Before you is a work that has become a classic of Russian psychology. The author himself, the founder of the cultural-historical theory, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, described it as "a psychological study of one of the most difficult, most confusing and complex issues of experimental psychology - the question of the connection between thinking and speech."
He justified the novelty and revolutionary nature of his work in the following points:
Experimental establishment of the fact that the meanings of words develop in childhood, and the determination of the main steps in their development;
Disclosure of a peculiar way of development of the scientific concepts of the child in comparison with his spontaneous concepts and clarification of the basic laws of this development;
Disclosure of the psychological nature of written speech as an independent function of speech and its relationship to thinking;
Experimental disclosure of the psychological nature of inner speech and its relation to thinking.
The book you are holding in your hands reproduces in full the last edition of L. S. Vygotsky published in 1934 during his lifetime.
The study is the basis for the study by students of psychological faculties and many other humanitarian ...
Full name Sigismund Shlomo Freud, Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school, a therapeutic trend in psychology that postulates the theory that human neurotic disorders are caused by a multi-complex relationship between unconscious and conscious processes.
was born on May 6, 1856 in the Moravian town of Freiberg in Austria-Hungary (now it is the city of Příbor, and it is located in the Czech Republic) in a traditional Jewish family of 40-year-old father Jakub Freud and his 20-year-old wife Amalia Natanson. He was the firstborn of a young mother. After Sigmund, the Freuds had five daughters and another son between 1858 and 1866. In 1859 the family moved to Leipzig and then to Vienna. In the gymnasium, he showed linguistic abilities and graduated with honors (the first student).
In 1873 he entered the University of Vienna at the Faculty of Medicine, graduated with honors in 1881, showing a penchant for research. The need to earn money did not allow him to stay at the department and he first entered the Physiological Institute, and then to the Vienna Hospital, where he worked as a doctor, moving from one department to another. In 1885 he received the title of Privatdozent, and he was given a scholarship for a scientific internship abroad, after which he went to Paris to the Salpêtrière clinic to the famous psychiatrist J.M. Charcot, who used hypnosis to treat mental illness. The practice at Charcot's clinic made a great impression on Freud. before his eyes there was a healing of patients with hysteria, who suffered mainly from paralysis.
On his return from Paris, Freud opens a private practice in Vienna. He immediately decides to try hypnosis on his patients. The first success was inspiring. In the first few weeks, he achieved instant healing of several patients. A rumor spread throughout Vienna that Dr. Freud was a miracle worker. But soon there were setbacks. He became disillusioned with hypnotic therapy, as he had been with drug and physical therapy.
In 1886, Freud marries Martha Bernays. Subsequently, they have six children - Matilda (1887-1978), Jean Martin (1889-1967, named after Charcot), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1970), Sofia (1893-1920) and Anna ( 1895-1982). It was Anna who became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her writings.
In 1891, Freud moved to the house at Vienna IX, Berggasse 19, where he lived with his family and received patients until forced emigration in June 1937. The same year marks the beginning of the development by Freud, together with J. Breuer, of a special method of hypnotherapy, the so-called cathartic (from the Greek katharsis - cleansing). Together they continue the study of hysteria and its treatment by means of the cathartic method. In 1895, they published the book "Studies in Hysteria", which for the first time speaks of the relationship between the emergence of neurosis and unsatisfied drives and emotions repressed from consciousness. Freud also occupies another state of the human psyche, similar to hypnotic - a dream. In the same year, he discovers the basic formula for the secret of dreams: each of them is the fulfillment of a wish. This thought struck him so much that he even jokingly offered to nail a commemorative plaque in the place where it happened. Five years later, he set forth these ideas in his book The Interpretation of Dreams, which he consistently considered his best work. Developing his ideas, Freud concludes that the main force that directs all actions, thoughts and desires of a person is the energy of libido, that is, the power of sexual desire. The human unconscious is filled with this energy, and therefore it is in constant confrontation with consciousness - the embodiment of moral norms and moral principles. Thus he comes to describe the hierarchical structure of the psyche, consisting of three "levels": consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.
People who have never dealt with psychology before may think that chaos reigns in this science, because many classics constantly challenged each other's theories and continue to do so. In fact, even with a considerable number of different approaches, psychology develops with the help of the joint work of specialists, and the classical representatives managed to supplement each direction with their own contributions.
Many authors of books on psychology make it possible to obtain accessible explanations of complex concepts in a simple form. Experts competently present people with information about the peculiarities of human nature, which, as you know, is very contradictory and unpredictable. The classics are considered the first psychologists who managed to sort out many problems and describe methods for solving them.
Most specialists of this plan allow you to understand such concepts as personality, discover special motivational paths, get acquainted with the psychopathology of everyday life, and so on. Moreover, there are special books on psychology in which the classics describe the characteristics of the development of children, the basics of a happy marriage and present useful lessons that contribute to a positive perception of life.
Why are some writers considered geniuses in the world of classical psychology? Because they managed to do something extraordinary and supplement science with discoveries that were innovative for a certain time. The results of the work of such people formed the basis for the formation of the most scientific direction of psychology and are beyond doubt. Of course, today there are new luminaries who look at the development of science from a different point of view, but the classics made it possible to lay a powerful foundation for psychology.
Many people today are increasingly discovering books of the above direction. The time has already passed when such literature was treated with prejudice and without much trust. Today, everyone decides for himself which advice of experts to listen to and which not, and useful information is never superfluous.
The increase in the popularity of such literature has also contributed to the fact that now there is no need to save money for expensive printed books, because they can be downloaded for free and without registration on our website, choosing among the most famous epub, fb2, pdf, rtf and txt formats. The portal also allows you to read the work of interest online, without having to download the file to your device.
For those who have not studied psychology, it often seems that chaos reigns in psychology and that all the classics of psychology challenge each other. One often hears stupidity - they say that in psychology there are so many opposing points of view that none should be taken seriously.
It's not like that at all. With all the variety of approaches, psychology is built by psychologists together, and each direction makes its own contribution to this.
If you are far from psychology, but you are interested in it and you are afraid to get lost in its wilds, a simplified scheme can help you.
There are four conditional directions in psychology:
1. Behaviorism
2. Psychoanalysis
3. Gestalt psychology
4. Humanistic psychology
All directions do not deny, but complement each other.
Behaviorism considers a person's personality as a set of HABITS.
A person, like Pavlov's dog (the founder of the direction), gets used to reacting and acting in a certain way. His habits are related to his past experiences, and new experiences arise from his habits.
When you read that you need to gradually retrain yourself, develop good habits and give up bad ones, you are somehow touching behavioral methods, which are based on learning.
Do other areas of psychology negate learning? Of course not. They just reveal some of the difficulties that arise along the way.
For example, psychoanalysis draws attention to the fact that far from everything in his behavior a person is able to realize and even just notice. Not everything in a person is rational and practical, since his sphere of inclinations is controlled by the unconscious, which is formed almost without the participation of his consciousness.
Psychoanalysis considers personality as a set of psychic defenses.
He does not argue with behaviorism that a person is also a set of habits, but he believes that the main key to character is in mental defenses.
In the unconscious, there are repressed desires and encrypted fears that cannot be simply brushed aside. Therefore, psychoanalysis considers it its task to study not so much behavior as unconscious motives, and considers behavior as a consequence.
Gestalt psychology does not object either to the basic tenets of behaviorism or to the basic ideas of psychoanalysis.
However, if psychoanalysts and behaviorists focus on the analysis of individual details, Gestaltists are engaged in synthesis. They believe that to dismember mental phenomena means to miss the main essence.
From the point of view of Gestalt psychology, a person is a part of an integral living SYSTEM.
The behavior of the individual depends on the context of the circumstances. The field influences the personality.
If behaviorists and psychoanalysts view a person mainly as a relatively closed system, Gestaltists emphasize that a person is constantly influenced and affected by changing forces, from within and without. A person exists in the field, and from changes in the field, his state and behavior also change.
As you can see, behaviorists, psychoanalysts, and Gestaltists work together to paint a complex picture of mental life, using their own tools and clarifying those points that others have missed.
Humanist psychologists do the same (the division is conditional, some classics can be attributed simultaneously to different directions, which is logical).
Studying the works of colleagues, they drew attention to the fact that their predecessors were missing something important. Behaviorists mainly analyze habits and learning, psychoanalysts - psychological defenses and childhood traumas, Gestaltists - fields, energy and figures, but both say little about a person's desire for self-realization.
From the point of view of humanists, a person is a unique subject of WILL.
It was the humanists who started talking about proactivity. This does not mean that a person should not be studied as the result of habits, psychological defenses and field forces, but should be considered exclusively as a free being. It would be a big lie, a person is not completely free, he depends on many factors that affect him. But one of these factors is his own will, his proactivity, his desire for self-realization.
Please note that none of the directions should be missed if you want to have adequate knowledge about psychology. All directions, as parts of the house, rely on one another and together build this house.
Many more new directions will emerge, and they will all continue to refine our understanding of human nature.
W. James "Psychology" (1892)
Z. Freud "Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1916)
A. Adler "Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology" (1920)
E. Berne "Introduction to psychiatry and psychoanalysis for the uninitiated" (1947)
A. Maslow "Motivation and Personality" (1954)
G. Allport "Becoming a Personality" (1955)
R. May "Love and Will" (1967)
A. Lowen "Depression and the body" (1973)
What do you read about psychology? There is no need to list everything, what was especially impressive, remembered?
CLASSICS OF FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGYCarl Gustav
Analytical psychology
Past and present
Compilers
Valery Zelinsky
and Alexey Rutkevich
"MARTIS"
Moscow 1995
INSTITUTE OF GENERAL HUMANITARIAN STUDIES
The materials of the book are given
Analytical psychology: past and present /K.G. Jung, E. Samuels, W. Odainik, J. Hubback; Comp. V. V. Zelensky, A. M. Rutkevich. – M.: Martis, 1995. – 320 p. – (Classics of foreign psychology).
ISBN 5-7248-0034-9
The book consists of two sections, the first contains articles by K.G. Jung of different years, in the second - articles by modern American psychoanalysts, followers of Jung.
For professionals and a wide range of readers.
Preface. A. Rutkevich 7
Carl Gustav Jung. Articles from different years
Psychotherapy and worldview 45
German translation by A. Rutkevich
Psychoanalysis 53
Translation from English by O. Raevskaya
The concept of the collective unconscious 71
Conscience from a psychological point of view 80
Translation from German by A. Rutkevich
Good and Evil in Analytical Psychology 99
Translation from German by A. Rutkevich
Present and future 113
Translation from German by A. Rutkevich
Three Interviews from Jung Says... 167
Translation from English by E. Petrova
Letters 107
Translation from German by A. Rutkevich
Modern analytical psychology
E. Samuels. Schools of Analytical Psychology 210
Translation from English by V. Nikitin
V. Odainik. Mass soul and mass man 243
Translation from English by K. Butyrin
J. Hubback. Tearing to Shreds: Pentheus, the Bacchae, and Analytical Psychology 256
Translation from English by V. Zelensky
Afterword. V. Zelensky 273
Name index 305
00.htm - chapter01
Foreword
The result of the long scientific activity of Carl Gustav Jung is not only two dozen thick volumes of the Collected Works, to which more and more new ones are gradually added (three volumes of his letters, several volumes with recordings of seminars have recently been published). Jung was a psychotherapist-practitioner, he treated people for 60 years. According to the children of Jung his working day was as follows: from 8 to 10 in the morning he got acquainted with the correspondence, wrote himself or dictated letters; then three hours before lunch and three hours after, there was a reception of patients. Reading scientific literature and writing his own works proceeded mainly in the evening, after the main medical activity. Only in the very last years of his life the number of patients had to be reduced, but until the end of his days, Jung continued to practice medicine. The main provisions of his teaching are connected with the observations of a practicing physician, they are not “fictional” by a theoretician prone to mere speculative thinking. But the main source of knowledge about the human soul for Jung was inner experience. His autobiography is not in vain called "Memories, Dreams, Reflections"*. Dreams are that approach to the recesses of the collective unconscious, without which Jungian psychotherapy is impossible. (Freud also called dreams the "royal path" into the unconscious, but in orthodox psychoanalysis the interpretation of dreams is not as important as in Jung's teaching.) There are very few memoirs in the proper sense of the word in autobiography. This is the story of the dialogue of consciousness with the depths of the psyche, starting with childhood dreams. The external canvas of Jung's life has to be completed by the researcher of creativity.
==7
Every thinker is to some extent dependent on the socio-economic and political institutions, the historical events of his time, the spiritual atmosphere. Plato might have been hostile to Athenian democracy, but he would never have become a great philosopher in Sparta, so dear to his heart.
Jung is a European thinker, but Europe is great, it has dozens of cultural nations, various religious and scientific traditions. He was born in 1875 in Switzerland, lived in it, excluding the time of numerous trips around the world, all his life. The fact that in Switzerland medical psychology is connected in the 20th century. with a variety of philosophical teachings, perhaps not by chance. At the end of the last century, T. Flournoy worked here, and in our century - such supporters of the combination of psychoanalysis with the philosophy of M. Heidegger, as L. Binswanger and M. Boss; the purely scientific psychology of J. Piaget is far from the extremes of behaviorism and does not exclude philosophical speculation. Until now, psychological education at the University of Zurich presupposes a very thorough course in philosophical anthropology: the one-sidedness of the modern natural-scientific orientation is replenished by the works of great European thinkers. In order to heal the souls of other people, you need to know your own, and such a consciousness inevitably raises "last" questions of a philosophical or religious nature.
Switzerland is a country where Protestant and Catholic cantons coexist for a long time, where German, French, and Italian cultures meet each other (there is another, Romansh, language dating back to folk Latin). Switzerland, which celebrated seven centuries of its existence in 1991, at least four of them did not know feudalism (yes, earlier medieval urban communities found their basic freedoms here). Federalism and democracy are synonymous for the Swiss. It belongs primarily to the commune, which has enormous autonomy, if only because half of the taxes it pays remain in the community. The Swiss belongs to her, as do his children, even if he moved to another city. So, Jung remained a citizen of Basel all his life: although he was born in the town of Kesswil (Tupray canton), his father was a Basel, and he received this citizenship by inheritance. He became an honorary citizen of the small town of Kusnacht in his later years, and this is a great honor for a Swiss, a rare exception to the rule. The Swiss belongs first to the community, then to the canton (there are 25 of them in this small country), and only then to the Swiss Union. It is clear that there are common problems, be they economic, political or environmental. Each adult male is sent annually for 2-3 weeks of military training.
Jung also had to fulfill this civic duty - he grew from an ordinary soldier to a “reserve captain”, to use domestic terminology.
The Swiss honor their connection to the community, the self-governing canton, as an important part of their lives. They are faithful to traditions, local
dialects and customs that vary greatly from canton to canton. This attachment to the past, to tradition, also presupposes knowledge of one's family tree. A family tree over the centuries can be known here not only to the descendant of some aristocratic family (the nobility never played a big role in Switzerland), but also to any burgher - such knowledge is facilitated by careful records both in the ecclesiastical and in the civil communal register. This traditionalism, the strong connection between the present and the past, was to some extent reflected in Jung's teachings. Of course, he was also cramped in Switzerland - it was not in vain that his main audience had long been the Anglo-Saxons - but, being a "citizen of the world", he never turned into a "ghost" torn off from all roots (as he called the inhabitants of huge megacities), not remembering kinship, devoid of national culture, spiritual succession.
Politics often interfered in the 20th century. in the holy of holies of metaphysical thought, literary creativity.
It is easier to support ideas about the harmony of opposites, yin and yang, light and darkness in the world process and in the soul of everyone, living in a country that has bypassed the wars and destruction of the 20th century 2 . However, it was not in vain that the focus of Jung's attention was the question: where does the world's evil come from? The issue is not only theological. Wars, dictatorial regimes were also the subject of Jung's close attention. He also wrote on the widest range of topical issues of the day, whether it is about mass society, colonial politics, the "women's question" or ideologies, apocalyptic aspirations, etc.
Jung is not only Swiss, he is also German. Yes, at home the Swiss speak a dialect that differs from literary German, perhaps more than Ukrainian from Russian. But at school, university, church, press, literature, only hochdeutsch is present, not to mention the natural proximity of the great German culture. Yes, and the Jung family is German in origin, they are relatively recent citizens of the Alpine Republic.
Let's dwell briefly on Jung's genealogy, it is of interest and well studied by researchers of his work. 3 . Initial
information about the Jungs dates back to the first half of the 17th century: Carl Jung, doctor of medicine and doctor of jurisprudence, rector of the University of Mainz, is the first prominent person in this family. True, the archives and church books of Mainz burned down in 1688, during the siege of the city by French troops. Jung's great-grandfather, the physician Franz Ignaz Jung (1759–1831), moved from Mainz to Mannheim. During the Napoleonic campaigns, he led the field infirmary. His brother, Sigismund von Jung (1745–1824), was a Bavarian chancellor and married to a daughter of Schleiermacher (the "von" came about because the chancellor had been promoted to a noble rank).
Of all Jung's ancestors, the most notable person was his grandfather, Carl Gustav Sr. (1794–1864), who moved to Switzerland. He was accompanied by a legend that he was the illegitimate son of Goethe - the basis for this was an undeniable external resemblance. It is impossible to prove or disprove such legends: at least in the year preceding the birth of Carl Gustav Sr., Goethe did not visit Mannheim, where the Jung family lived without a break. Carl Gustav Jr. considered the legend to be in "bad taste". Although he immensely admired Goethe from childhood, he believed that the family of doctors and theologians 4 Jungov himself is worthy of respect. Grandfather was a remarkable person not only for his scientific merits. He studied natural sciences and medicine in Heidelberg, already at the age of 24 becoming a doctor summa cum laude, was both a practicing surgeon and an assistant professor, a teacher of chemistry in Berlin. Here he enters the circle of romantics, closely acquainted with the brothers Schlegel, L. Tieck and F. Schleiermacher (under the influence of the latter, he switched from Catholicism to Protestantism). Some of his poetic experiments were published in the journals of the Romantics.
However, in Berlin, Carl Gustav Sr. did not live long, because he took an active part in politics - his ideal was a free and united Germany. When his friend, theology student Karl Sand, stabbed August Kotzebue (1819) and the Prussian government repressed the "demagogues", Jung was arrested, and even with the aggravating circumstance that he was found with a hammer donated by Sand for mineralogical work (in referred to exclusively as "axe" in police reports). After more than a year of being behind bars, he was released without trial or sentence - with a ban on living in Prussian possessions. With a political reputation as a revolutionary “demagogue”, it was impossible to get a place in any German principality, and in 1821 Carl Gustav ended up in Paris. Here is a chance meeting with Alexander
von Humboldt, which led to resettlement in Switzerland.
Political emigrants in the 19th and 20th centuries often lived in Switzerland, suffice it to mention the Russians - Herzen, Bakunin, Lenin (and later Solzhenitsyn). Few of these emigrants had any impact on Swiss life - Calvin is an exception. Of the German emigrant scientists K. Vogt and K.G. Jung Sr. were probably the most notable figures. Humboldt was looking for a man who could reorganize the medical faculty of the University of Basel, which had fallen into complete decline during the years of the Napoleonic wars. The tireless activity of Carl Gustav Sr. made him famous, and his grandson, studying at the Faculty of Medicine almost half a century after the death of his grandfather, constantly felt the spiritual presence of the famous ancestor. Nonconformism, the ability to act unexpectedly for others, his grandfather showed all his life 5 but far more curious is the fact that this surgeon, anatomist, and chemist showed considerable interest in psychiatry. In particular, he founded a hospital for feeble-minded children, while emphasizing the importance of scientific observations and psychological methods for the treatment of mental illness. By the way, the father of Carl Gustav Jr., Paul Jung (1842-1896) was a pastor for a long time, also serving a psychiatric clinic. This youngest of thirteen children of the famous surgeon and dean was a Protestant priest, but not without an interest in science. He was not a doctor of theology, but of philology (Oriental languages) and, judging by the Memoirs, Dreams, Reflections, had doubts about the Christian faith, but fled from doubts with a genuine "sacrifice of the intellect." The problem of the relationship between knowledge and faith will become central in the later works of his son, who will choose the path of knowledge, gnosis, and faith not prescribed by Lutheranism. The first objections arose at a young age. “I am reminded of the preparation for confirmation that my own father did. The Catechism was unspeakably boring. I leafed through this book somehow in order to find at least something interesting, and my eyes fell on the paragraphs on the trinity. This interested me, and I began to look forward to when we get to this section in the lessons. When this long-awaited hour came, my father said: "We will skip this section, I myself do not understand anything here." Thus was my last hope buried. Although I was surprised at my father's honesty, this did not prevent me from being bored to death from then on.
listening to all the talk about religion" 6 . From his student days, Jung simply did not go to Protestant churches; this world of impoverished, “bare”, as he wrote, Christianity was spiritually alien to him. The conflicts with the father, however, did not have an "oedipal" meaning at all. Later, it was not easy for him to accept Freud's teachings about the Oedipus complex, for the very reason that the soft and weak-willed father, who was "under the shoe" of an authoritarian wife, sickly, tormented by doubts, did not in any way arouse the zealous rivalry of his son. It is difficult to say what his son inherited from him - perhaps the ability to speak languages, especially since from the age of 5 his father studied Latin with him. Later, her excellent knowledge helped in working with a colossal number of alchemical treatises of the 15th-17th centuries. Later, Jung mastered English perfectly, he knew French, as it should be for a Swiss, but, judging by the text of his French letters, he was somewhat worse. 7 .
In one of the letters, written already in extreme old age, Jung noted that he had a “maternal” rather than a “father” complex. There is a remark of this kind in his "Memoirs ...", where the mother is spoken of as a split personality, with pronounced parapsychological abilities inherited from her own mother. Her father, Jung's grandfather, Samuel Preiswerk (1799-1871) was also endowed with peculiar abilities. This doctor of theology, the compiler of an exemplary grammar of the Hebrew language (he indulged in him with all his soul, believing that in heaven they speak precisely this dialect) was a visionary. If the anecdotes about the grandfather from the paternal side are of the most earthly nature, then about the grandfather-pastor, a spiritual person, there is a memory in connection with his communion with the spirits of the departed. In his office, for example, there was always a chair for the spirit of his first wife, with whom he spoke at length once a week. Jung's mother told her son that as a child she often had to stand in the study behind her grandfather while he was writing a sermon. She drove away spirits that had a bad habit of interfering with work. Jung's later interest in all sorts of spiritual vision, "double vision," split personality - all this was born out of the family atmosphere. "Spirits" (Poltergeist) often visited this family. Until now, a steel knife is stored in it, which unexpectedly broke into 4 pieces in the closet with a crash, as if someone had cut it right along the blade. Jung's recollection of how Freud, who was visiting him, reacted to the phenomenon of the "poltergeist" (rather skeptically) has been preserved. In short, Jung's occult interests were not accidental.
Both Jung's father and mother came from families in which many generations of ancestors were engaged in mental work, and both grandfathers achieved notable success in their fields. But younger children in huge families
did not inherit material well-being. The intelligentsia - if this word is applicable outside of its historical origin (Russia, Poland) - has always lived by its own work, only occasionally breaking out to the upper floors of the social hierarchy. In Protestant countries, many prominent figures of science and culture were the sons of priests - it is enough to recall the philosophers and writers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In his seminar on Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Jung makes a number of interesting remarks about Nietzsche's "anti-Christianity", which, although in a negative form, is nevertheless associated with Protestant piety, German "cultural piety". This also applies to Jung himself. From his youthful years he was in conflict with the faith of his fathers, only his rebellion took other forms than those of Nietzsche. In the families of priests, the common for European culture gap along the lines of faith-knowledge acquired a personal character. Unlike Nietzsche, Jung did not deny the Christian tradition as a whole, but was looking for its still living deep roots.
So, Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in the town of Kesswil in the canton of Thurgau; six months later, the family moved to Laufen, and in 1879 to Klein-Hünigen, today an industrial suburb of Basel, and then a patriarchal village. Here he went with the peasant children to elementary school. The family occupied an old house that had once belonged to the family of noble Basel patricians (but it belonged to the community, which provided it to their priest). The financial situation of the family was not easy. From the age of II, Carl Gustav began to study at the Basel gymnasium. It was a difficult time for him. Not so much from the point of view of study - only mathematics caused serious difficulties 8 . First, he got from the world of a patriarchal village school with peasant children to the best Basel gymnasium, where the children of local patricians studied. These children with excellent manners and pocket money, with trips to the Alps in the winter, and in the summer at sea seemed to him at first almost “creatures from another world”: “Then I had to find out that we are poor, that my father is a poor village priest and I myself am an even poorer pastor's son with holes in his shoes and wet socks, sitting for six hours at school.
Carl Gustav was an uncommunicative, withdrawn teenager. He adapted to the external environment with considerable difficulty, preferring the world of his own thoughts and fantasies to communication. In a word, it was a classic
a case of what he later called "introversion". Dreams and then played a huge role in his life. Monstrous, terrible images appeared in dreams, there was, as he recalled, "an initiation into the kingdom of darkness." At the age of 12, he "learned what a neurosis is" - he did not go to school for six months, until by an effort of will he forced himself to overcome bouts of dizziness, which arose, as he believed, due to "escape from reality."
In the dreams of that time, another motive is important. The image of an old man endowed with magical powers was revealed, which was, as it were, his alter Ego. A closed and timid teenager, personality No. 1, lived in petty everyday worries, and in dreams another hypostasis, personality No. 2, even had its own name (Philemon), declared itself. Having read at the end of his studies at the gymnasium the book “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” by F. Nietzsche, he was frightened: Nietzsche also had a person number 2 named Zarathustra; it supplanted the personality of the philosopher - hence the madness of Nietzsche (as Jung believed and subsequently, despite the well-known medical diagnosis). Fear of such consequences of "dreaming" contributed to a decisive turn to reality. Yes, and the need forced to turn to the outside world, and not run away from it.
Shortly after completing his studies at the gymnasium, and entering the university, his father dies, having managed to secure a free place for his son at the Faculty of Medicine. Then there were few such places, they were provided exclusively to the poor, and poverty became a reality after the death of his father. The family moves to a small house in the village of Bistningen, gets into debt to relatives. Jung has to earn extra money in the anatomical theater and laboratory and study hard. Even the fact that he graduated from the medical faculty in 5 years was a rarity at that time, usually they studied a couple of years longer.
However, he found time to participate in student activities - not so much in entertainment as in philosophical discussions. Already the topics of the reports made by him in the student society "Zofingia" speak about the range of his interests - about the boundaries of natural science knowledge, about the occult. To the surprise of his fellow students, in his free time he reads primarily philosophers, along with ancient philosophers, this is primarily Schopenhauer, Kant, Nietzsche, E. von Hartmann. But at the same time, Swedenborg, Jung-Stilling, Mesmer and other "occultists" are included in the circle of reading. The beginning of Jung's occult studies was his acquaintance with mediumistic seances. His cousin, Elena Preysverk, unexpectedly showed extraordinary medical abilities, spoke the languages of various "spirits". For two years, Jung attended this circle and made observations that would later serve as material for his doctoral dissertation.
In the last semester, I had to take psychiatry. Jung was preparing to become a specialist in internal medicine and pathology, and although he had already taken a course in psychiatry, it did not arouse any interest in him.
Psychiatry was not very popular in the medical world, doctors knew about it, as a rule, as little as everyone else. Picking up Kraft-Ebing's textbook, Jung read that psychoses are "diseases of the personality." “My heart suddenly began to beat violently. I had to stand up and take a deep breath. The excitement was unusual, because it became clear to me, as in a flash of enlightenment, that for me there was no other goal than psychiatry. Only in it two streams of my interests merged together. Here was an empirical field common to spiritual and biological facts, which I looked for everywhere and found nowhere. Here, the clash of nature and spirit was a reality. 9 .
After the final exam, Jung allowed himself the "luxury" of going to the theater ("before my finances did not allow me such extravagances"). In December 1900, he took the position of an assistant at the Zurich Burghölzli clinic, led by the prominent psychiatrist E. Bleuler.
Basel and Zurich had a symbolic meaning for Jung. The cultural atmosphere of these cities, as it were, bore the imprint of two opposite tendencies of the European spirit. Basel is a living memory of European culture. The university did not forget about Erasmus who taught there and studied Holbein, at the philological faculty there were still professors who knew Nietzsche, on the streets of the city he met J. Burckhardt, whose great-nephew Albert Ory was Jung's closest friend. The writings of another Basel professor, Bachofen, on "mother-rights" went back centuries to the hypothetical "matriarchy." Jung's interest in philosophy and theology aroused bewilderment among his medical friends, but metaphysics was still considered in Basel as a necessary aspect of spiritual life. In Zurich, however, she was more of an impractical "excess". Who needs all this old bookish knowledge? Science was considered here as a useful tool, valued for its applications, effective use in industry, construction, and medicine. Basel was rooted in the distant past, Zurich rushed into the equally distant future.
Shortly before that, Zurich, rebuilt by the architect A. Rütli, almost without narrow medieval streets, but with a dense network of tram lines (a century ago this was an innovation!) Was a city of industry and finance, was aimed at wealth and power. In these two cities, Jung saw a "split" of the European soul: a new positivistic-rational "asphalt civilization" consigns its roots to oblivion. And this is a natural outcome, for her soul has become ossified in dogmatic theology, in the place of which comes the flat empiricism of science. Science and religion have come into conflict precisely because religion has become divorced from life experience, and science leads to the fact that "we have become rich in knowledge, but poor in wisdom," as he would soon write. In the scientific picture of the world, a person has become a mechanism among other mechanisms, his life loses all meaning.
It is necessary to find the area where science and religion do not refute each other, but, on the contrary, merge in search of the primary source of all meanings. Everything is rooted in the human soul, and psychology, as an experimental science, should not only establish facts - it should help modern man in search of a holistic worldview, the meaning of life.
The Burghölzli clinic, located on the far outskirts of the then Zurich (about two hours on foot from the center), was a kind of monastery. Bleuler demanded from the assistants not only the highest professionalism, but also the return of almost all their free time to the treatment of patients. Daily assistants had to report on the condition of patients, 2-3 times a week the case histories of new patients were discussed; the evening round ended at 7 pm, and after that the assistants had to write the case histories. The gates of the clinic were closed at 10 pm, the assistants did not have keys. One of Bleuler's demands was the "dry law" - Jung would break it only after 9 years, and even then under Freud's persistent persuasion (later he would not deny himself a glass of wine once or twice a week).
Jung generally spent the first six months in the clinic as a recluse. He spends all his free time on the 50-year-old volumes of the Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, thereby getting acquainted with publications from half a century since the beginning of modern clinical psychiatry. In his autobiography, he subjects the psychiatry of that time to the sharpest criticism. To a large extent, this criticism is justified. To understand the human personality, whether healthy or sick, there are few formulas of natural science, not to mention the kind of psychiatry that sticks the label of this or that “syndrome” on the patient. No one recognizes a surgeon in one who has memorized textbooks, but does not know how to operate; psychiatrists, on the other hand, often limited themselves to making a diagnosis, describing symptoms in scientific terms. They did not even think of treating complex mental disorders, and there were no means of treating them. But if you take the Burghölzli clinic of the time of Bleuler, then it gave Jung a lot. Bleuler oriented young psychiatrists towards new methods of treatment, he later adopted psychoanalysis (albeit with reservations) (not applicable, however, to most of his psychotic patients). It was Bleuler who drew Jung's attention to Freud's newly published book The Interpretation of Dreams - Jung made a presentation on this book at one of the meetings in Burghölzli back in 1901.
Jung's work in the clinic was successful in every respect. In 1902, he defended his doctoral dissertation, quickly moved up the hierarchical ladder, and in 1905 took the position of senior physician, second only to Bleuler in the Burghölzli. He runs an outpatient clinic where he practices psychotherapy, runs a laboratory where he develops psychological tests. At the same time, he received the title of privatdocent and taught at the medical faculty of the local university. The autobiography does not mention the fact that in 1902–1903. he trained for six months in France with P. Janet. In February 1903 he married
on Emma Rauschenbach, the daughter of a manufacturer. Since 1908, the family settled in Küsnacht, where Jung built a large house on the shores of Lake Zurich according to his own design - here he would live until his death.
The followers of Freud still often repeat the accusations that were heard at the beginning of the century among the Viennese Freudians: Jung, they say, “robbed” his teacher Freud and put together his own system from the stolen pieces. These accusations are simply not serious. Jung owed a lot to Freud, and even in his old age he repeated that Freud was the biggest personality he had ever met.
However, by the time they met in 1907, Jung's main ideas had already been formed; in addition to his published dissertation ("On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena", 1902), he published two monographs that had a wide resonance among psychologists and psychiatrists. One of them was devoted to the verbal-associative test, the other - "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox" (1907), although it was already written under the well-known influence of Freud's ideas, and in terms of its clinical material and approach it was not a simple repetition of psychoanalytic ideas. Jung's correspondence with Freud shows that at first, with great doubts and reservations, he agrees only with individual provisions of Freud, then, from 1908 until about the end of 1911, doubts recede in order to resume with renewed vigor when working on the first doctrinal Jung's Transformations and Symbols of the Libido.
In February 1907, Jung arrives in Vienna, talks with Freud for thirteen hours without a break - this is the beginning of Jung's active work in the emerging psychoanalytic movement. Freud was extremely interested in the help of Jung and the "Swissmen" led by him. As he wrote at the time to his follower Abraham, without this support, psychoanalysis could end up in the ghetto as a "Jewish science"; it takes a lot of courage on the part of Jung, with his upbringing, his scientific and cultural environment, when he defends psychoanalysis. Freud places great hopes on Jung, proclaims him the “crown prince”, gives him all kinds of powers Jung has to deal with colossal organizational work - he is the president of the newly established international psychoanalytic association, the editor-in-chief of its journal - and this is in addition to intense medical, scientific and pedagogical activities. So Freud, not out of flattery, wrote to Jung that “I would not wish myself another and better successor and finisher of my work” 10 , and then heading the letters: "Dear friend and heir." Jung's interest in Freud, a great and courageous thinker, who by that time alone had made discoveries that turned ideas about psychology and psychotherapy upside down, was also understandable.
But differences in positions on a number of issues are clearly visible in
correspondence during the period 1908-1911, when Jung fully supported Freud. Questions about the etiology of neuroses remain open - he did not fully accept Freud's sexual theory. Differences also concern ideological issues. For Freud, even then, religion was an illusion, almost an obsessive neurosis of mankind, in the place of which science must come. Jung replied that "religion can only be replaced by religion" 11 . Freud urged Jung to accept the doctrine of sexuality as "a fortification against the black muddy pit of the occult," and for Jung, Freud's worship of Eros was nothing more than religion, blind faith.
In the personal relationship of these two eminent scientists, too much depended, however, not at all on scientific or philosophical differences. Psychoanalysis is mastered not just as a body of scientific knowledge; the healer must first heal himself, undergo a course of analysis with a teacher. Incidentally, it was on Jung's initiative that a mandatory (and rather lengthy) course of "learning analysis" was introduced into the training of psychoanalysts. But in those years, the technique of psychoanalysis was only being developed, the analysts themselves were “experimental”, and therefore the effects of “transference” were superimposed on theoretical disputes, emotional conflicts and relationships were painted in the colors of family drama. Hence the hysterical fits of the fainting Freud, who saw in Jung's striving for independence something like a secret desire for "parricide". No matter how much Jung writes later about his complete spiritual sovereignty in that period, both the correspondence with Freud and the severe mental crisis after the breakup say that he also had a “family” attachment. The situation became completely unbearable and because of the open hostility towards Jung of the Viennese environment of Freud - "court" intrigues appear wherever there is at least some kind of "court". It was this environment that subsequently created the myth of Jung's anti-Semitism. It is quite possible that a clear cooling in the relationship occurred "at the suggestion" of this environment of Freud. The theoretical differences became apparent after the publication of the second volume of Transformations and Symbols of the Libido, but the tone of Freud's letters changes dramatically not after reading the book, but after Jung's trip to the USA. Well-wishers, as usual, brought to Freud's attention precisely those passages in the lectures where Jung developed his own ideas, and not full of gratitude to Freud, praises of psychoanalysis in general.
It should be said that Jung's trip to the USA was preceded by another, together with Freud in September 1909, when both of them became doctors honoris causa and were unusually warmly received by the Americans. The history of psychoanalysis in the USA begins with this, its huge popularity in the country, which Freud called "a big mistake." It should be noted that Jungianism has always found the most students and followers (although less than Freudianism) in the Anglo-Saxon countries.
What are the theoretical results of this first period of Jung's scientific activity? This period can be considered the time of formation, maturation of his own teaching. Already in his dissertation, he connects the clouded states of consciousness in mediums with unconsciously occurring processes. Not “spirits”, but other “Selves” that have unconsciously taken shape, displacing the “Self” of a medium (or a prophet, a founder of a sect, a poet, a religious teacher), speak from the dark depths. A poorly educated girl-medium herself would not have come up with a system of the universe, which was outlined by one of the "spirits" - a system that in many ways resembled the ideas about the world of the Gnostics - the Valentinians. A little later, one of Burghölzli's patients hallucinated obscure images. They were not clear even to Jung himself, until after some time an ancient text was discovered and translated, where the same phallic image is used when characterizing Mithra. It is clear that the patient, who worked as a petty clerk, had no idea about Mithraism, and the text was discovered a few years later. Jung gradually approaches the central point of his teaching, which he later called the teaching of the archetypes of the collective unconscious: beyond the threshold of consciousness lie eternal proto-forms that manifest themselves at different times in the most diverse cultures. They seem to be stored in the unconscious and are inherited from generation to generation. Unconscious processes are autonomous, they come to the surface in trances, visions, in images created by poets and artists. It was Jung who introduced into psychoanalysis the method of drawing parallels between dreams, fantasies, and religious-mythological symbols (Freud recognized this merit even after the break in relations between them).
The concept of "complex" was also introduced into psychoanalysis by Jung in the course of work on the word-association test. It served as the starting point for a number of projective tests and even the subsequently created "lie detector". The test usually contained hundreds of words. The subject had to immediately respond to each of them with the first word that came to mind. The reaction time was observed with a stopwatch. Then the operation was repeated, and the subject had to reproduce his previous answers. Often the time for choosing the word of reaction was lengthened, the subjects answered not with one word, but with a whole tirade, they made mistakes when reproducing their answer, stuttered, fell silent, completely withdrawing into themselves. At the same time, they did not feel, for example, that the response to one stimulus word took them several times longer than to another.
Jung believed that such errors were due to the fact that the stimulus word touched one or another "complex" - a bundle of associations, colored by one emotional tone. These unconscious affective states, charged with psychic energy, possessed some kind of core - it could also be a repressed into an unconscious representation; but they could also form a "little self," their autonomous Ego. If this complex is “touched” (reminding with a word about the repressed), then traces of a slight emotional disorder appear, up to registered
physiological reactions. Thus, the reaction of one of the subjects to the words "knife", "port" and a number of others was so noticeable that Jung confidently told the subject after the session that he had killed someone in the port. Amazed by such omniscience of the psychologist, he said that he was a sailor and indeed in a fight in one of the port taverns he killed a man with a knife, but for several years now he has been living as a respectable burgher and does not remember his former sailor life. The repressed memories, however, continued to live in the unconscious. Initially, Jung believed that this test could make a real revolution in forensic science, but later recognized that its application has its limits - the “complex” may have nothing to do with actual events, but arise in connection with unconscious fantasies, suppressed aspirations, attitudes. For the development of Jung's theory, this test had the significance that during the experiment fragmentary "personalities" were revealed, which in a normal person are in the shadow of his conscious "I", but in a schizophrenic with severe personality dissociation, these Egos come to the fore. And the appearance of "spirits" in the mind of a medium, and the disintegration of the personality of a schizophrenic, and "possession by demons" get their explanation - the whole legion of these. "demons" already exist in our soul, and our conscious "I" is only one of the elements of the psyche, which has deeper and more ancient layers. Subsequently, Jung began to attribute the complexes to the personal unconscious, while the characteristics of special "personalities" were preserved behind the archetypes of the collective unconscious.
No new theory arises from scratch, from nothing - Jung had many predecessors, in 1910-1912. he finds time to read huge literature on mythology, ethnography, religious studies, astrology and other "secret sciences". The book "Transformations and Symbols of the Libido" was the first attempt at a synthesis, still very imperfect. 12 , but it already obviously contains ideas that are far from Freudian. Freud at this time was working on Totem and Taboo, one of the most important books for psychoanalysis. For both, ontogenesis repeats phylogenesis, both draw parallels between myths, dreams, childish and primitive thinking. However, if Freud and other psychoanalysts who wrote about myths at that time (Rank, Abraham) tended to reduce myths to individual childhood fantasies, to the "pleasure principle", then Jung considers mythology to be an expression of the universally human, collective unconscious. The difference from Freudianism is connected both with a significantly lesser interest in child psychology 13 , and with an incomparably higher
appreciation of fantasy. What for Freud was an illusion, for Jung turns out to be a kind of intuition. In addition to logical thinking, oriented towards adaptation to the external world, there is another type - inward-facing "introverted thinking."
The doctrine of two types of thinking in many ways resembles the theories of the "philosophy of life" fashionable at that time (Jung directly refers to Bergson, who wrote about intelligence and intuition). The influence on Jung of German romanticism and the "philosophy of life", vitalism in biology is beyond doubt. Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, he read as a student, a multi-volume study of the romantic of the early 19th century. von Schubert he studied in 1910–1911. But the differences associated with Jung's psychological approach are also obvious. Thus, he often refers to Levy-Bruhl, who wrote about primitive thinking as a world of “collective representations (representations collectives) and “mystical participation” (participation mistique). But Levy-Bruhl's approach is determined rather by the sociologism of the Durkheim school, while Jung's mythological primitive thinking belongs not only to the distant past - it is a biopsychological constant, the most important dimension of human existence. A man of a primitive tribe only to a small extent breaks away from "mother nature", he still does not have a subject-object abyss created by a developed consciousness. In addition to adapting to the external world, it is necessary to maintain harmony with the internal, with the inherited unconscious determinants of behavior and thinking. The savage maintains harmony with the help of myths, magic, rituals: he does not yet know the differentiation of external and internal, physical and mental, subject and object. The separation of consciousness from the unconscious in mythology is often described as a "fall", but just as often myths contain another assessment - myths about heroes slaying chthonic monsters also speak of this break with the mother soil. Even in the Bible, in connection with the fall, it says “become like gods” (“knowledge of good and evil”). In primitive society, myths and rituals, initiations helped the individual to adapt to the inner world. Modern humanity, which has staked on the conquest of the outside world by the forces of reason, has found itself in a dangerous separation from the soil of life. Logical thinking is characterized by a focus on external reality. Such thinking takes place in judgments, it verbally requires an effort of the will, it tires. Education is required, the upbringing of such an orientation - logical thinking is a tool and a product of
culture. The science, technology, and industry associated with it are tools for controlling reality. In traditional societies, logical thinking was developed much less, there was still no need for enhanced "training" of the intellect. Jung hypothesizes that medieval scholasticism was such a training for modern European science. Unlike ancient philosophy, whose concepts had not yet broken away from the classical images of mythology, scholasticism was a purely conceptual game, thereby preparing modern science. Logical thinking is extravertive, i.e. the flow of psychic energy is directed predominantly outward, towards the external world. Western civilization is the extreme case of extraversion: knowledge in it is unequivocally associated with power, power over nature, power, rational control.
Undirected intuitive thinking is a stream of images, not concepts. It doesn't tire us. As soon as we relax, we lose the thread of logical thinking, moving on to the game of imagination that is natural for a person. Such thinking is unproductive for adapting to the outside world, but it is necessary for artistic creativity, mythology, religion, inner harmony. “All those creative forces that modern man puts into science and technology, the man of antiquity devoted to his myths” 14 . In dreams, the control of logical thinking also weakens in modern man, he again enters the realm of mythology he has lost. But modern humanity, which has made a proud rejection of "prejudices", has only a dozen generations. Proto-forms have settled in the collective unconscious, which find their expression precisely in myths. Even if all religious and mythological traditions were destroyed with one blow, then all mythology would be revived in the next generation, since the symbols of religion and mythology are rooted in the psyche of each individual, they are inherited by us from thousands of generations. The masses always live by myths, only small groups of people can get rid of them in transitional epochs, and they twist old myths, making room for new ones; but this "new" is really only the forgotten old.
We will find these ideas in all subsequent writings of Jung. Another important - and decisive for the break with Freud - was the non-sexual nature of the libido. Freud associated at that time psychic energy with sexual attraction (later he introduced the "death instinct"). For Jung, libido is psychic energy in general; it appears only in individual neurotic cases as a sexual drive. Freud considered mental processes with the help of a physicalist model, in which rigid determinism played a decisive role. For Jung, mental processes are endowed with expediency; we can say that the Freudian understanding of causality is Democritanian, and Jungian
- Aristotelian. The psyche is for Jung a self-regulating system in which there is a constant exchange of energy between its elements. Energy is born from the struggle of opposites. Fundamental for Jung is the idea of "unity", "escape to each other" of opposites ("enantiodromia" of Heraclitus, complexio oppositorum of Nicholas of Cusa, yin and yang of Chinese philosophy). Isolation of any part of the psyche leads to the loss of energy balance. When consciousness breaks away from the unconscious, and this is exactly what happens in modern man, the unconscious tends to "compensate" this gap. In unexpected situations, when difficulties arise that consciousness cannot cope with, the unconscious shows its compensatory function, the energy of the entire psyche is connected. You just need to be able to "listen" to what the unconscious says, especially in dreams. The pressure of the unconscious, the "invasion" (Invasionen) of its contents into consciousness can lead not only to individual psychoses, but also to collective insanity. The lamp of the mind is then overwhelmed by the dark waters of the unconscious, all sorts of "leaders" become mediums of pre- or superhuman powers. Mass movements, political events of our century, Jung explained precisely this kind of "intrusions" - the basis for this was his personal experience of confrontation with the collective unconscious.
After the break with Freud, Jung finds himself all alone. He resigns from all posts in the Psychoanalytic Association, and leaves the university. Relations with Swiss physicians had long been damaged (Jung left the Burghölzli back in 1909), he was faced with a complete misunderstanding in the medical environment, and relations with almost all former friends and acquaintances were broken. A critical period began, which Jung himself called the time of "internal uncertainty, even disorientation." This period lasted for about 6 years, until 1918, and its initial stage was extremely painful, almost psychotic. Jung removes all dams from the path of unconscious images, surrenders to their flow, and they fill the consciousness. These images took on a particularly monstrous character in the spring and summer of 1914: all of Europe is drowning in blood, the stumps of human bodies float in it, rivers of blood approach the Alps. These fantasies suddenly stopped when the hallucinations became a reality during the First World War. 15 . According to Jung's memoirs, he did not expect the war, believing it to be impossible, and saw in his visions rather a premonition of a social revolution in some of the European countries. He considered the “breakthrough” of the unconscious into his consciousness a special case of what happened with less obviousness in the souls of all Europeans - war
are born in the psyche of individuals who become toys of forces that overcome good conscious intentions. From this personal experience of confrontation with the unconscious, Jung's entire system of psychotherapy is born: he overcame a near-psychotic state himself, now he knew how to treat others. The result of six years of continuous meditation was compiled at that time (and still unpublished due to their personal nature) "red" book with notes and drawings of dreams, as well as Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, published in a small edition - on behalf of the Gnostic Basilides of Alexandria - a little book , which reflected the visions of that time, comparable to Gnosticism.
For the Russian researcher of Jung's work, the circumstance that almost the only friend of Jung at that time was Emilius Karlovich Medtner, who happened to be in Switzerland, is of considerable interest. Today this name is mostly known to music historians in connection with his brother composer Nikolai Medtner. Only in the memoirs of Andrei Bely, who was E. Medtner's closest friend for many years, did the latter receive significant attention. Pre-revolutionary books by Medtner about Goethe and Wagner are forgotten, as well as the fact that it was he who founded the Musaget publishing house and the Logos magazine. This Russified German (or "Russian German") was not only a cultural trader, but also an extraordinary mind. According to Bely, even at the beginning of the century, Medtner expressed ideas that later came into use through the works of Spengler and other Western philosophers. I will take the liberty of asserting that some lines of Bely's novel "Petersburg" ("Turanism", etc.) are connected with the influence of Medtner.
According to Jung's son, Medtner's psychological support was of great importance to his father. Medtner was the only interlocutor who fully understood Jung's ideas. This is not surprising, given his past - the ideas of Russian symbolists, sophiologists. Kant, Goethe and Nietzsche were the air that Medtner breathed in Russia. His close friend was such a philosopher as I.A. Ilyin - the antipode of all kinds of mystical temptations. Jung's seminal work, Psychological Types, was created in almost daily conversations with Medtner. 16 . According to the memoirs of Jung's daughter, whenever Medtner appeared, the clavier sounded in the house. In a word, Jung found a subtle, intelligent and no less educated interlocutor, and in the first historiosophical part of "Psychological Types" one can find many parallels with what was characteristic of Russian philosophical culture at the beginning of the century.
Of course, the influence of Medtner should not be exaggerated. He could help Jung in the formulation of some ideas, but they belonged to Jung himself. Medtner becomes the publisher of Jung's works, writes prefaces to translations of his works. 17 , publishes in German the book "On the so-called intuition" (1922), in which he tries to give a philosophical - Kantian in spirit - substantiation of Jungian psychology. However, differences are already visible in this work - in the interpretation of Gnosticism, in the complete rejection of any occultism (Medtner settles scores with the anthroposophy that seduced Bely). For the researcher of Jung's creativity, his large article is of great value. 18 - the last publication of Medtner - in the volume published for the 60th anniversary of Jung, since it deals with the personality of Jung, and in a period that is little known to subsequent biographers - Jung's students of the 30-50s. For them, Jung is already an indisputable authority, “the old sage from Kusnacht”; the time of searches, contradictions, internal struggle, doubts is left behind.
"Psychological Types" is Jung's first mature work, in which the synthesis of his psychiatric and psychotherapeutic experience, scientific observations, religious-philosophical, cultural and ethnographic ideas has already been realized. The previously formulated ideas about extravertive and introvertive thinking have received their final form, a detailed analysis of psychological types and functions is being carried out. By that time, the circle of Jung's ideas had already been finally formed, in the future there would be an increment of material and a deepening of the theory, but the main contours of the latter were already clearly visible.
Of the books that had a definite influence on Jung in the period immediately preceding this maturity of thought, it should be noted the book of the German theologian R. Otto, published in 1917, The Sacred. It provides a phenomenological description of the experience of the "numinous", the divine as majestic, giving the fullness of being, but at the same time terrifying, overflowing with fear and awe. But if Otto is talking about the perception of the supernatural in the spirit of the Judeo-Christian tradition, and even in its specifically Lutheran reading, then Jung uses the term "numinous" in a broader sense. Before the transcendental Judeo-Christian God, a person feels that he is only “dust and ashes”, “the dust of the earth”, while Jung associates the numinous with the experience of the archetypes of the collective unconscious.
In books and articles of the 1920s, this theory is developed primarily on the basis of psychological and psychiatric observations, primarily
in the fundamental work "Relations between the Self and the Unconscious" (1928); in the future, Jung increasingly draws on materials from alchemy, mythology, various cultures and traditions. In the 1920s he made trips to Africa and America, got acquainted with the life of the almost primitive tribes there; in the 30s he went to India and Ceylon. Interest in European alchemy is awakened by a collision with Chinese: work on a commentary on the Taoist treatise "The Secret of the Golden Flower", translated by his friend Richard Wilhelm, led not only to acquaintance with ancient China. For a long time, Jung could not explain the reason for the coincidences between the images and symbols of late Hellenistic religious and philosophical teachings, especially Gnosticism, regularly reproduced in dreams, hallucinations, delirium, and fantasies of his patients. Jung's own unconscious, judging by the text he wrote on behalf of Basilides, also spoke in symbols reminiscent of the gnostic. In medieval alchemy, Jung discovered an intermediate link: Gnostic thought, suppressed in its time by Christianity, existed in the "secret sciences" of the Middle Ages and only in recent centuries was finally forced into the unconscious. But as soon as the pressure of Christianity weakened, it was Gnostic symbolism that began to awaken. By the end of the Christian Eon (astrologically - Pisces), those symbols that fought with the Christian ones at the beginning of the era of Christ again appeared.
It is clear that statements of this kind presuppose both a kind of "metaphysics" and a philosophy of history. Jung constantly emphasized that he is an empiricist, psychologist and psychotherapist, he does not put forward or solve metaphysical hypotheses, he keeps to the field of possible experimental knowledge. At the same time, he often refers to Kant (“Completely outdated, namely from the time of Immanuel Kant,” he wrote in one of his later letters, “is the point of view that it is in the power of people to affirm metaphysical truths”). However, his teaching about the archetypes of the collective unconscious is by no means empirical. Of course, the images of dreams or hallucinations, mythology or art are the factual basis of his teaching. But these images can receive a completely different theoretical interpretation.
In introducing the concept of the collective unconscious, Jung had to clearly separate his concept from Freud's psychoanalysis. What psychoanalysts deal with is the personal unconscious, which consists of repressed "complexes." They entered consciousness in childhood or adulthood, but were forced out of it, or they are simply forgotten representations that did not overcome the threshold of consciousness. In any case, they met the individual throughout his life, this is part of his mental biography.
before the appearance of consciousness and continues to pursue its "own" goals in spite of the developed consciousness, and sometimes in spite of it. This is the result of tribal life, leaving through thousands of generations of people in the animal kingdom. Jung compared the collective unconscious with a matrix, a mycelium (a mushroom is an individual soul), with an underwater part of a mountain or an iceberg: the deeper we go "under water", the wider the base. Like our body, the psyche is the result of evolution, it imprinted the typical reactions of the body to the repetitive conditions of life. Instincts are automatic reactions of this kind, and they can be extremely complex. Under the influence of innate programs are not only behavioral acts, but also perception, thinking and imagination. A person has both instincts common to all mammals (or even to all living things), and specifically human unconscious reactions to the environment, whether it be physical phenomena, other people, or their own psycho-physiological states. Jung calls universal prototypes, prototypes of behavior and thinking archetypes. This is a system of attitudes and reactions that determines a person’s life (“it is all the more effective because it is imperceptible”). Archetypes are correlates of instincts, together they form the unconscious. These are, as it were, two sides of the same coin - a cognitive image and a behavioral act. Consciousness directs volitional acts, intuitive comprehension of the archetype "pulls the trigger" of instinctive action in the appropriate situation "Archetypes are typical ways of understanding, and wherever we meet uniform and regularly renewed ways of understanding, we are dealing with archetypes" 19 . The archetypes accumulated the experience of those situations in which an infinite number of ancestors of modern man had to "pull the trigger" of just such an action; it is a cognitive structure in which generic experience is recorded in a concise form.
Jung compared archetypes to a system of crystal axes. It preforms the crystal in solution, acting as a field distributing particles of matter. In the psyche, such "substance" is external and internal experience, organized according to these innate forms. Strictly speaking, the archetype itself does not enter consciousness, it is not given in sensory experience. Archetypes in this sense are hypothetical, they are a kind of model that allows us to explain the existing experience. Consciousness includes "arche-typical images" already subjected to conscious processing. In the experience of dreams, hallucinations, mystical visions, these images are closest to the archetype itself, since conscious processing is minimal here. It is clear that not every image of a dream or hallucination has an archetypal character - such images are easily recognized by their numinosity, by their power that shakes our psyche, the feeling of power overwhelming us.
In myths, fairy tales, religions, secret teachings and works of art, confused images, perceived as something terrible, alien to us, turn into symbols that become more and more perfect in their form and more and more general in their content. Gradually, world religions are being formed, which “contain initially secret secret knowledge and express the secrets of the soul with the help of majestic images. Their temples and scriptures proclaim in image and word teachings consecrated by antiquity, combining at the same time religious feeling, contemplation and thought. 20 . The more beautiful and grandiose such an image, the further it is from individual experience, the greater the danger of a living religion turning into ossified dogma. Once upon a time, the ancient deities died, and Christianity came in their place, which, however, inherited a lot from the Hellenistic religions in its rituals and mysteries. Catholicism was the form that permeated and organized all aspects of medieval Western European life. Like all other religions, Christianity then had a "magical protective wall" against the terrible vitality lurking in the depths of the soul. Such a wall are symbols and dogmas that contribute to the assimilation of the colossal psychic energy of archetypal images.
Jung called the history of Protestantism "the chronicle of the assault" on these sacred symbolic walls. The Protestants bled the church, deprived it of pagan rites and rituals, undermined the authority of the clergy, saved the parishioners from confession, making it their duty to read the Bible and blindly believe. The result is the loss of church life, the deadness of dogmas, the development of historical and philological criticism of the Bible. Symbols have lost their visual-figurative character, they have become formulas that are completely meaningless for the rapidly developing scientific worldview. In a traditional society, symbols that grow from the depths of the psyche are projected outward, forming an ordered cosmos. In such a world it is easy for a person to live, everything is in its place, has a purpose and meaning. Both the savage and the man of traditional culture, with each of his actions, reproduced the mythological archetype; he felt real only to the extent that he was involved in the divine order, in the cosmic cycles of the world. In Judeo-Christian monotheism, these cycles were broken, world time became linear, irreversible, but Christianity still overcame, according to M. Eliade, "the horror of history" 21 , because it promised the final overcoming of the burden, victory over darkness and chaos, suffering and death itself. In addition, a lot of paganism remained in medieval Christianity - it was to him that Protestantism declared war.
With the destruction of the wall of symbols, "an enormous amount of energy was thereby released and moved along the old channels of curiosity and acquisition, because of which Europe became the mother of dragons who devoured most of the Earth." The Reformation was followed by the Enlightenment, science, technology, and industry began to develop. The symbolic cosmos decomposed into formulas turned out to be alien to man; the "disenchantment of the world" has led to spiritual emptiness, conflicts, wars, absurd political and social ideas and, of course, to a colossal increase in the number of mental illnesses.
When there are no more symbolic walls, the energy of the archetypes is not assimilated, they invade consciousness in the form of a psychotic image of mystical visions, political prophecies of the "leaders". It is clear that in their content the latter remain mythological - Jung saw in National Socialism an exit to the surface of German paganism, while in the communist ideology the presence of the myth of the "golden age", the childhood dream of heaven on Earth, was obvious to him. These are replaced by other political myths - we live in an era of collective and individual madness.
It should be said that Jung's assessments of Nazism in the 1930s were unambiguously negative - both in the works published at that time, and in letters, and in the recently published two-volume text of a seminar on the book Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Nietzsche. Jung's son studied in Germany in the early 1930s, and, according to his recollections, every time he came to Switzerland and talked with his father about German political life, the assessments of the National Socialist movement were only negative. Germany, he wrote in 1936, had become "a land of spiritual catastrophe."
What is the reason for Jung's accusations of "complicity with the Nazis", anti-Semitism, racism, which first appeared in the mid-1930s, then were reanimated immediately after the war and are still being heard both by Freudians and other Marxists? Suppose the latter, meaning the Soviet critics of Jung, are simply illiterate: they had no time to read Jung, they had no time to understand, they read it somewhere and reproduced it, equipping them with the appropriate ideological exclamations. With the Freudians, the situation is special - there, to this day, Jung, at least in the older generation of Freud's students, remains a "traitor", there were also fables about him on various occasions. 22 . However, the accusation
cooperation with the Nazis and in anti-Semitism is serious enough not to dwell on the facts. As you know, every fact can be interpreted in different ways, revealing certain motives for an act. It is unlikely that anyone will accuse Freud of complicity with Italian fascism on the ground that he gave his book to Mussolini, or make him responsible for the executions of the Austrian Social Democrats, whose suppression of the uprising he welcomed. Ignoring the many contradictory facts, behind the actions of Jung, the Freudians find anti-Semitism and racism as one of the main motives. The only reason for this is one statement by Jung in a 1934 article, which refers to the differences in the psychology of Indo-Aryans and Jews, explained by the difference in the collective unconscious. Strictly speaking, the point is that Freud's psychoanalysis is unsuitable for understanding such phenomena as National Socialism, which Jung explained by the invasion of archetypal images.
The explanation of Nazism by the “archetype of Wotan” should probably not be considered successful. Jung's own statement, polemically directed against the Freudians, but emphasizing the differences in the racial collective unconscious in the context of the persecution of the Jews, was also untimely. However, Jewish authors also wrote about psychological differences, and not only convinced Zionists, but also the same Freud (suffice it to recall his letter to members of the B'nai B'rith Lodge 23 ), and Jung at the same time specifically emphasized that differences do not mean "inferiority" of one or the other side. The Chinese also have their own psychology, but no one will claim that the Chinese are “inferior”. Here Jung was wrong, just those who accused him of racism raised a fuss in the press: "He compares the Jews with the Mongol hordes!" 24
Jung, an admirer of ancient Chinese culture, generally inclined to glorify traditional societies and contrast them with modern civilization, who lived for months among Indians and blacks, any statements about the "mission of the white man" seemed a disgusting lie. European civilization imposes its life forms on everyone, destroys, like an elephant in a china shop, religions and traditions created by centuries. It was rather Western culture that was “inferior” for him. The comparison of the Jews with the Chinese was explained by the fact that it was about two peoples with
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much older than that of the Germans and other northern Indo-Aryans, the culture, which is partly imprinted in the collective unconscious. This gives certain advantages - greater differentiation of consciousness, reflection, but also leads to a lack of spontaneity in the creation of new cultural forms. Jung wrote the same about India, which was Indo-Aryan in origin, comparing yoga with Western "psychotechnics": the antiquity of culture has both positive and negative features. In any case, there is no need to talk about racism here.
Jung had some illusions in connection with the initial stages of the Nazi movement, but here he was by no means alone. Flattering assessments were also heard from such experienced British politicians as Lloyd George or Churchill 25 . But even then he unequivocally assessed Nazism as a mass obsession. After the war, when accusations rained down on him, he did not consider it possible for himself to conduct a newspaper skirmish. How to argue with the newspaper Weltwoche, he wrote to the Russian philosopher B.P. Vysheslavtsev, where these accusations appeared, if it glorified the Nazi regime for 10 years in a row, was supported by German money, reached such baseness as justifying the murder of the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss, and immediately after war under the same editor-in-chief accuses him of anti-Semitism, opposes Thomas Mann? The Swiss government, in fear of German aggression, practically did not allow political refugees or Jews from Germany to pass through, Swiss banks received gold bars made from the dental crowns of hundreds of thousands killed in concentration camps and mediated transactions between American and German firms all these years 26 . It was simply pointless to have a public discussion with these people. Jung's students, the Jews, had to answer. In the 1930s, when every emigrant needed not only to secretly cross the border, but also to get recommendations, get a job in order to gain a foothold in Switzerland, Jung was of great help to a number of Jewish psychoanalysts. Some of them - I. Jacobi, A. Yaffe and others became his closest students. It is not surprising that they are the ones who most often respond to the accusations of the Freudians - it is them, and not authoritative Jewish rabbis and religious figures. 27 .
It is the long-standing enmity towards Jung of Freud's followers that is the cause of all these accusations. What was, apart from preconceived claims of anti-Semitism, "collaboration with the Nazi regime"? With the advent to power, they began to clear all organizations of "racially alien" elements. German psychotherapists persuaded Jung to become the head of the International Psychotherapeutic Society, which included the German Psychotherapeutic Society, led by Goering's cousin 28 . Jung did this, he admitted, in order to save everything that could still be saved in German psychotherapy. He was faced with a choice: either stay on the sidelines with "clean hands", or help his colleagues. He chose the latter. It should be said that this society included English, Dutch, Scandinavian psychoanalysts, with the same Goering, Freud's closest associate and his future "official" biographer E. Jones considered it possible to maintain business ties. Several times he intended to leave this post, but he was persuaded to stay not only by German, but also by English and Dutch psychoanalysts. When he nevertheless left his post, an English psychotherapist took the presidency (and Jung's books immediately ended up on the "black list" of the Nazis).
Collaboration with a criminal regime is a very serious charge. It, if you do not take the obvious cases (say, Gentile was a minister under Mussolini), should be carefully substantiated. The controversy around the "Heidegger case" 29 show that prosecutors often resort to obvious overexposure. When it comes to Jung's "presidency", this is obvious. Before such prosecutors, the question should be put: if a criminal regime rules in a country, should scientists, writers, cultural figures cut off all ties with colleagues living and working in this country? How many then "accomplices of Stalinism" can be found among Western cultural figures, and not necessarily Marxists? In the case of the Nazi regime, the selectivity of W. Heisenberg, who worked on the atomic bomb for Nazi Germany, is striking, these accusations are somehow bypassed, but immediately after the war even H. Hesse was accused of “complicity”, since his books were published in Germany. The fact that Jung turned out to be the object of a propaganda campaign cannot be called an accident - they simply settled completely different scores with him.
In the works of the 1920s and 1930s, Jung addressed an extremely wide range of problems in psychotherapy, psychology, cultural studies, and religious studies. He travels the world, lectures at the ETH Zurich, conducts seminars for a small group of followers, founds in 1935 the Swiss Society for Practical Psychology, receives honorary titles at Harvard and Oxford. But the main area of his activity remained medical practice, and the doctrine of the archetypes of the collective unconscious was formed as a result of the experience of treating patients. Of course, self-analysis, a collision with one's own unconscious, played a significant role. Freud's psychoanalysis also bears the traces of Freud's introspection in 1895-1896. For Jung, this “confrontation with the unconscious took about 6 years. On the basis of this immersion and exit from it, psychotherapeutic theory, method and technique were developed. The central concept of his psychotherapy is "individuation". It is used by Jung in a different sense than in medieval theology. It is about the movement from fragmentation to the integrity of the soul, about the transition from the "I", the center of consciousness, to the "Self" as the center of the entire mental system. Such a movement begins, as a rule, in the second half of life. Among Jung's students, his nowhere recorded words are in circulation: "The natural end of life is not senile dementia, but wisdom." He considered the youthfulness of the old people, which has become so characteristic of Western culture, to be regrettable. It is as unnatural as the senile fatigue of youth. From the moment of maturity and up to about 35-40 years, orientation to the outside world. career, power, family, position is quite natural. But at this critical age, questions arise about the meaning of all this activity, religious and philosophical reflections on life and death. Most of Jung's patients belonged precisely to this age group, and neurotic symptoms very often had their cause precisely in unresolved conflicts of an ideological or moral order. It is clear that Jung, when dealing with simpler cases where there was no need for a comparatively long analysis 30 , not "fired from cannons at sparrows." But where it was necessary, with the help of a doctor, "regression" was carried out, i.e. immersion in the depths of the unconscious, so that later, after it, “progression”, a movement towards the outside world, a better adaptation to it, could be carried out again.
Often, a neurosis arises precisely because the process of individuation spontaneously began, the unconscious was connected, "compensating" the one-sidedness of consciousness. The natural goal of the mental system is the movement from the “I” to the center, to the “Self”, symbolized in dreams either by a circle (mandala), or by a cross, or by a child, etc. images.
But first, the neurotic encounters other archetypes. "Amplification", the expansion of consciousness, goes through a series of stages 31 .
Jung himself, in the last decades of his life, became "the wise old man from Kusnacht." After a trip to India in 1938, he was ill for a long time, and in 1944, after breaking his leg, he suffered a severe heart attack. Jung was visited at this time by visions that began precisely at those moments when he was close to death. His soul, leaving the body, wandered around the world space, he saw the globe from space, and then ended up on an asteroid. Having passed through a narrow entrance into the celestial body, he found himself in a temple, but then an image appeared to him in which the features of his attending physician merged with the features of Basileus the priest from the island of Kos, where the temple of Asclepius was located - Jung was instructed to return back to Earth. True, for another three weeks he could not come to his senses - the world seemed after being tested by some kind of dungeon. He also had other visions of such intensity that they seemed to be a true reality. Past, present and future merged here, other laws reigned here. These visions not only finally convinced him of the immortality of the soul, but also served as an impetus for later works, which were predominantly religious and philosophical in nature.
Jung's active work continued until 1955, until the shocking death of his wife. During these years, Jungianism took shape as a movement. Previously, Jung opposed this in every possible way, fearing that his ideas would become some kind of dogma for the sect of the "faithful", as happened earlier in Freudianism. He was extremely reluctant to set up the C. G. Jung Institute, but the students managed to persuade him. He himself did not take any part in the work of the institute, entrusting all the affairs to the first rector of the institute K. Mayer and the Council (curatorium). The only thing the students insisted on was the obligatory participation of one of Jung's family members in the curatorium. First he included his wife, Emma Jung, then his daughters (now his youngest daughter, Helene Hurney-Jung). Jung's fears came true to a certain extent: the institute was gradually losing the features of a club in which interested researchers gathered for discussions. Apparently, such a development was inevitable - the flow of those wishing to receive training was increasing, primarily from the USA and England. In England in those years, the Journal of Analytical Psychology began to appear, in the USA, Paul and Mary Mellon, who personally knew Jung, founded the Bollingen Foundation - this fund financed the publication of Jung's Complete Works in English. Jung's interest in Gnosticism has served well the researchers of this late antique doctrine. One of the codices discovered in Nag Hammadi disappeared somewhere in Cairo. The search, which lasted for several months, led K. Mayer to Brussels, where the code was found in a railway safe. One of Jung's wealthy and influential patients managed to ransom him and hand him over to
institute. Called the "Jung's Code", the ancient document was handed over to ancient scholars and published in 1955.
Jung completed his studies in alchemy in those years, but he was increasingly attracted to theological problems, as well as parapsychology. Jung's Gnostic theology finds its expression in the book "Answer to Job", where the evolution of the Juleo-Christian God is traced - this initially angry and standing "beyond good and evil" God gradually in dialogue with man and through him passes to consciousness and kindness. The movement begins with the question Nova. “Can a person be justified before God?” – and ends with the incarnation of God, the birth of Jesus Christ. God becomes the bearer of mercy, justice, love, while his dark, angry face fades into the unconscious. But this side of the deity HP has disappeared: the right hand of God is Christ, the left is Lucifer, the Antichrist. It is interesting that of the Russian religious thinkers who talked about God-manhood and man-deity at the beginning of the century, Jung was only familiar with Merezhkovsky 32 ; some of his ideas through K.Kerenya were included earlier in T.Mann's tetralogy "Joseph and his brothers". From all theologians, even the most unorthodox, Jung is distinguished, of course, by his doctrine of the unconsciousness of the deity, and by emphasizing his dark side, terrible for man. Jung's prophecies about the "day of the wrath of the Lord", the kingdom of the Antichrist, the further transition from the Christian Zone (Pisces) to another Zone. standing under the sign of Aquarius, of course, are far from unorthodox theology. In Jung's correspondence of the 1950s, theological problems occupy the most important place.
Interest in parapsychology, astrology, alchemy arose from Jung at the very beginning of his career. From the belief in the existence of "spirits", he moved on to explaining occult phenomena with the help of the theory of the collective unconscious: "spirits" became "projected unconscious autonomous complexes." Important amendments are made to the works of the 1940s and 1950s, since Jung is now convinced of a "transpsychic reality" in which the laws of guilt, spatio-temporal determinants, lose their relevance. Together with the famous physicist Pauli Jung, he publishes the book "The Explanation of Nature and the Psyche". It, firstly, suggests that archetypal images play a significant role in the speculations of natural scientists. Jung and earlier held the idea that Platonic, and then Cartesian ideas are the expression of archetypes. In other words, internal images are projected by thinkers onto external
world, and the order that is found in the cosmos is a manifestation of the internal order. Kant's a priori categories, and then the concepts of modern natural science, lost the plastic symbolism of Platonic ideas. but they still trace their origin from archetypes.
Second, Jung gives a description of the "synchronicity" effect in this book. These are “acausal semantic relations”, when an event in the inner, mental world corresponds to an event in the external. Such phenomena he had more than once observed himself; in addition, it is precisely the “synchronous” phenomena that are described in the ancient Chinese “Book of Changes” that researchers of parapsychology encounter with them. Most often, such phenomena occur when the collective unconscious is connected. Parapsychological phenomena especially often make themselves felt in critical situations, when consciousness cannot cope with them and the compensatory function of the unconscious "turns on". In this regard, amendments were made to the theory of the collective unconscious, which are generally of a philosophical nature. Archetypes have a "psychoid" character, i.e. and not purely mental and not only physical. That is why the physical effects produced by archetypes are possible. In archetypes, the opposition of matter and consciousness loses its significance - here we are talking about archetypes, and not about archetypal images as psychic facts. A number of parapsychological phenomena - sentiment du deja vu, clairvoyance, telepathy, telekinesis are interpreted by Jung as synchronic phenomena that go beyond causal relationships, violating (such as clairvoyance) physical laws known to us. Synchronicity is defined by Jung as "the temporal coincidence of two or more non-causally related events endowed with the same or similar semantic content" 33 . Temporal coincidence is not astronomical simultaneity: temporal differences are largely subjective; in the case of a foreseen future, the time distance between two events can be calculated in years. There were other cases when, for example, two English teachers in 1901 in the Versailles park fell into a hallucinatory state and became, as it were, witnesses to the events of the French Revolution. Jung gave another example of synchronicity from his own psychotherapeutic experience. One patient was excitedly talking about an unusually vivid dream with a golden beetle, and at that very moment the golden beetle sat on the window pane. Each of these events - the dream and the movement of the beetle - has its own causality, and the connection between these two series is not causal, but semantic. Life, Jung believed, is much more complicated than all our theories, and so changeable. To believe in the last word of science, which will become obsolete tomorrow, is nothing more than a prejudice. In Jung's later writings there are many statements about the limitations, and sometimes about the insignificance of scientific knowledge. Latest
truths are expressed only symbolically, the quantitative methods of science will not help here. Worse, science, “Satan's favorite weapon,” has led, together with technology and industrial civilization, to a monstrous impoverishment of the inner world of people.
Estimates of this civilization in Jung's later writings are rather pessimistic. In The Present and the Future (1957), he directly writes about the threat to the individual from modern society. It is not the communist threat in itself that is terrible. Although there are subversive minorities in Western society who use their freedoms to advocate for their destruction, they stand no chance as long as the rationality of a spiritually stable section of the population stands in their way. According to the most optimistic estimate, this is about 60% of the population. But this stability is very relative. “It is worth the temperature of affects to exceed the critical limit, and the forces of the mind fail, and slogans and chimerical dreams are torn in its place, a kind of collective obsession that quickly develops into a mental epidemic. At this time, those elements of the population gain influence, which, under the dominance of reason, eked out an asocial and hardly tolerable existence. 34 . Such faces are by no means rare curiosities outside prisons and insane asylums. According to Jung, for every clearly mentally ill person (such in all developed countries, about 1% of the population), there are 10 people with latent psychosis. They most often do not reach a fit of madness, but with outward decency they are not quite normal. They are dangerous precisely because the spiritual state of these people corresponds to the state of a group possessed by political or religious passions, prejudices or fantastic dreams. As soon as society gets into a crisis period, as soon as the masses get excited, it turns out that such individuals are best adapted - after all, in such a situation they feel “at home”. Their chimerical ideas, their fanatical bitterness find their ground here. There is a mental infection of the rest - after all, the same forces doze in their unconscious, the madmen simply stand a little closer to this flame. It is worth weakening the forces of the rule of law, and this mental epidemic leads to a social explosion, and then to the tyranny of the worst.
The experience of our century largely confirms these observations of Jung - in all social movements, no matter what color they may be, there is a great participation of people with obvious psychopathological deviations, who sometimes become "leaders" of a national or district scale. Mass society, which deprives everyone of their individuality, the social mechanics of the state, the transformation of the church into one of the tools of management and control, also contribute to this course of events. In Western society, people have become "slaves and victims of the machines that conquered for them
space and time" 35 they are threatened by the military equipment they have fostered; they are alienated from meaningful work and spiritual tradition, they have become cogs in a huge machine. The mass man is irresponsible, he does not even understand what he owes his relative well-being to, and puts in the first place his fantastic dreams, which gradually pave the way for tyranny and spiritual slavery. In a word, Jung is far from being optimistic about the prospects of Western civilization. This is also noticeable in the disturbing and even apocalyptic remarks scattered throughout his works and letters of recent years - the “day of wrath” is approaching, which will not spare either the sinner or the righteous. According to his political views, Jung was quite conservative, he was unfriendly not only to social democracy, but also to that variant of the “general welfare society”, which gradually began to take shape in the USA and European countries in the 50s. With all the accusations of irrationalism and spiritualism, he was a supporter of the political rationality of the 19th century. Modern social sciences seemed to him to be new instruments of that social mechanics, which is used for its own purposes by the becoming omnipotent bureaucracy, which is paving the way for tyranny. However, as he himself admitted in one of his letters (to the Russian emigrant philosopher B.P. Vysheslavtsev), modern sociology was practically unknown to Jung. He looked at social processes either as a doctor reading the symptoms of a disease by individual signs, or as a religious thinker trying to comprehend the divine will. Astrology also played a certain role in his reflections on the fate of Western civilization: the Christian Aeon, which is under the sign of Pisces, is coming to an end.
Jung continued to work well into old age. At the age of eighty, he managed to finish a book on alchemy, on which he had been working for over thirty years. The insistence of the students led to the fact that he began to write his autobiography, but then he quit and simply began to remember aloud, and his secretary A. Yaffe arranged the notes of the conversations into chapters of the book. The last book - "Man and His Symbols", in which Jung owns a large first section (the rest were written by students), was written when he was almost 85 years old. After a long illness, he died in Küsnacht on June 6, 1961.
Speaking about the influence of Jung's ideas, one could make a long list of writers, artists, directors, historians of religion, mythology, art. However, with every right to call themselves Jungians, first of all, psychotherapists who have received training at one of the training institutes of the International Association of Analytical Psychology can call themselves Jungians. The central one is the K.G. Jung Institute in his homeland, in Kusnacht, where about 400 students from different countries study at the same time. There are similar training centers outside of Switzerland: in Italy there are two
there are about a dozen such institutes in the USA. They accept people with higher education and considerable funds (training is quite expensive), but doctors and psychologists prevail among them, since in the USA and in most European countries they do not like self-proclaimed “healers” and only holders of appropriate diplomas can become practicing psychotherapists.
Although the Jungian association is noticeably inferior in size to the Freudian one, the association of analytical psychology has thousands of members, has funds, centers, journals, and publishing houses. Close students of Jung speak with a certain bitterness about the "spirit of commerce" or "Americanization" of analytical psychology, recalling those times when an equalizingly narrow circle of initiates gathered around Jung, and the teaching itself was not mixed with a considerable number of ideas and methods that had no direct relation to works of the founder.
Indeed, problems are being developed in modern analytical psychology that Jung did not devote much attention to. An example is the “analysis of children” (Kinderanalyse), originally developed by A. Freud and M. Klein, but not by Jung, who considered the difficulties of children to be the mental problems of their parents. Today, up to half of the students of the C. G. Jung Institute study at the Kinderanalyse department. Another example is the huge feminist literature created by the followers of Jung: for all his interest in the female soul 36 He was not a feminist in any way. Of course, one can regret the bygone “heroic” era of analytical psychology, but the expansion of scientific topics speaks of the development of theory and practice, while the transformation of a small circle into a solid social institution, with all the attendant shortcomings (there is also its own “Jungian bureaucracy”!) indicates the viability this area of psychology and psychotherapy.
With most of his first followers of the beginning of the century, Jung parted without much regret during the first world war. Of these, only Toni Wolff not only remained faithful to the teacher in his difficult time, but also had some influence on the development of "complex psychology" (as analytical psychology was originally called). In the 1920s and 1930s, Jung acquired a considerable number of students, among whom were many Anglo-Saxons. Since then, not only Zurich, but also London has become one of the most important centers of Jungianism. That first group of researchers and practicing physicians is formed, which organizes (despite Jung's considerable resistance) an association and the C. G. Jung Institute. Such associates as M.-L. von Franz, I. Jacobi, K. Mayer,
J. L. Henderson, E. Neumann, A. Jaffe, a significant number of works on both clinical psychology and mythology, the history of art, literature, religion. The narrow circle of the closest collaborators also included some writers, such as L. van der Post.
This first generation of Jungians was followed by those who no longer studied with the founder himself, but were trained in existing training institutes. These at least two generations are characterized not only by the expansion of the subject, but also by the complete absence of "polemical, fervor".
The institutionalized doctrine no longer needs to defend and justify its right to exist, the Jungians quietly coexist with the Freudians in some German psychoanalytic institutes, they use both the data of various human sciences and the psychotherapeutic methods of other schools. Unlike orthodox psychoanalysis, Jungianism did not know any "excommunications", although disputes and conflicts did occur. This liberal spirit was well expressed by one of the most productive British Jungians, A. Storr: “I received training both in general psychiatry and as an analyst of the Jungian school; therefore I approach psychotherapy in terms of the training I have received. But I am not so doctrinaire as to imagine that my point of view is the only possible one. I am well aware that my colleagues, such as the followers of Freud and Klein, get results with their patients that are no better and no worse than my own. 37 . Among the readers and admirers of Jung there are a considerable number of lovers of astrology, alchemy and other "secret sciences", but there are not so many of them among psychotherapists, who generally often question the religious insights and prophecies of the master.
To date, several currents have emerged, which one of the authors published in this book, E. Samuels, called "post-Jungian". Although I frankly do not like this term itself - all the current "post-" (from post-industrial society to postmodernism) are created by lovers of "-isms" who do not think that something will happen after their theories - but, speaking of current analytical psychology cannot be limited to the works of its founder.
This book comes to the Russian reader with a great delay: it was conceived, and basically prepared, five years ago, when there were only a few translated articles by Jung. It still did not have time to become outdated, because, in addition to Jung's previously unpublished works (and a small number of letters), it includes the works of representatives of modern analytical psychology. Analytical psychology is being developed by numerous members of the scientific community, open enough to combine Jung's fundamental ideas with theoretical developments and methods of other schools.
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Having become the "paradigm" of the theory and practice of thousands of followers, Jung's teachings, perhaps, not only gained a lot, but also lost something - the poetry of intuitive insights is increasingly replacing the prose of inductive conclusions, students of the C. G. Jung Institute often write boring and banal dissertation, striving only to obtain a coveted diploma. But such is the fate of every scientific school that has become both a special institution and an intellectual tradition. Only in this way are great ideas preserved, and the role that Jung's teaching continues to play in world culture is largely determined by the daily activities of new generations of his followers.
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