In recent years, new results have been obtained in studies by Soviet and foreign scientists that reveal the neurophysiological mechanisms of attention. Attention arises against the background of general wakefulness of the body associated with active brain activity. If active attention is possible in a state of optimal wakefulness, then concentration difficulties arise both against the background of relaxed, diffuse, and against the background of excessive wakefulness. The transition from passive to active attention provides a general activation of the brain. At a certain level of brain activity, attention is possible. Currently, psychophysiology has anatomical, physiological, and clinical data that testify to the direct relationship to the phenomena of attention of various structures of the nonspecific brain system (the reticular formation, the diffuse thalamic system, the hypothalamic structure, the hippocampus, and others). The main physiological function of the non-specific system is the regulation of various forms of non-specific activation of the brain (short-term and long-term, general, global and local, limited). It is assumed that involuntary attention is associated primarily with general, generalized forms of nonspecific brain activation. Voluntary attention is associated both with an increase in the general level of brain activation and with significant local shifts in the activity of certain brain structures.
In recent years, ideas about the leading role of the cerebral cortex in the system of neurophysiological mechanisms of attention have begun to play an important role. At the level of the cerebral cortex, attention processes are associated with the presence of a special type of neurons (attention neurons - novelty detectors and setting cells - expectation cells).
It was revealed that in healthy people under conditions of intense attention, there are changes in the bioelectrical activity in the frontal lobes of the brain. In patients with lesions, use verbal instructions to induce sustained voluntary attention. Simultaneously with the weakness of voluntary attention in case of damage to the frontal lobes of the brain, a pathological increase in involuntary forms of attention is noted. Thus, attention is associated with the activity of a number of brain structures, but their role in the regulation of various forms and types of attention is different.
1.3 Orienting reflex
The raticular formation is an accumulation of nerve cells located in the brain stem and is a trace of the nerve pathways connecting the receptors of the sense organs with areas of the cerebral cortex. It is thanks to the raticular formation that a person can be alert, react to the slightest changes in the environment. It also provides the appearance of an orienting reflex. With its ascending and descending fibers, it is a neurophysiological apparatus that provides one of the most important forms of reflex activity, known as the orienting reflex. For understanding the physiological foundations of attention, its importance is especially great.
Each unconditioned reflex, which is based on some biologically important effect for the animal, causes a selective system of responses to the stimulus with simultaneous inhibition of all reactions to side ones. Conditioned reflexes are of the same character. With them, one system of reactions, which is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, dominates, while all other side reactions are inhibited. Both unconditioned and conditioned reflexes formed on their basis create a well-known dominant focus of excitation, the flow of which is subject to the dominant.
The orienting reflex manifests itself in a series of distinct electrophysiological, motor and vascular reactions that appear every time something unusual or significant occurs in the environment surrounding the animal. These reactions include: turning the eyes and head towards a new object; alert and listening response.
In humans, the appearance of a galvanic skin reaction, vascular reactions, a change in breathing, and the occurrence of “desynchronization” phenomena in the bioelectrical reactions of the brain, expressed in depression of the “alpha rhythm”. We observe all these phenomena every time when the reaction of alertness, or the orienting reflex, is caused by the appearance of a new or usual stimulus for the subject.
Among scientists there is still no definite answer to the question whether the orienting reflex is an unconditioned or conditioned reaction. By its innate nature, the orienting reflex can be classified as an unconditioned reflex. The animal responds with a reaction of alertness to any new or ordinary stimuli without any training; according to this feature, the orienting reflex is one of the unconditioned, innate reactions of the body. The presence of certain neurons that respond with discharges to each change in the situation indicates that it is based on the action of special neural devices. On the other hand, the orienting reflex reveals a number of features that significantly distinguish it from ordinary unconditioned reflexes: with repeated use of the same stimulus, the phenomenon of the orienting reflex soon fades away, the body gets used to this stimulus, and its presentation ceases to cause the described reactions - this is the disappearance of the orienting reflex to repeated stimuli is called habituation.
4 Classification of attention theories
One of this direction was N.N. Lange. He proposed a motor theory of attention - a phenomenon in which the internal activity and selectivity of consciousness appear in a concentrated form.
Lange's motor theory of attention was the antipode of the interpretation of attention, which is captured in Wundt's concept of apperception. According to Lange, the initial fundamental is the involuntary behavior of the organism, which has a biological meaning, which lies in the fact that through muscle movements the organism takes the most advantageous position in relation to external objects in order to perceive them as clearly and distinctly as possible.
Lange made involuntary fluctuations in attention during auditory and visual perception the subject of a special experimental study.
This phenomenon and its explanation, proposed by Lange, caused a lively discussion in the psychological literature, in which the leaders of Western psychology were involved - W. Wundt, W. James, T. Ribot, J. Baldwin, G. Munsterberg and others.
Motor theory of attention T. Ribot. he believed that involuntary and voluntary attention are directly related to the duration and intensity of the emotional states associated with the object of attention.
In Ribot's rheory, important attention is paid to the study of the human family tree. With the help of the family tree, Ribot studied the properties of attention, character, memory, and so on for several generations of the same family. Thanks to the genogram, he found that cases of deep and sustained involuntary attention show all the signs of an indefatigable passion, constantly renewed and constantly thirsting for satisfaction.
T. Ribot defines attention as "mental monoideism" accompanied by natural or artificial adjustment of the individual.
Attention is a certain psycho-physiological combination, for which motor and subjective components are necessary elements. Attention is a psychological immobility that is contrary to the normal course of life processes.
Taking into account the importance of physiological correlates of mental processes and states for studying the mechanisms of attention, R.S. Nemov proposes to call the concentration of T. Ribot psychophysiological. As a purely physiological state, attention includes a complex of vascular, motor, respiratory and other voluntary and involuntary reactions.
Intellectual attention is also accompanied by an effort of blood circulation in the organs that provide the processes of thinking. According to T. Ribot, the motor effect of attention consists in the fact that some sensations, thoughts, memories receive special intensity and clarity due to the fact that motor activity is the concentration and delay of movements associated with their adjustment and control. The ability to control movements is precisely the secret of voluntary attention.
According to P. Ya. Galperin, when attention is denied along with other mental functions, this does not affect it in particular. And when attention is identified with other mental phenomena, then the real difficulties of the problem of attention, the impossibility of isolating it, already appear in this. An analysis of such difficulties leads to the conclusion that two cardinal facts underlie the most diverse views on the nature of attention.
The first one. Attention is nowhere as an independent process. It reveals itself both to oneself and to external observation as the direction, attunement and concentration of any mental activity, therefore, only as a side or property of this activity.
Second fact. Attention does not have its own separate product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins. Meanwhile, it is the presence of a characteristic product that is the main evidence of the presence of the corresponding function. Attention does not have such a product, and this is most of all against the evaluation of attention as a separate form of mental activity.
One cannot deny the significance of such facts and the legitimacy of the conclusion that follows from them and is so discouraging. We always have some kind of inner disagreement with him, and in favor of such a disagreement one could add a number of considerations about the strange and difficult position in which such an understanding of attention places us. But as long as facts are opposed to considerations, and psychology has no other sources of facts than observation, the above facts retain their absolute significance, and the denial of attention as a separate form of mental activity seems both inevitable and justified.
Let us note that this disappearance of the orienting reflex, as one gets used to it, may be a temporary phenomenon, and the slightest change in the stimulus is sufficient for the orienting reaction to arise again. This phenomenon, the occurrence of an orienting reflex with a slight change in irritation, is sometimes called the “awakening” reaction. It is characteristic that such an appearance of an orienting reflex can occur not only with an increase, but also with a weakening of the habitual stimulus and even with its disappearance. Thus, it is sufficient first to "extinguish" the orienting reflexes to rhythmically presented stimuli, and then, after the orienting reactions to each stimulus have died out as a result of habituation, to skip one of the rhythmically presented stimuli. In this case, the absence of the expected stimulus will cause the appearance of an orienting reflex.
5 Development of attention
Cultural development of attention is called that, with the help of an adult, a child learns a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), with the help of which he further directs his own behavior and attention.
A.N. Leontiev presented the process of age-related development of attention according to the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky. with age, the child's attention improves, but the development of externally mediated attention goes much faster than its development as a whole, especially natural attention.
At school age, there is a turning point in development. It is characterized by the fact that initially externally mediated attention gradually turns into internally mediated attention, and with time this last form of attention probably occupies the main place among all kinds.
The difference in the characteristics of voluntary and involuntary attention increases, it starts from preschool age, and reaches a maximum at school age, and then again shows a tendency to equalize. This is due to the fact that in the process of its development, the system of actions that provide voluntary attention gradually turns from external into internal.
A baby from the cradle is surrounded by unknown objects that attract his attention with their brightness or unusual view, he also pays attention to his relatives, rejoicing at their appearance in his field of vision or starting to cry so that they take him in their arms.
Close people pronounce words, the meaning of which the child gradually comprehends, they guide him, direct his involuntary attention. That is, his attention from an early age is directed with the help of special stimulus words.
Comprehending active speech, the child begins to control the primary process of his own attention, and first - in relation to other people, orienting their own attention to them in the right direction, and then - in relation to himself.
Initially, the processes of voluntary attention directed by the adult's speech are for the child processes of his external discipline rather than self-regulation. Gradually, using the same means of mastering attention in relation to himself, the child passes to self-control of behavior, that is, to voluntary attention.
The sequence of the main stages in the development of children's attention:
the first weeks - months of life. The appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective, innate sign of the child's involuntary attention;
end of the first year of life. The emergence of orienting-research activity as a means of the future development of voluntary attention;
the beginning of the second year of life. Detection of the rudiments of voluntary attention under the influence of the adult's speech instructions, the direction of the gaze on the object named by the adult;
second or third year of life. Enough good development the above-mentioned initial form of voluntary attention;
four or five years. The emergence of the ability to direct attention under the influence of a complex instruction from an adult;
five or six years. The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction;
school age. Further development and improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional.
2 Main types
2.1 Types of attention
Involuntary attention, in the occurrence of which our intention does not take any part, and arbitrary, arising due to our intention, as a result of our efforts. Therefore, what is remembered is what involuntary attention is directed to, what, it is necessary to remember, is necessary in voluntary attention (see Appendix A).
Involuntary attention is a low form of attention that occurs as a result of the impact of a stimulus on any of the analyzers. It appears according to the law of the orienting reflex common to man and animals.
The emergence of involuntary attention can be caused by the peculiarity of the acting stimulus, and be determined by the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the psychological state of a person.
Involuntary attention can be useful at work, at home. It gives us the opportunity to timely identify the appearance of an irritant and take the necessary measures.
At the same time, involuntary attention can have a negative effect on the success of the activity performed, distracting us from the main thing in the task being solved, reducing the productivity of work in general.
The reasons for the occurrence of involuntary can be:
unexpected stimulus;
the relative strength of the stimulus;
novelty of the stimulus;
moving objects (T. Ribot singled out this factor, believing that as a result of purposeful activation of visions, concentration and increased attention on the subject occur);
contrast of objects or phenomena;
the inner state of a person.
The French psychologist T. Ribot believed that the nature of involuntary attention occurs in the deep recesses of our being. Direction of involuntary attention this person exposes his character, or at least his aspirations.
Based on this feature, one can conclude that a person is frivolous, banal, narrow-minded, or sincere and deep.
Arbitrary attention is possible only in a person, and it arose due to conscious labor activity. To achieve a specific goal, a person has to deal not only with what is interesting in itself, but with everything that is necessary.
Voluntary attention is more complex and is formed in the learning process: at home, at school, at work. It is characterized by the fact that it is directed to the object under the influence of our intention and goal.
The physiological mechanism of voluntary attention is the beginning of optimal excitation in the cerebral cortex, which is supported by signals that come from the second signaling system. From this one can see the role of the word of the parents or the teacher for the formation of voluntary attention in the child.
The emergence of voluntary attention in a person is historically associated with the labor process, since without controlling one's attention it is impossible to carry out conscious and planned activity.
The psychological feature of voluntary attention is its accompaniment by experiencing more and less volitional effort, stress, and prolonged maintenance of voluntary attention causes fatigue, often even more than physical stress.
It is helpful to change a strong concentration of attention with less strenuous work, by switching to easier or more interesting activities, or by creating a strong interest in a person in an activity that requires intense attention.
People make significant efforts of will, concentrate their attention, understand the content necessary for themselves, and then, without volitional tension, carefully follow the material being studied.
This attention now becomes secondarily involuntary, or post-voluntary. It will greatly facilitate the process of the condition of knowledge, and prevent the development of fatigue.
Post-voluntary attention is an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, which does not require volitional efforts due to a high interest in activity. According to K.K. Platonov, post-voluntary attention is the highest form of voluntary attention. The work of a person absorbs him so much that interruptions in it begin to annoy him, as he has to be re-engaged in the process, to work in. Post-voluntary attention occurs in situations where the purpose of the activity is preserved, but there is no need for volitional effort.
N.F. Dobrynin argues that in this case, the direction of activity remains consistent with consciously accepted goals, but its implementation no longer requires conscious mental efforts and is limited in time only by the depletion of the body's resources.
But not all psychologists consider post-voluntary attention to be an independent type, since it resembles voluntary attention in the mechanism of occurrence, and involuntary attention in terms of the way it functions.
2 Main properties
The main properties of attention include: concentration, stability, intensity, volume, switching, distribution (see Appendix B).
Concentration of attention or concentration is the selection by consciousness of an object and directing attention to it. The role of concentrated attention is different. On the one hand, it is necessary for a more complete study of a particular object, and on the other hand, excessive concentration of attention leads to a sharp narrowing of the field of attention, which creates difficulties in the perception of other important objects.
Sustainability of attention is the length of time during which a person can maintain their attention on an object. It is needed in conditions of monotonous and monotonous work, when complex, but the same type of actions are performed for a long time.
Experiments have established that intensive forty-minute attention can be maintained arbitrarily without noticeable weakening and involuntary switching. In the future, the intensity of attention liquefies the faster, the less trained a person is and the less stable his attention is.
One of important values to achieve success in any activity, it has concentration and stability of attention, which characterize the depth, duration and intensity of a person’s mental activity. It is they that distinguish people who are passionately passionate about their work, who are able to disconnect from numerous side stimuli for the sake of the main thing.
Even with very stable and concentrated attention, there are always short-term involuntary changes in the degree of its intensity, tension - this is a fluctuation of attention.
You can force yourself to read the same text carefully several times if you set new tasks before each repetition.
The amount of attention is the number of objects that a person can be simultaneously aware of when perceiving in connection with any one task. At the same time, you can realize 3-7 objects, although the objects are different. And they don't get the same amount of attention. Much depends on the experience of a person, his professional training, which makes it possible to form a volume of attention that combines several objects into one, more complex one.
For some occupations, high intensity and a high amount of attention are needed almost all the time of work, and motor skills are of much less importance. These professions belong to the psychology of work.
High intensity of concentrated attention for other professions is needed only in some moments of work.
it is the ability to perform several actions at the same time. The distribution depends on the individual characteristics of the individual and on professional skills. No one can do two things at the same time without being able to do each separately.
The ability of a person to keep a certain number of different objects in the center of attention at the same time allows you to perform several actions at once, while maintaining the form of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of the simultaneity of performing several is due to a quick sequential switch from one to another.
W. Wundt showed that a person cannot focus on two limiting stimuli at the same time. But sometimes a person is really able to perform two types of activity at the same time. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed must be fully automated, and do not require attention. If this condition is not met, then the combination of activities is impossible.
A large group of professions associated with the management of moving mechanisms is called driving in labor psychology. For them, such qualities of attention as a wide distribution and rapid switching, which determine the success of controlling mechanisms under conditions of multifaceted influence in the conditions of the outside world.
The physiological mechanism of the distribution of attention is related to the fact that habitual actions that do not cause any difficulties due to already developed strong systems of temporary connections can be controlled by areas of the cortex that are outside of optimal excitation.
The dynamics of any work leads to the need to constantly change the objects to which a person pays attention. This is expressed in switching attention.
Switching is the conscious process of attention from one object to another. The involuntary switching of attention is called distraction.
Physiologically, voluntary switching of attention is explained by the movement of an area with optimal excitability along the cerebral cortex. High mobility of nervous processes as an individual trait of temperament allows you to quickly move from one object to another. In such cases, it is mobile attention.
For example, if a person has insufficient mobility of nerve fibers, then this transition occurs with effort, difficultly and slowly. Such attention is called inert. When a person has poor switchability in general, this is sticky attention. Sometimes poor switching in a person is due to poor preparedness for work.
3 Absence
Absent-mindedness is the inability of a person to focus on anything specific for a long time.
There are two types of absent-mindedness imaginary and genuine. Imaginary absent-mindedness is a person's inattention to the immediate surrounding objects and phenomena, which is caused by the extreme concentration of his attention on some object.
Imaginary absent-mindedness is the result of great concentration and narrowness of attention. Sometimes it is called "professional", as it is often found in people of this category. The attention of a scientist can be so concentrated on the problem that occupies him that he does not pay attention to anything.
Absent-mindedness as a result of internal concentration does not cause much harm to the cause, but it makes it difficult for a person to orient himself in the world around him. Much worse is genuine absent-mindedness. A person suffering from absent-mindedness of this type has difficulty establishing and maintaining voluntary attention on any object or action. To do this, he needs much more willpower than an undistracted person. The voluntary attention of an absent-minded person is very unstable and easily distracted.
The causes of truly distracted attention are very different. The causes of true absent-mindedness may be a general disorder of the nervous system, anemia, diseases of the nasopharynx, which impede the flow of air into the lungs. Sometimes absent-mindedness appears as a result of physical and mental fatigue and overwork, any difficult experiences.
One of the reasons for true absent-mindedness is overload with a lot of impressions. Therefore, children should not be allowed to go to the cinema, the theater often during school hours, take them to visit, and be allowed to watch TV every day. Scattered interests can also lead to genuine absent-mindedness.
Many students enroll in several circles at once, take books from many libraries, are fond of collecting and at the same time do nothing seriously. The reason for true absent-mindedness can also be the wrong upbringing of the child in the family: the lack of a regime in the classroom, entertainment and recreation of the child, the fulfillment of all his whims and more. Boring teaching, which does not awaken thought, does not affect feelings, does not require effort of will, is one of the sources of absent-mindedness of students.
4 Psychologist in KRO classes
The concentration of correctional and developmental education (CRO) in schools, which includes the principle of complex diagnostics, correction and rehabilitation of children with persistent learning difficulties, was developed at the Institute of Developmental Education of the Russian Academy of Education and approved by the RF Ministry of Defense in 1994. The KRO system is a form of differentiation that allows solving the problems of modern active assistance to children with learning difficulties and adaptation to school.
One of the main places in the KRO system is given to the psychologist. The work of a psychologist in the KRO system is not easy to carry out psychological help support for children with learning difficulties. This is the psychological support of children at all stages of education as a complex process of interaction, the result of which should be the creation of conditions for the development of the child, mastering his activities and behavior, for the formation of readiness for life self-determination, including personal, social and professional aspects.
Producing psychological support for the educational process in the KRO system, the psychologist conducts individual and group preventive, diagnostic, consultative, corrective work with students; expert, advisory, educational work with teachers and parents on the development, education and upbringing of children in a general education institution; participates in the work of the psychological-medical-pedagogical council of the educational institution.
The work of a psychologist in the KRO system cannot proceed in isolation from the work of other specialists of a general education institution. A collegial discussion of the results of the examination by all PMPK specialists makes it possible to develop a unified idea of the nature and characteristics of the child's development, to determine his developmental defects.
Conclusion
So, with the help of our research, we found out that attention is the concentration of the subject's activity at a given moment of time on some real or ideal object. Attention also characterizes the consistency of various links in the functional structure of an action, which determines the success of its implementation. The range of problems in the study of attention emerged as a result of the differentiation of the broader philosophical concept of apperception. In the developments of Wundt, this concept was attributed to the processes through which a clear awareness of the content of the perceived and its integration into the integral structure of past experience is carried out. A significant contribution to the development of ideas about attention was made by the Russian psychologist Lange, who developed the theory of volitional attention. Like the French psychologist Ribot, he connected attention with the regulation of ideomotor movements.
There are three types of attention. The simplest and genetically initial is involuntary attention. It is passive. The physiological manifestation of this fork of attention is the orienting reaction. If the activity is carried out in line with the conscious intentions of the subject and requires volitional efforts on his part, then they speak of arbitrary attention. As the operational and technical side develops due to its automation and the transition of actions into operations, as well as as a result of changes in motivation, the so-called post-voluntary attention may appear.
Among the characteristics of attention, determined by experimental studies, are selectivity, volume, stability, the possibility of distribution and switchability.
In modern psychology, a theory of attention has been developed as a function of internal control over the correspondence of mental actions to programs for their implementation (P. Ya. Galperin). The development of such control improves the effectiveness of any activity, in particular, its systematic formation, allows you to overcome some defects in attention, such as absent-mindedness.
Glossary
No. p / n Concept Definition 1 Attention is the focus of the subject's activity at a given point in time on some real or ideal object 2 Concentration of attention<#"justify">List of sources used
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Leontiev A.N. Reader for attention, - St. Petersburg: Academy, 2002, 402s.
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Psychology is a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche. It studies the inner world of subjective (mental) phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious by the person himself, as well as his behavior.
Personality is most often defined as a person who has a set of stable psychological properties that determine the socially significant actions of a person. In many definitions of personality, it is emphasized that the psychological qualities of a person that characterize his cognitive processes or changeable mental states, with the exception of those that manifest themselves in relation to people and society, are not among the personal qualities. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a given person.
"Personality" is a specific person, taken in the system of his psychological characteristics, which are manifested in social connections and relations of a person by nature, are stable and determine actions that are of significant importance for himself and for the people around him.
"Personality" is a social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, characterizing the degree of representation of social relations in an individual.
personality traits
1) ability
Abilities are the properties of a person's soul, understood as the totality of his mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest definition of ability available.
Abilities - a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure the successful performance of various types of activities by a person. This definition appeared in the psychology of the XVII - CHICH centuries. and is currently in use.
Abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains their acquisition, consolidation and use. This definition is now accepted and is most common in Russian psychology. It is also the most accurate of all.
A person has many different abilities. First of all, it is necessary to distinguish between elementary and complex needs.
Elementary, or simple, are abilities associated with the work of the sense organs or with relatively simple movements, for example, the ability to distinguish colors, sounds, smells, the speed and accuracy of simple motor reactions. These abilities are usually present in a person from birth, but can be improved in the course of his life and work.
Complex abilities are called abilities in various activities related to human culture, for example, technical, mathematical, musical, etc. All these abilities are not innate, so they are called socially determined.
Abilities are also divided into general and special.
General - these are the abilities that all people have (but developed to varying degrees) and which determine success in many various types activities. These include, for example, mental or general motor abilities.
Special abilities are not found in all people and determine success in individual, specific activities. These are usually abilities that require special inclinations. Such abilities include musical, literary, artistic and inventive, etc. the presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special ones, and vice versa.
Abilities are divided into theoretical and practical.
Theoretical abilities presuppose a person's propensity for abstract-logical thinking, the ability to set and successfully solve theoretical problems.
Practical abilities are manifested in the ability to set and solve practical problems associated with specific actions in a particular life situation.
Educational and creative abilities are also highlighted. They differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training, the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, while the latter are manifested in the creation by a person of objects of material and spiritual culture, in the production of new ideas, in discoveries and inventions, i.e. in creativity in various activities.
Finally, communicative and subject-activity abilities are distinguished.
Communicative abilities are called abilities that include knowledge, skills and abilities associated with communication with people, with human interaction with people, with interpersonal perception and evaluation, with establishing contacts, disposing people to themselves, influencing them.
Object-activity abilities are manifested in human activity with inanimate objects.
2) temperament
Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of mental processes, states and behavior of a person, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change.
The idea and doctrine of temperaments are among the most ancient in psychology. In their origins, they go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC. e.
Hippocrates defined temperament and associated it with the ratio of different fluids in the body: blood, lymph and bile. According to the ancient Greek names of these liquids (“sangva” - blood; “phlegm” - lymph or mucus; “hole” - yellow bile; “melan hole” - black bile), the types of temperaments introduced by Hippocrates got their names: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic . Sanguine temperament characterizes a person of a cheerful disposition. He appears to the people around him as an optimist, hopeful, humorist, joker and joker. Such a person quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in what recently worried and attracted him. Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure comes into contact with strangers, is a good conversationalist, treats all people well. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. However, intense mental or physical work quickly tire him. The melancholic temperament is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, betrays great importance to everything that personally concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially carefully controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, and suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on him. Choleric temperament characterizes a quick-tempered person. Such a person is said to be very hot and not restrained. At the same time, such a person quickly cools down and calms down if they give way to him, go towards him. His movements are jerky, but short. The phlegmatic temperament refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This slows down his slowness of entry into work.
3)character
Character - acquired in specific social conditions, the general ways of interaction of the individual with the environment, constituting the type of her life. Character acts as a form of personality manifestation, its readiness to carry out certain fixed forms/modes of behavior in more or less typical situations under certain conditions. In the practice of communication between people, their character can be manifested in the manner of behavior, the way a person reacts to the actions and deeds of other people. The manner of communication can be delicate, tactful or rude, unceremonious. This is also due to differences in the characters of people. A person with a pronounced, strong or weak character can always be distinguished from other people. The actions of a person with a strong character are distinguished by perseverance, purposefulness, perseverance, and the actions of a person with a weak character are distinguished by exactly the opposite properties: weak will, randomness, unpredictability, etc.
The character has many different traits. From a scientific point of view, there are about 150 of them. But if you approach this issue not so strictly, then there are more than 500 of them. Most often, a person’s character traits are divided into three groups: strong-willed, business and communicative. Volitional character traits associated with the will of a person are called. These include purposefulness, perseverance, perseverance, or their opposite character traits such as compliance and lack of will. Business - these are character traits that are manifested in a person in work, such as diligence, accuracy, responsibility, as well as irresponsibility, laziness, dishonesty. Communicative traits are character traits that are manifested in a person's communication with other people. These are, for example, sociability, isolation, goodwill, anger, responsiveness, etc.
There is also a division of human character traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational character traits are those that induce, direct and support the activity of a person, that is, they act as motives for his behavior.
Instrumental character traits are not independent motives of behavior, but give it a certain style.
Will can be defined as some kind of energy that is still not fully known by its nature, with the help of which a person can reasonably and consciously control his behavior, as well as his own mental processes and states. Will is also something with which a person, on a conscious and reasonable basis, influences the world around him, changing it according to his own understanding.
An essential feature of the will is connected with the fact that the will is almost always associated with the adoption by a person of a conscious, reasonable decision, overcoming obstacles and with the application of efforts for its implementation (implementation). A volitional decision, in addition, is made and implemented by a person in the conditions of competing needs, motives or drives in different directions, which are approximately the same in their motivating force. Because the difference in motive power between them is not great, a person has to show will and choose one of the two.
Will always implies self-restraint of a person: acting voluntarily, achieving a set goal, realizing some actual need, a person acting according to his own will always consciously deprives himself of something else, attractive and desirable for him. Another sign of the participation of the will in the regulation of human behavior is the presence of a well-thought-out plan for its implementation. Volitional action is an act aimed at achieving a specific goal.
An essential feature of a volitional action is that it is usually accompanied by the absence of immediate emotional satisfaction, but instead by the presence of a delayed, moral satisfaction that arises not during the performance of a volitional action, but as a result of its implementation. Often, the efforts of the will are directed not to conquer or master circumstances, but to overcome oneself, i.e. act contrary to their natural desires. This is especially true for impulsive, emotional people. temperament personality character
Emotions can be understood as specific experiences, painted in pleasant or unpleasant tones and associated with the satisfaction of a person's vital needs, performing motivational-regulating, communicative, signaling and protective functions in his life.
Under the main types of emotions, there are: mood (weakly expressed, but long-acting emotion. Reflects the general state of a person at a given time); the simplest emotions (experiences associated with the satisfaction of organic needs); affects (strong short-term violent emotions, which are clearly manifested in gestures, facial expressions of a person); feelings (represent a complex of emotional experiences associated with a person with certain specific objects); passion (strong, overly expressed feelings that a person is not able to control); stress (not a pure emotion, but a combination of emotion with a certain physical state of the body).
Emotions, especially such as affects, feelings, passions, are inseparable from a person's personality. S.L. Rubinstein believed that three spheres can be distinguished in the emotional manifestations of a personality: its organic life, its material interests, and spiritual, moral needs. He designated them respectively as organic sensitivity, objective feelings and generalized ideological feelings. The first includes, in his opinion, pleasures and displeasures, mainly associated with the satisfaction of organic needs. Object feelings are associated with the possession of an object. They are divided into material, intellectual and aesthetic. Worldview feelings are connected with morality and with the attitude of a person to the world, to people, to social events, to moral values and categories. In the structure of personality, emotions are most closely related to needs. They reflect the state, process and result of meeting needs.
People, as individuals, emotionally differ from each other in many ways. In particular: by emotional excitability; by the duration and stability of their emotional experiences; on the dominance of positive and negative emotions. But the most important feature is the strength and depth of the experienced feelings, as well as the content and subject relatedness.
6) motivation
There are two mutually connected aspects in human behavior: incentive and regulation. Motivation provides activation and direction of behavior, and regulation is responsible for how it develops in a particular situation. Motivation is connected with such concepts as need, motive, intentions, motives, etc. In a narrow sense, motivation is understood as a set of reasons that explain human behavior. A motive is any internal psychological or physiological source of behavior that is responsible for its activity and purposefulness. The motives of behavior can be conscious and unconscious, real and imaginary, motivating and meaning-forming. A need is a state of need of a person or animal for something that is necessary for its normal existence, physical or mental development.
A stimulus can be called any external or internal factor that, along with a motive, controls behavior, directing it to achieve the goal associated with this motive.
Intention is a consciously made, thoughtful decision associated with the desire to do something.
Motivation is not a wave of a conscious, indefinite desire of a person for something.
Attraction is a purposeful impulse.
The structure of the personality is the connection and interaction of relatively stable components of the personality: abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions and motivation.
Activity
In psychology, activity is understood as a dynamic system of interactions of the subject with the outside world, during which a person consciously, purposefully influences the object, due to which he satisfies his needs.
Of course, in various types of activity - performing, managerial, scientific - the role of consciousness is different. The more complex the activity, the higher the role of the psychological component in it.
But in any case, it is activity that acts as the basis for the formation of personality. Personality does not precede activity, it is generated by this activity.
Thus, the personality in psychology is considered as a subject that is realized in activity, primarily in work and communication.
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