1. Psychology in the system of sciences. The structure of modern psychology
- Anthropology(a special science about man as a special biological species).
3 main sections:
Human morphology (study of individual variability of the physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to old age inclusive, sexual dimorphism, changes in the physical development of a person under the influence of various conditions of life and activity),
The doctrine of anthropogenesis (studies the origin and development of humans), consisting of primatology, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (studying fossil forms of humans) and race studies
- Zoopsychology(studying animals, many mechanisms of human behavior and the patterns of his mental development became clear)
Scientific knowledge of man originates in natural philosophy, natural science and medicine.
- Human anatomy and physiology, biophysics and biochemistry, psychophysiology (studies the human psyche), neuropsychology (studies human nervous activity)
- The medicine
- Genetics(studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype)
-Archeology
- Paleolinguistics, explores the origin of language, its sound means (articulate speech is one of the main differences between humans and animals)
- Paleosociology(social science), studies the formation of human society, and the history of primitive culture
- The sciences of ontogenesis(study of a specific person, the process of development of an individual organism, sex, age, constitutional and neurodynamic characteristics of a person are studied)
- The sciences of personality and its life path , within the framework of which the motives of human activity, his worldview and value orientations, relations with the outside world are studied
Connection with history, economics, sociology, ethnography
In the structure of modern psychology, the following branches of psychology will be distinguished:
- Work psychology- studies psychological characteristics labor activity human
- Pedagogical psychology - studies the psychological patterns of education and upbringing of a person, it includes: the psychology of training, upbringing, the psychology of the teacher, the psychology of UHR
- Medical psychology- studies psychological aspects the activity of the doctor and the behavior of the patient. Subdivided into: neuropsychology, psychopharmacology, psychotherapy, psychohygiene
- Legal psychology- studies psychological issues related to the implementation of the legal system.
- Military psychology- explores human behavior in conditions of hostilities, the relationship between the boss and the subordinate
- Psychology of sports, trade, scientific and artistic creativity .
- Age-related psychology- studies the ontogenesis of various mental processes and psychological qualities of a person.
- Psychology of abnormal development: oligophrenopsychology, deaf psychology, typhlopsychology
- Comparative psychology- explores the phylogenetic forms of mental life.
- Social Psychology- explores the forms of relationships between the collective and the individual, the psychological characteristics of the so-called "small groups", relationships within collectives and groups.
2. Classification of psychological research methods
Psychology methods- a set of methods and techniques for studying mental phenomena.
Psychology methods:
1. Organizational(determine the way of organizing psychological research):
Comparative - comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.
Longitudinal - multiple examinations of the same person over a long period
Complex - representatives of different sciences take part in the study
2. Empirical(methods of collecting primary information):
Observation (consisting in the systematic and purposeful perception and fixation of mental phenomena in certain conditions (studies memory, attention, thinking, character, abilities);
Experiment (the researcher systematically manipulates one or several factors and fixes the accompanying changes in the manifestation of the phenomenon under study. 2 types: laboratory (in specially organized conditions, using devices), natural (special conditions, but close to natural, for example, in the classroom);
Testing (a special task that allows you to quickly assess the corresponding mental phenomenon and the level of its development in the subject).
Types of tests:
1. according to the form of conducting - individual, group
2. by purpose - for selection, for distribution, for classification
3. according to the studied attribute - intelligence tests; achievement tests; personality tests (questionnaires, projective, situational)
Questioning (the child's personality - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes - perception, ideas, imagination, thinking; - questions should be thought out in advance)
Analysis of the products of activity (when studying mainly the personality of the child - his inclinations, interests, character, cognitive processes, questions should be thought out in advance)
biographical method
3. Data processing(allow for quantitative processing of primary information):
Quantitative - methods of statistical processing of information
Qualitative - differentiation of material by groups, analysis
4. Interpretive(various methods of explaining the patterns revealed as a result of static data processing and their comparison with previously established facts):
Genetic - analysis of material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, etc.
Structural - the establishment of structural links between all characteristics of the studied phenomenon
5. Impacts (corrections)- methods of influencing mental phenomena in order to change them in accordance with the stated goal:
Auto-training, group training, psychotherapy, role-playing games, hypnosis, psychoanalysis.
An auxiliary technique - self-observation - a person himself observes the course of certain mental processes in himself (for example, he tells how he thinks when solving a mathematical problem).
3. The main stages of development of psychological science
Stage 1- Psychology as a science of the soul - this definition of psychology was given more than 2,000 years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in a person's life by the presence of a soul.
Stage 2- Psychology as a science of consciousness - arose in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was considered to be a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.
Stage 3- Psychology as a science of behavior - this stage began at the beginning of the 20th century. The tasks of psychology are to observe the behavior, actions, reactions of a person (which can be directly seen). The motives of the actions were not taken into account.
Stage 4- Psychology as a science that studies the facts, laws and mechanisms of the psyche - for modern stage The development of psychology is characterized by a variety of approaches to the essence of the psyche, the transformation of psychology into a diversified, applied field of knowledge that takes into account the interests of practice.
4. Mental phenomena and psychological facts
Mental phenomena are ours:
Perceptions
Thoughts (good or bad)
Feelings (for example, love, resentment),
Aspirations (get an education, get married)
Intentions (to make a presentation, resolve the issue)
Desires (to have something, to buy a beautiful thing),
Experiences (personal for a person, an event in his inner life, about a bad grade, about an illness),
Reflections, indifference (i.e. one interests us, the other is indifferent to us),
Pleasure (from a read book, a good movie)
Indignation, indignation (seeing the unworthy behavior of a person, we criticize him)
Joy (from the birth of a child, a nice gift)
Perseverance (we achieve the implementation of the plans)
Remembering, forgetting, mindfulness
Mental phenomena are divided into:
Mental processes - cognitive (sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination); emotional (emotions, feelings); regulatory (will, speech)
Mental states - wakefulness, mood, stress
Mental properties - personality orientation (interests, desires, beliefs); temperament (in its pure form, little studied); character, ability
5. Subject and tasks of general psychology
Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena.
Psyche- This is a property of highly organized matter (brain), which consists in the active reflection of the objective world, in the construction of a picture of the world and self-regulation on this basis of their behavior and activities. An objective criterion of the psyche is the ability of living organisms to respond to neutral stimuli (in a drought, animals move closer to the reservoir, hearing the sound of cars, they move away, move away from the noise)
The subject of general psychology - patterns of development and manifestation of mental processes, mental states, mental properties, mental formations.
The subject of the study of psychology is the human psyche:
Mental processes - cognitive, emotional, volitional;
Mental states - cheerfulness, fatigue, euphoria, stress, panic, etc.;
Mental education - knowledge, abilities, skills, habits;
Mental properties (personality traits) - temperament, character, abilities, needs, interests, orientation.
The main task psychology is the study of the laws of human mental activity.
The laws of psychology show:
How a person learns the objective world around him, how it is reflected in the human brain;
How does a person's mental activity develop;
How the mental properties of a person are formed.
They are necessary for the formation of high human qualities in people. The main object of research is a person, his mental processes, states and properties.
6. Stages of development of the psyche in phylogenesis
Phylogenesis - historical formation of a group of organisms.
In psychology, the process of emergence and historical development psyche and behavior of animals, as well as the process of emergence and evolution of forms of consciousness in the course of human history.
Unconditioned reflex- hereditarily fixed stereotyped form of response to biologically significant influences of the external world or changes in the internal environment of the body.
Stages:
1. Development of sensory processes - simple unconditioned reflexes(migration, continuation of the species, herd (group) behavior, defensive behavior, hygienic behavior)
2. Development of perceptual processes - complex unconditioned reflexes (instincts) - these are complex innate actions of animals, with the help of which they satisfy their needs.
3. Development of intellectual actions - the skills of animals (such actions of animals that they acquire in individual experience due to repeated repetition and consolidation - for example, training animals in a circus).
4. Physiopsychological development of a person in the process of labor - since primitive times, in the process of labor, the physical and mental characteristics of a person have been improved, his brain and sense organs, mental qualities, and abilities have developed.
5. The development of human consciousness is the highest stage in the development of the psyche, which arose in the process of social labor activity of people with constant communication between them with the help of language, which opens up to a person the possibility of generalized and comprehensive knowledge of the laws of nature and society, active transformation of the surrounding world.
6. Development of self-awareness - the ability to know oneself by knowing others; the need to realize oneself as a person, the emergence of interest in one's inner life, in the qualities of one's own personality, the need for self-esteem.
7. Development of social behavior - complex skills of interpreting the laws of society
7. Concept, structure and content of consciousness
Consciousness- the function of the brain, the essence of which is:
1 essence - in an adequate, generalized and active reflection of reality, carried out in a speech form (with the help of language, a person conveys to people not only messages about his internal states, but also about what he knows, sees, understands, presents, i.e. objective information about the world around);
2 essence - in the connection of newly received information with the previous experience (I open one eye in the morning and determine where I am, then I am conscious)
3 essence - a person separating himself from the surrounding world, opposing himself as a subject, constructive and creative alteration of the external world (a cognizing subject, capable of mentally presenting existing and imaginary reality, controlling his own mental and behavioral states, controlling them, the ability to see and perceive in the form of images surrounding reality)
The main condition for the emergence and development of human consciousness is the joint productive speech-mediated tool activity of people
Human consciousness is evidence and a derivative component of it real life... Characteristics of consciousness - continuity, dynamism, directionality (with which interest is connected)
Consciousness structure:
Awareness of things, as well as experience, that is, a certain attitude to the content of what is reflected
Feel,
Perceptions,
Representation,
Concepts,
Thinking
Attention
Excitement,
Delight,
Hatred
21. Typology of character (E. From, K. Jung)
Types of character according to E. From (psychiatrist of Freudian orientation):
1. "Masochist-sadist". This is the type of person who is inclined to see the reasons for their life successes and failures, as well as the reasons for the observed social events, not in the prevailing circumstances, but in people. In an effort to eliminate these reasons, he directs his aggression at a person who seems to him to be the cause of failure.
An interesting observation by E. Fromm, who asserts that in this type of people, along with masochistic tendencies, sadistic tendencies are almost always revealed. They manifest themselves in the desire to put people in dependence on themselves, to acquire complete and unlimited power over them, to exploit them, to cause them pain and suffering, to enjoy the vision of how they suffer. This type of person is called an authoritarian person. E. Fromm showed that similar personal properties were inherent in many famous despots in history, and included Hitler, Stalin, and a number of other famous historical figures among them.
2. "Destroyer". It is characterized by pronounced aggressiveness and an active desire to eliminate, destroy the object that caused the frustration (deception, vain expectation), the collapse of the hopes of this person. E. Fromm showed that similar personal properties were inherent in many famous despots in history, and included Hitler, Stalin, and a number of other famous historical figures among them.
3. "Conformist automaton". Such an individual, faced with intractable social and personal life problems, ceases to "be yourself."
He unquestioningly obeys circumstances, society of any type, the requirements of a social group, quickly assimilating the type of thinking and mode of behavior that is characteristic of most people in a given situation. Such a person almost never has either his own opinion or a pronounced social position. He actually loses his own "I". The typology deduced by E. Fromm is real in the sense of the word that it really resembles the behavior of many people during social events taking place in our country now or in the past.
Types of characters according to K. Jung:
1. Extroverted (open) - we are dealing with a sociable person who always and everywhere shows a special interest in what is happening around. The extrovert puts the external world above his internal subjective experiences. He responds vividly to the relevant events and, as it were, lives by them.
2. Introverted (closed). - we notice that all of a person's attention is directed to himself and he becomes the center of his own interests
An introverted person puts himself and the individual inner world above what is happening around. They differ in detachment from what is happening around, detachment, independence.
22. Degrees of expression of character. Accentuation
The degree of expression of character in the system of relations:
1. "Man - the world around him" - convinced, unprincipled
2. "Man - activity" - active, inactive
3. "Man - other people" - sociable, withdrawn
4. "Man - I" - egoistic, altruistic
Character accentuation- excessive severity of individual character traits and their combinations, representing extreme variants of the norm, bordering on psychopathies.
Types of accentuation:
1. Cycloid - phase alternation of good and bad mood with a different period.
2. Hypertensive - constantly elevated mood, increased mental activity
3. Labile - a sharp change in mood depending on the situation
4. Asthenic - fatigue, irritability, tendency to depression
5. Sensitive - increased impressionability, heightened sense of inferiority
6. Psychasthenic (anxious) - high anxiety, suspiciousness, a tendency to introspection, doubt
7. Schizoid - withdrawal, emotional coldness, difficulties in establishing contacts
8. Epileptoid - a tendency to maliciously melancholy mood with aggression, pedantry
9. Stuck - increased suspicion, resentment, desire to dominate
10. Demonstrative - a high need for recognition, attention, deceit, hypochondria.
11. Dystomy - predominance of low mood, tendency to depression
12. Unstable - easily influenced by others, searching for new adventures, companies
13. Conformal - excessive subordination and dependence on the opinions of others, conservatism.
23. The concept of imagination. Functions and properties of imagination
Imagination Is a mental process that consists in creating new images based on data from past experience .
A person can mentally imagine something that he did not perceive or did not do in the past; he may have images of objects and phenomena that he has not encountered before. The process of imagination is peculiar only to man and is necessary condition his work... Thanks to imagination, a person creates, intelligently plans and manages his activities. Almost all human material and spiritual culture is a product of the imagination and creativity of people. Imagination is always directed towards the practical activity of a person. Before doing anything, a person imagines what needs to be done and how he will do it. Thus, he already creates in advance an image of a material thing that will be made in the subsequent practical activity of a person. This human ability to imagine in advance the final result of his labor, as well as the process of creating a material thing, sharply distinguishes human activity from the "activity" of animals, sometimes very skillful.
Functions:
1. in the regulation of emotional states. With the help of his imagination, a person is able to at least partially satisfy many needs, relieve the tension they generate
2. To represent reality in images and be able to use them, solving problems. This function of imagination is connected with thinking and is organically included in it.
3. participation in the arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes and human states, in particular perception, attention, memory, speech, emotions. With the help of skillfully evoked images, a person can pay attention to the necessary events. Through images, he gets the opportunity to control perception, memories, statements
4. consists in the formation of an internal plan of action - the ability to carry out them in the mind, manipulating images.
5. planning and programming activities, drawing up such programs, assessing their correctness, the implementation process. With the help of imagination, we can control many psychophysiological states of the body, tune it to the upcoming activity.
Properties:
1. Creativity is an activity, the result of which is the creation of new material and spiritual values.
2. A dream is an emotional and concrete image of the desired future, characterized by poor knowledge of ways to achieve it and a passionate desire to translate it into reality.
3. Agglutination - the creation of new images based on the "gluing" of parts of existing images.
4. Accentuation - the creation of new images by emphasizing, highlighting certain features.
5. Hallucinations - unreal, fantastic images that arise in a person during illnesses that affect the state of his psyche.
24. Types of imagination. Ways to create images of the imagination
Kinds:
Depending on the participation of the will:
1. Passive (involuntary) - the creation of new images without specific human intentions, in the absence or weakening of conscious control. (In the images of passive imagination, the unsatisfied, mostly unconscious needs of the individual are "satisfied").
2. Active (voluntary) - the creation of new images in accordance with a consciously set task and with the help of volitional efforts (always aimed at solving a creative or personal task. Active imagination is directed more outside, a person is mainly busy with the environment, society, activities and less internal subjective problems).
By the nature of the created image:
3. Reproductive - a type of imagination in which the creation of images is based on previously perceived.
4. Productive - differs in that reality in it is consciously constructed by a person, and not just mechanically copied or recreated.
5. Creative - the creation of new images in the process of human creative activity.
Ways to create images of the imagination:
1. Isolation of the image of an object
2. Changing the size of objects
3. Connecting parts of objects
4. Object construction
5. Mental reinforcement of images
6. Mental weakening of images
7. Transfer to other objects
8. Creating images from generalizations
25. The concept of intelligence
Intelligence- a relatively stable structure of human mental abilities.
Intelligence is based on memory, attention, the speed of mental processes, the ability to exercise, the development of understanding of language, the degree of fatigue when performing mental operations, the ability to logical thinking, resourcefulness.
It is closely interconnected with all cognitive functions of a person, however, in order to more successfully explore the process of solving problems, intelligence is considered as a separate function. Intelligence is based on memory, attention, the speed of mental processes, the ability to exercise, the development of understanding of language, the degree of fatigue when performing mental operations, the ability to think logically, resourcefulness, etc.
26. Emotions and feelings. Basic functions and properties of emotions
Emotions (feelings)- mental states, expressing a person's attitude to the surrounding reality, to other people, to himself. A person not only actively learns objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, but also experiences a certain attitude towards them. Some events excite him, to others he is indifferent, some things he likes, others leave indifferent, he loves some people, hates others, experiences pleasure and displeasure, joy and sorrow, despair and inspiration. In humans, the main function of emotions is that thanks to emotions we better understand each other, we can, without using speech, judge each other's states and better tune in to joint activities and communication.
Emotion functions:
· Estimated - in human activity they perform the function of assessing its progress and results. They organize the activity by stimulating and directing it;
· Signal - emotions signal to a person about the state of his needs about the effect of beneficial or harmful on the body;
· Incentive - emotions act as powerful sources;
· Communicative - mimic and pantomimic movements allow a person to transmit their experiences to other people.
Feelings are one of the main forms of a person's experience of their relationship to objects and phenomena of reality, characterized by stability and arising from the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of higher needs.
Emotion properties:
1. versatility
2. dynamism
3.dominant (stronger emotions are able to suppress)
4.adaptation
5.contagiousness (positive or negative emotions can affect others)
6. transfer
7.ambivalence (simultaneous coexistence of 2 different-modal emotions)
8.summation
27. Speech and language. Functions and types of speech
Speech- the process of a person using language in order to communicate with other people. Speech is a means of thinking. Through speech, people exchange their thoughts and knowledge, talk about their feelings, experiences, intentions and dreams.
Language- a system of verbal signs, with the help of which communication between people is carried out (when communicating with each other, people use words and use the grammatical rules of a particular language - Russian, German, French, etc.). Language and speech are inextricably linked, represent a unity.
Speech functions:
1. Expressions
2. Impacts
3. Messages, communication
4. Notation
Types of speech:
1. Oral - communication between people by pronouncing words aloud, on the one hand, and their perception by ear, on the other.
Divided into: a) monologue - the speech of one person who expresses his thoughts for a relatively long time
b) dialogical - a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate
2. Written - depicted graphically, with the help of written signs (letters) denoting the sounds of oral speech. Feature - it is addressed to the absent reader who is in a different place, in a different setting and will read what has been written only after a while.
3. Internal - speech to oneself. It is used in the process of thinking. This speech allows a person to think based on native language even when the person does not speak loudly. People usually think in the language they speak. Before expressing a thought orally or in writing, a person often pronounces it to himself, i.e. in inner speech.
Speech properties:
1. Expressiveness
2. Effectiveness: a) teaching
b) instruction
3. Comprehensibility
28. Types of emotions and feelings
Types of feelings:
1. Intellectual - feelings associated with the cognitive activity of a person (this is a sense of surprise, a sense of doubt, a sense of confidence, a sense of satisfaction).
2. Moral - feelings in which a person's attitude to the requirements of public morality (a sense of duty, conscience) is expressed.
3. Aesthetic - feelings that arise in a person in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of aesthetic needs (a sense of the sublime, beautiful and beautiful, a sense of the heroic, a sense of the dramatic, a source aesthetic sense is music, painting, sculpture, fiction, works of architecture, contemplation of nature).
Types of emotions:
1. Stenic (invigorating) - experiences that increase the activity of a person's activity, increase the strength and energy of a person
2. Asthenic (oppressive) - experiences that reduce the activity of a person's activity, reduce the strength and energy of a person.
K. Izard highlighted fundamental and basic emotions
Interest is a positive emotional state that contributes to the development of skills and abilities, the acquisition of knowledge
Joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to sufficiently fully satisfy an urgent need
Surprise is an emotional reaction to sudden circumstances. Inhibits all previous emotions by directing attention to the object that caused it
Suffering is a negative emotional state associated with the received reliable or seeming information about the impossibility of satisfying the most important needs
Anger is a negative emotional state, as a rule, proceeding in the form of affect and caused by a sudden serious obstacle to the satisfaction of a need
Disgust is a negative emotional state caused by objects, interaction with which comes into sharp conflict with the principles and attitudes of the subject.
Contempt is a negative emotional state. arising in interpersonal relationships and generated by mismatch life positions, views
Fear is a negative emotional state that appears when the subject receives information about a possible threat to his life well-being, about a real or imaginary danger
Shame - negative emotional state
29. Emotional states: stress, mood, affect, frustration
1. Stress- understand the emotional state of a person arising in response to a variety of extreme conditions.
A stressful state is a state of neuropsychic tension that occurs in an unusual, work situation - in the presence of danger, with great physical and mental overload, when it is necessary to make quick and responsible decisions.
It is a state of excessively strong and prolonged psychological stress that occurs in a person when his nervous system gets emotional overload. Stress disorganizes human activity, disrupts the normal course of his behavior. Stresses, especially if they are frequent and prolonged, have a negative effect not only on the psychological state, but also on the physical health of a person.
2. Mood- a stable emotional state, which manifests itself as a positive or negative background of the individual's mental life (depending on the circumstances, it can be good, bad, uplifted)
Allocate:
1.euphoria - an increased joyful mood, a state of complacency and carelessness, an experience of complete satisfaction with one's state
2.dysphoria - an angry, melancholy mood with the experience of dissatisfaction with oneself and others, often accompanied by aggression
3.anxiety - the experience of internal anxiety, expectation of trouble, trouble, catastrophe
3. Affect- short-term strong emotional excitement associated with a sharp change in vital circumstances important for the subject.
Allocate:
1.physiological - anger or joy
2.asthenic - quickly depleting depressed mood, decreased mental activity and tone
3.sthenic - increased well-being, mental activity, a sense of one's own strength
4.pathological - a short-term mental disorder that occurs in response to intense mental trauma and expresses in the concentration of consciousness on traumatic experiences
4. Frustration- an emotional state caused, objectively or subjectively, by insurmountable difficulties on the way to achieving a meaningful goal.
The term itself, translated from Latin, means deception, vain expectation. Frustration is experienced as tension, anxiety, despair, anger that grips a person when, on the way to achieving a goal, he meets with unexpected obstacles that interfere with the satisfaction of the need.
30. The concept of will. The structure of volitional action
Will- a mental process, characterized by the ability of the subject to set a goal, see and choose ways to achieve it, go towards what has been planned, overcoming external or internal obstacles.
Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. Will as a characteristic of consciousness and activity appeared along with the emergence of society, labor activity. Will is an important component of the human psyche, inextricably linked with cognitive motives and emotional processes.
Will is needed when choosing a goal, making a decision, taking action, overcoming obstacles. Overcoming obstacles requires volitional effort- a special state of neuropsychic tension, mobilizing the physical, intellectual and moral strength of a person. Will manifests itself as a person's confidence in their abilities, as a determination to perform the act that the person himself considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation.
By doing different kinds activity, while overcoming external and internal obstacles, a person develops volitional qualities in himself: purposefulness, decisiveness, independence, initiative, perseverance, endurance, discipline, courage.
The structure of volitional action:
Volitional actions are simple and complex.
To simple are those in which a person does not hesitate to go to the intended goal, it is clear to him what and in what way he will achieve. For a simple volitional action, it is characteristic that the choice of a goal, the decision to perform an action in a certain way are carried out without a struggle of motives.
In a complex volitional action the following stages are distinguished:
1. awareness of the goal and the desire to achieve it ( the preparatory stage, at which the goal is realized, the ways and means of achieving the goal are determined and a decision is made. e If the goal is set from the outside and its achievement is obligatory for the performer, then it remains only to cognize it, having formed in oneself a certain image of the future result of the action);
2. awareness of a number of possibilities for achieving the goal(this is actually a mental action, which is part of a volitional action, the result of which is the establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship between the methods of performing a volitional action in the existing conditions and possible results);
3.the emergence of motives affirming or denying these possibilities ( each of the motives, before becoming a goal, goes through the stage of desire (in the case when the goal is chosen independently). Wish- these are ideally existing (in a person's head) content needs. To desire something is, first of all, to know the content of the incentive).
4. struggle of motives and choice(maybe of the same level - you equally want to go to the cinema and to the theater in the evening, you equally want to become a driver after graduation) and the struggle of motives of various levels - to go to the cinema or give up doing your homework. In the second case, one must be aware of the level of motives and give preference to a motive of a higher level. When it comes to whether to do what you need or what you want, you should give preference to the motive "must". At the stage of understanding the goal and striving to achieve it, the struggle of motives is resolved by choosing the goal of the action, after which the tension caused by the struggle of motives at this stage weakens);
5.the adoption of one of the possibilities as a decision(characterized by a voltage drop, since it is allowed internal conflict... The means, methods, sequence of their use are specified here, i.e. refined planning is in progress);
6. implementation of the decision(does not relieve a person from the need to make volitional efforts, and sometimes no less significant than when choosing the goal of an action or methods of performing it, since the practical implementation of the intended goal is again associated with overcoming obstacles).
31. Volitional personality traits
1. Strong will- clear awareness of the goal. The desire to achieve it is more intense, the opportunities and motives are sufficient, the struggle of motives and the choice is justified and quick, justified intensive decision, the implementation of the decision is persistent.
2. Perseverance- the ability to follow through decisions taken, to achieve the set goal. Overcoming all sorts of obstacles and difficulties on the way to it.
3. Purposefulness Is the ability to subordinate one's behavior to a stable life purpose, readiness and determination to devote all forces and abilities to achieve it, its planned, steady implementation.
4. Discipline- deliberate submission of their behavior to social rules. Without coercion, he recognizes that it is mandatory for himself to comply with the rules of society.
5. Stubbornness- objectively unjustified goal and the desire to achieve it, opportunities and motives, the struggle of motives and the choice is determined not by an objective consideration of all the possibilities, but by a biased opinion, an easily changing decision, persistent implementation of the decision.
6. Compliance- easily changing goal and the desire to achieve it, opportunities and motives, the struggle of motives and the choice is determined by the opinion of other persons, an easily changing decision, different implementation of the decision.
7. Suggestibility- there are no opportunities and motives, the decision is given from the outside, under the influence of other people's advice, different implementation of the decision.
8. Determination- the ability to make informed and sustainable decisions in a timely manner and to move on to their implementation without undue delays.
9. Indecision- clear awareness of the goal. Intense striving to achieve it, sufficient, sometimes excessively opportunities and motives, long and unfinished struggle of motives and choice, there is no solution or often changes, there is no implementation of the solution.
10. Weakness- weak striving for the goal and its achievement, sufficient or small opportunities and motives, incomplete struggle of motives and choice, decisions without the desire to fulfill, unstable implementation of decisions.
32. The concept of temperament. Components of temperament
Temperament- it individual characteristics a person, determining the dynamics of the course of his mental processes, strength, poise and behavior. Dynamics is understood as the tempo, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes, in particular emotional processes, as well as some external features of human behavior - mobility, activity, speed or slowness of reactions, etc.
Observing the behavior of children and adults, how they work, study, play, how they react to external influences, how they experience joys and sorrows, we undoubtedly pay attention to the large individual differences between people. Some are fast, impetuous, noisy, very mobile, prone to violent emotional reactions; in work, study and play they are impatient, passionate, energetic. Others, on the contrary, are slow, calm, imperturbable, inactive; their feelings are weak and outwardly expressed imperceptibly. This whole side of the personality characterizes the concept of "temperament".
The temperamental property is clearly manifested:
In early childhood
In situations that exclude the possibility of referring to personal experience
Stressful situation
In strictly controlled experimental situations
In new, attractive situations for a person
Temperament components:
1. The general activity of mental activity and human behavior is expressed in varying degrees of desire to actively act, master and transform the surrounding reality, to manifest oneself in a variety of activities.
2. Motor, or motor activity - shows the state of activity of the motor and speech motor apparatus. It is expressed in the speed, strength, sharpness, intensity of muscle movements and speech of a person, his external mobility (or vice versa, restraint), talkativeness (or silence).
3. Emotional activity - expressed in emotional impressionability (susceptibility and sensitivity to emotional influences), impulsivity, emotional mobility (the speed of changing emotional states, starting and stopping them).
Temperament is manifested in the activities, behavior and actions of a person and has an external expression.
In parallel with the science of behavior, the science of the unconscious developed - that which is beyond the limits of human consciousness. The founder of this trend in psychology is considered Sigmund Freud, who put forward the concept of a three-level structure of the human psyche.
According to Z. Freud, the psyche consists of three components: a huge dark unconscious, which will never be fully cognized by a person ("It"), from a conscious, rational component ("I" or "Ego") and a social censor ("Super- I "or" Super Ego ").
Unconscious ("It")is the most ancient basis of the psyche, which is dominated by primary needs. Instincts are localized here (primarily, according to Freud, sexual and aggressive). A person can carry out contact with this part of his psyche during sleep, meditation, hypnosis and some other forms of altered consciousness.
The second part of a person's consciousness - "Ego" to a greater extent corresponds to the person's idea of himself, and performs two important functions: firstly, it guides contact with reality, and, secondly, it communicates with the unconscious.
Finally, the third component of our consciousness - "Super Ego" - a person's conscience, his inner watchdog, which exercises supervision, as it were, from within the consciousness. Freud believed that the "Super Ego" is a modified parental authority, a sublimation of a strict but just Father who, in childhood, watched the child, controlled his actions and punished him for breaking the rules.
To identify these three components of the psyche, S. Freud developed new method - psychoanalysis, allowing you to come into contact with the unconscious by weakening the control of consciousness, using the method of "free association".
Stage 7: Study of the mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche.
This stage began in the first third of the twentieth century, and is based on the achievements of biochemistry, physiology and medicine. The representative of this trend can be considered Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who discovered a number of patterns of mental activity. Experimental attempts to understand the mechanisms of the work of the brain are associated with his name. He discovered and studied conditioned reflexes, which are the material basis of memory and associations.
Among the scientists - representatives of this stage, one can name James Olds, who was the first to discover the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions, Roger Sperry, who discovered the interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain, Abraham Maslow, who created the concept of the "pyramid of urgent needs" and other researchers.
Thanks to the research of scientists of various specialties, psychologists have managed to better understand the structure and mechanisms of the human brain.
Reflection is understood as the ability of material objects in the process of interaction with other objects to reproduce in their changes some of the features and features of the phenomena affecting them.
On the subject: Different views on the subject of psychology. The term "Psychology" translated into Russian from Greek means "the science of the soul." In scientific use, the term "Psychology" first appeared in the 16th century. At first, he belonged to a special science, which was engaged in the study of mental (mental phenomena). Later, in the 17th-19th centuries. the field studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. Mental phenomena are 1) mental processes 2) mental states 3) mental properties of a person. 1) Psychic processes act as primary regulators of human behavior, have a certain beginning, course and end. Knowledge, skills and abilities are formed on the basis of these processes. 2) On the basis of mental processes, mental states are formed that characterize the state of the psyche as a whole and have their own dynamics (duration, focus, stability, intensity). These conditions affect the outcome of mental processes and can facilitate or inhibit activity. This is uplift, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency. 3) Mental properties of a person are the most essential personality traits that provide a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior (focus, temperament, abilities, character). They are characterized by greater stability and consistency. The level of development of mental properties, features of the development of mental processes and the prevailing mental states determine the uniqueness of a person, his individuality. The subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one specific person and mental phenomena observed in a group and collectives. The main task is the study of mental phenomena.
Galperin P.Ya. – Item evolution. Soul was recognized by everyone until the beginning of the 18th century, before the basic concepts were formed, and then the first system of modern psychology. The concept of the soul was mostly idealistic. But there were also materialistic theories of the soul. They originated from performances
Democritus and described the soul as the finest matter, pneuma, whose particles - round, smooth and extremely active - penetrated between larger and less mobile atoms and, pushing, set them in motion. The soul was considered the cause of all processes in the body, including the "mental movements" proper.
Phenomena of Consciousness as a Subject of Psychology . The place of the soul was taken by the phenomena that we actually observe, we find “in ourselves”, turning to our “inner mental activity”. These are our thoughts, desires, feelings, memories, etc. John Locke - he can be considered the founder of this understanding of the subject of psychology, pointed out that, unlike the soul, the phenomena of consciousness are not something supposed, but actually given, and in In this sense, the facts of internal experience are the same indisputable facts as are the facts of external experience studied by other sciences. Behavior as a subject of psychology.
Behavior as a subject of psychology
Behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior) is a psychological direction, the beginning of which was laid by the publication in 1913 of an article by an American psychologist J. Watson"Psychology from the point of view of a behaviorist." As a subject of psychology, it does not feature the subjective world of a person, but objectively recorded characteristics behavior caused by any external influences. Moreover, as a unit analysis behavior postulates a connection between stimulus (S) and response (R).
Representatives of behaviorism faced a tough choice: either to go to the study of physiological mechanisms of behavior, that is, to become physiologists and say: there is no psychology, there is only physiology of behavior; or to study the mechanisms of behavior without physiology, that is, only as a ratio of stimuli and reactions. This was the fundamental position of "classical" behaviorism. But very soon, already at the end of the 1920s, it became obvious that it was impossible to explain either human behavior or the behavior of an animal by a single combination of available stimuli and past experience; that in the interval between the action of stimuli and behavioral reactions, there is some kind of active processing of the incoming information, which cannot be reduced to the influence of traces of past experience; that these are some kind of active processes, without taking into account which it is impossible to explain the reaction of the animal to the available stimuli. This is how “neobehaviorism” arises with its most important concept of “incidental (or intermediate) variables” and the basic position of the original behaviorism (which is now often called naive) is canceled. Behaviorism proved to be twice untenable: it failed to isolate the psychological content of behavior and failed to explain behavior without the help of traditional psychological "variables." Orientation activity as a subject of psychology. All forms of mental activity are various forms of orientation of the subject in problem situations. These different forms arise because the circumstances in which the subject finds himself are substantially different, the tasks facing him and the means by which these tasks are solved are different. different shapes orienting activity, then the other side of this position lies in the fact that psychology in all the so-called mental processes or functions studies precisely this orienting side of them. This means that it would be wrong to say that psychology studies thinking, feelings, imagination, will, etc. is wrong, first of all, because psychology does not study all aspects (aspects) of thinking, feeling, will and other mental functions. The subject of psychology is the study of precisely the orienting side of any mental process.
Modern psychology and its place in the system of sciences. Due to its specificity, psychology occupies a special place in the system of modern sciences that study nature and man. At the moment, it exists not as a single science, but as a number of directions that are different in their subject matter, but conditionally united by an object, although they are interpreted differently. Psychology and medicine, biological sciences: Man is a social and biological being at the same time.
Most mental phenomena, mental processes are physiological, therefore, the knowledge gained by physiologists and biologists is used in psychology for a better understanding of certain mental phenomena. Directly with the physiology of higher nervous activity correlates such a branch of psychology as psychophysiology, which studies the psyche in unity with the brain. Among the applied biological disciplines, medicine stands out, primarily neuropathology and psychiatry. The neuropsychology founded by A.R. Luria is especially distinguished, which exists at the intersection of psychology, physiology and medicine and studies the cerebral mechanisms of higher mental functions based on local brain lesions. Closely related to medicine, the so-called special psychology, which studies various options for the pathology of mental development. The relationship of psychology with the natural sciences. Psychologists and history: With history, psychology is brought together by an interest in the peculiarities of the mental image of a person in different historical epochs and in different cultures (personality traits, perception of the world, thinking, the formation of standards of behavior, relationships, especially emerging groups, etc.). With sociology - the science of social systems and processes - psychology is connected through the study of the patterns of interaction between the individual and his social environment, intragroup and intergroup relations. Social psychology studies the psychological characteristics of a person, due to his existence in a group, and the characteristics of the groups themselves. Ethnopsychology studies the peculiarities of the psyche of people of different peoples and cultures, developing problems of national character, self-awareness, national characteristics of the worldview, relationships, the formation of communities, etc. Political psychology studies the characteristics of a person and groups due to their inclusion in political life- at the level of the individual and at the level of small and large groups of various types. Linguistics - the problem of the formation of speech based on the assimilation of linguistic structures, the analysis of language in connection with thinking, psycholinguistics arose.
Psychology and philosophy: questions of psychology were solved for a very long time within the framework of philosophy, and only in the middle of the 19th century. psychology became an independent science, separated from philosophy, and, nevertheless, retained a close connection with philosophy. There are psychological theories that have the character of psychological and philosophical: theoretical works of modern followers of Z. Freud - neo-Freudians (E. Fromm). Scientists such as Aristotle, R. Descartes, J. Locke are known in psychology - they are, first of all, great philosophers, founders of philosophical schools. Psychology and pedagogy: at first glance, these sciences are inseparable, since the upbringing and education of children cannot but take into account the psychological characteristics of the individual. Pedagogy was formed as an independent science. As a result, psychology and pedagogy took shape as independent sciences and exist separately. At the beginning of the 20th century, there existed and developed a comprehensive science about children, their education and upbringing - pedology. Within the framework of this science, teachers, psychologists, physicians, physiologists, etc. have successfully collaborated.
Physics - the idea of the atomic structure of the world led to the transfer of the principle - about the atomic structure of the soul. Such concepts came: energy, field. The connection between psychology and chemistry. Chemical processes are considered in the analysis of biological phenomena important for psychology; Psychology is closely related to technical sciences, in particular the development of socio-technical systems ( spaceship), involves taking into account the mental and psychophysical capabilities of a person (flight simulators). The main branches of psychology: General psychology - combines fundamental psychological knowledge and solves the problem of studying the individual.
Educational psychology - studies the psychological problems of training and education.
Developmental psychology - the patterns of the stages of mental development and the formation of personality from birth to old age. Differentiated psychology - differences between individuals, groups, reasons for differences. Social psychology - patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of their inclusion in society. Political psychology - psychological components of political life and people's activities.
Psychology of art - personality traits, groups of persons that determine the creation of artistic values. Engineering psychology - processes and means of interaction between man and machine. Clinical psychology - bneuropsychology, pathopsychology, somatopsychology, special psychology, etc.
Tasks of modern psychology: 1. study of the laws of mental processes and states; 2. Development of criteria for assessing the levels of development of mental processes; 3.the study of the relationship between the characteristics of mental reflection and forms of behavior; 4.the study of the regularities of the mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche
The subject of psychology. Methods of scientific and psychological research.
Definition of psychology as a science.
Word "psychology", formed from the Greek words "psyche" (soul) and "logos" (doctrine, science), first appeared in the 17th century in the work of the German philosopher Christian Wolff.
Today psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and practical use acquired knowledge. Psychology studies the world of subjective (mental) phenomena, processes and states, realized or unconscious by the person himself.
Why study psychology? We all live among people and by the will of circumstances must understand and take into account the psychology of people, as well as the individual characteristics of the psyche and personality. We are all psychologists to one degree or another. But our everyday psychology will only benefit and will be enriched if we supplement it with scientific psychological knowledge.
It is important for everyone to understand what they want, what the people around us can do, how to navigate in personality traits, motives of behavior, memory and thinking, character and temperament. Without such reference points in complex processes interpersonal interaction and communication, one often has to go blindly, making mistakes, sometimes committing tactlessness, acquiring enemies where there could be friends. It is equally important to understand your capabilities, advantages and disadvantages, in other words, be able to it is psychologically reliable to characterize oneself as a person... The system of knowledge called psychology is precisely responsible for these tasks. It is useful simply for a person, so to speak, for personal use, in order to understand the state of your soul, and, if necessary, consciously make changes to it. (auto-training, meditation, neurolinguistic programming); she is needed parents and educators to know what is happening in the souls of children, to provide them with first psychological aid, to correct them mental development ; she is simply necessary business person in order to make responsible decisions, taking into account the psychological state of partners, to skillfully influence their likes and dislikes, beliefs and tastes; you can't do without it either engineer, which solves the problem of operators' reliability. (L. D. Stolyarenko "Fundamentals of Psychology")
Subject and object of psychology.
What makes thing scientific study in psychology? This is primarily specific facts of mental life, characterized qualitatively and quantitatively... So, examining the process of a person's perception of the objects around him, psychology has established that the image of the object retains even under changing conditions of perception. For example, a textbook page in different lighting conditions (white). In this case, we have qualitative characteristic psychological fact. An example quantitative characteristics a psychological fact can be the speed of a given person's reaction to an influencing stimulus. For example, pressing a button in response to a light bulb flashing (faster or slower). The individual differences in the reaction rate observed in the experiment are psychological facts established in scientific research... They make it possible to quantitatively characterize some of the features of the psyche of various subjects.
However, scientific psychology cannot limit itself to describing a psychological fact. Scientific knowledge requires transition from describing phenomena to explaining them... The latter presupposes the disclosure of the laws that govern these phenomena. So subject studies in psychology together with psychological facts become psychological laws... (A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky "Psychology")
All of the above allows us to assume with a fair degree of confidence that the subject of psychology is the study of the structure and laws of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche in its various forms, including consciousness as the highest form of mental reflection.
Considering that "psychology is in a special position because the object and the subject of cognition seem to merge in it," as well as imagining the relationship in which the object and the subject are usually found scientific knowledge, under the object of psychology, we will further understand the unity of the three elements .
Basic concepts and terms on the topic: psychology, psyche, reflection, mental processes, mental states, mental properties, sensitivity, instinct, skill, intellectual behavior, reflection, reflex, imprinting, skill, conscious, unconscious, intuition, insight, self-awareness, self-esteem, Self-image, reflective consciousness.
Study plan of the topic(list of questions required for study):
1. Subject of psychology. The relationship of psychology with other sciences. Branches of psychology.
2. Stages of formation of psychology as a science.
3. Tasks of modern psychology.
4. The concept of the psyche, the structure of the psyche.
5. Consciousness as a form of mental reflection. The psychological structure of consciousness.
Brief summary of theoretical questions:
Subject, object and methods of psychology.
Psychology in translation from Greek means teaching, knowledge about the soul ("psyche" - soul, "logos" - teaching, knowledge). This is the science of the laws of mental life and human activity and various forms of communities of people. Psychology as a science studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche (A.V. Petrovsky). Object Psychology is not only a specific and individual person, but also various social groups, masses and other forms of communities of people and other highly organized animals, the peculiarities of the mental life of which are studied by such a branch of psychology as zoopsychology. However, traditionally, the main object of psychology is a person. In this case psychology is the science of the laws of the emergence, formation, development, functioning and manifestations of the psyche of people in different conditions and at different stages of their life and work.
Subject studying psychology is the psyche. In its most general form psyche - it is the inner spiritual world of a person: his needs and interests, desires and inclinations, attitudes, value judgments, attitudes, experiences, goals, knowledge, skills, behavior and activity skills, etc. The human psyche is manifested in his statements, emotional states, facial expressions , pantomime, behavior and activity, their results and other externally expressed reactions: for example, reddening (blanching) of the face, sweating, changes in the rhythm of the heart, blood pressure, etc. It is important to remember that a person can hide his real thoughts, relationships, experiences and other mental states.
All diversity forms of mental existence are usually grouped into the following four groups.
1 . ^ Mental processes human: a) cognitive (attention, sensation, perception, imagination, memory, thinking, speech);
b) emotional (feelings);
c) strong-willed.
2. ^ Mental education person (knowledge, abilities, skills, habits, attitudes, views, beliefs, etc.).
3. Mental properties person (focus, character, temperament, personality abilities).
4. Mental states: functional (intellectual and cognitive, emotional and volitional) and general (mobilization, relaxation)
The main task psychology consists in the knowledge of the origins and characteristics of the psyche of people, the patterns of its occurrence, formation, functioning and manifestations, the capabilities of the human psyche, its influence on human behavior and activity. An equally important task of psychology is to develop recommendations for people to improve their stress resistance and psychological reliability when solving professional and other tasks in various circumstances of life and work.
In general, psychology as a science performs two main functions: as fundamental science, it is called upon to develop a psychological theory, to reveal the laws of the individual and group psyche of people and its individual phenomena; as an applied knowledge area- to formulate recommendations for improving professional activities and everyday life of people.
Psychology methods: observation- purposeful perception of a pedagogical phenomenon, in the process of which the researcher receives specific factual material. Distinguish observation included, when the researcher becomes a member of the group being observed, and not included -"From the outside"; open and hidden (incognito); solid and selective.
Methods poll- conversation, interview, questioning. Conversation - independent or additional method research used to obtain necessary information or clarify that was not clear enough under observation. The conversation is carried out according to a pre-planned plan with the allocation of issues requiring clarification. It is conducted in a free form without recording the interlocutor's answers. A kind of conversation is interviewing, brought into pedagogy from sociology. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions, asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, the answers are recorded openly.
Questionnaire - method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed give written answers to questions. Conversation and interviews are called face-to-face polls, and questionnaires are called absentee polls.
Valuable material can give study of products of activity: written, graphic, creative and control works, drawings, drawings, details, notebooks for individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide the necessary information about the student's personality, about the achieved level of skills and abilities in a particular area.
A special role in pedagogical research is played by experiment- a specially organized test of a particular method, work acceptance to identify its pedagogical effectiveness. Distinguish experiment natural(in the context of a normal educational process) and laboratory - creation artificial conditions to test, for example, a particular teaching method, when individual students are isolated from the rest. Natural experiment is most often used. It can be long-term or short-term.
The place of psychology in the system of sciences.
Psychology is an area of humanitarian, anthropological knowledge. It is closely related to many sciences. At the same time, two aspects of such interconnections are quite clearly manifested.
- There are sciences that act as a kind of theoretical basis, the basis for psychology: for example, philosophy, physiology of human higher nervous activity. Philosophical sciences are primarily of theoretical and methodological significance for psychology. They equip a person with an understanding of the most general laws of the development of objective reality, the origins of life, the meaning of human existence, form in him a certain vision of the picture of the world, an understanding of the causes of processes and phenomena occurring in living and inanimate matter and in the minds of people, explain the essence of real events and facts. Philosophy makes a decisive contribution to the formation of a person's worldview.
- There are sciences in relation to which psychology is one of the basic, theoretical foundations... These sciences primarily include pedagogical, legal, medical, political science and a number of others. The development of their problems by these sciences at the present time cannot be sufficiently complete and justified without taking into account the human factor, including the human psyche, the psychology of age, ethnic, professional and other groups of people.
- 3. The history of the development of psychological knowledge.
The doctrine of the soul (5th century BC - early 17th century AD)
The doctrine of the soul evolved within the framework of ancient Greek philosophy and medicine. The new ideas about the soul were not religious, but secular, open to everyone, accessible to rational criticism. The purpose of constructing the doctrine of the soul was to identify the properties and laws of its existence.
The most important directions in the development of ideas about the soul are associated with the teachings of Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Plato drew the line between the material, material, mortal body and the immaterial, immaterial, immortal soul. Individual souls - imperfect images of a single universal world soul - have a part of the universal spiritual experience, the recollection of which is the essence of the process of individual cognition. This doctrine laid the foundations of the philosophical theory of knowledge and determined the orientation of psychological knowledge to the solution of the actual philosophical, ethical, pedagogical and religious problems.The main directions of psychology.
A person in his physiological and mental formation and development goes through various stages, participates in many spheres of social life, and is engaged in various types of activities. The forms of communities of people are also diverse: small and large social groups, age, professional, educational, ethnic, religious, family, organized and spontaneously emerging groups and other communities of people. In this regard, modern psychological science is a diversified field of knowledge and includes more than 40 relatively independent branches. General psychology and social psychology are basic in relation to other branches of psychological knowledge: labor psychology, sports, higher education, religion, mass media (media), art, age, pedagogical, engineering, military, medical, legal, political, ethnic, etc.The concept of the psyche. Functions of the psyche.
Psyche- This is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection by the subject of the objective world, in the construction by the subject of an inalienable picture of this world and regulation on this basis of behavior and activity.Fundamental judgments about the nature and mechanisms of manifestation of the psyche.
the psyche is a property of only living matter, only highly organized living matter (by specific organs that determine the possibility of the existence of the psyche);
the psyche has the ability to reflect the objective world (obtaining information about the world around it);
information about the surrounding world received by a living being serves as the basis for the regulation of the internal environment of a living organism and the formation of its behavior, which in general determines the possibility of a relatively long existence of this organism in the conditions of its habitat.
Psychic functions:
- reflection of the influences of the surrounding world;
- a person's awareness of his place in the world around him;
- regulation of behavior and activity.
^ The development of the psyche in phylogeny and ontogeny.
The development of the psyche in phylogenesis is associated with the development nervous system... The level of development of the sense organs and the nervous system invariably determines the level and forms of mental reflection. At the lowest stage of development (for example, in coelenterates), the nervous system is a nervous network consisting of nerve cells scattered throughout the body with intertwining processes. It is the reticular nervous system. Animals with a reticular nervous system generally respond with tropisms. Temporary connections are formed with difficulty and poorly preserved.
At the next stage of development, the nervous system undergoes a number of qualitative changes. Nerve cells are organized not only in the network, but also in nodes (ganglia), the Nodal, or ganglionic, nervous system allows you to receive and process the largest number irritations, since sensory nerve cells are in close proximity to stimuli, which changes the quality of the analysis of the received stimuli.
The complication of the nodal nervous system is observed in higher invertebrates - insects. In each part of the body, ganglia fuse to form nerve centers that are interconnected by nerve pathways. The head center is especially complicated.
The highest type of nervous system is the tubular nervous system. It is a connection of nerve cells organized into a tube (in chordates). In the process of evolution, vertebrates develop and develop the spinal cord and brain - the central nervous system. Simultaneously with the development of the nervous system and receptors, the sense organs of animals develop and improve, and the forms of mental reflection also become more complex.
The development of the brain is of particular importance in the evolution of vertebrates. Localized centers are formed in the brain, representing different functions.
Thus, the evolution of the psyche is expressed in the improvement of the sense organs that perform receptor functions, and the development of the nervous system, as well as in the complication of the forms of mental reflection, that is, signaling activity.
There are four main levels of development of the psyche of living organisms:
- Irritability;
- Sensitivity (sensation);
- Behavior of higher animals (externally conditioned behavior);
- Human consciousness (externally conditioned behavior).
The development of the psyche in ontogenesis. Without assimilating the experience of mankind, without communicating with others like ourselves, there will be no developed, in fact human feelings, the ability to voluntary attention and memory, the ability to abstract thinking will not develop, a human personality will not be formed. This is evidenced by the cases of raising human children among animals.
So, all children - "Mowgli" showed primitive animal reactions, and in them it was impossible to find those features that distinguish a person from an animal. While a little monkey, left alone by chance, without a herd, will still manifest itself as a monkey, a person only then becomes a person if his development takes place among people.
The structure of the psyche. The ratio of consciousness and unconsciousness.
The structure of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche. Highest level psyche inherent in man, forms consciousness... Consciousness is the highest, integrating form of the psyche, the result of socio-historical conditions for the formation of a person in labor activity, with constant. communication (using language) with other people. In this sense, consciousness is a "social product", consciousness is nothing more than conscious being.
Characteristics of human consciousness:
1) consciousness, that is, the body of knowledge about the world around us.
2) fixed in it a distinct distinction between subject and object, that is, what belongs to a person's “I” and his “not-I”.
3) ensuring purposeful human activity.
4) the presence of emotional assessments in interpersonal relationships.
A prerequisite for the formation and manifestation of all the above specific qualities of consciousness are speech and language as a sign system.
The lower level of the psyche forms the unconscious. Unconscious - it is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by influences, in the influence of which a person does not realize. Being mental (since the concept of the psyche is broader than the concept of "consciousness", "conscious"), the unconscious is a form of reflection of reality, in which the completeness of orientation in time and place of action is lost, speech regulation of behavior is violated. In the unconscious, in contrast to consciousness, purposeful control over the actions performed is impossible, and the assessment of their result is also impossible.
The area of the unconscious includes mental phenomena that arise in sleep (dreams); response reactions that are caused by imperceptible, but really influencing stimuli ("subsensory" or "subceptive" reactions); movements that were conscious in the past, but thanks to repetition were automated and therefore became unconscious; some motives for activity, in which there is no consciousness of the goal, etc. Unconscious phenomena also include some pathological phenomena that arise in the psyche of a sick person: delirium, hallucinations, etc.
Functions of consciousness: reflective, generative (creative-creative), regulatory-evaluative, reflexive function - the main function, characterizes the essence of consciousness.
The object of reflection can be: reflection of the world, thinking about it, ways of regulating a person's behavior, the processes of reflection themselves, their personal consciousness.
Most of the processes taking place in the inner world of a person are not realized by him, but in principle, each of them can become conscious. subconscious- those representations, desires, actions, aspirations that have left now from consciousness, but can then come to consciousness;
1. the unconscious itself- such a mental, which under no circumstances becomes conscious. - sleep, unconscious urges, automated movements, reaction to unconscious stimuli
The epicenter of consciousness is the consciousness of one's own "I". Self-awareness-It is formed when interacting with other people, mainly with those with whom especially significant contacts arise. The image of "I", or self-awareness (idea of oneself), does not arise in a person immediately, but develops gradually, throughout his life under the influence of social influences
Self-awareness criteria:
1. separating oneself from the environment, consciousness of oneself as a subject, autonomous from the environment (physical environment, social environment);
2. awareness of their activity - "I control myself";
3. awareness of myself "through the other" ("What I see in others, it may be my quality");
4. moral assessment of oneself, the presence of reflection - awareness of one's inner experience.
The structure of self-awareness can be distinguished:
1. awareness of near and distant goals, motives of their "I" ("I am an acting subject");
2. awareness of their real and desired qualities ("Real I" and "Ideal I");
3. cognitive, cognitive ideas about oneself ("I am as an observed object");
4. emotional, sensual self-image.
5. Self-esteem - adequate, underestimated, overestimated.
I concept - self-perception and self-control
- I am spiritual
- I am material
- I am social
- I am bodily
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