The view of the myth-makers
We will not publish all the numerous fictions and "evidence" of the historical existence of the so-called Great Tartaria. Let's paint the big picture. The myth-makers claim that Tartaria existed as a huge country in Asia and covered the territories of Siberia, the Far East, Central Asia, present-day Mongolia and China, parts of India, North America, California and Alaska and other countries. Great Tartaria was allegedly one of two parts of the Slavic-Aryan Empire (the largest state in the history of mankind, but even more mythical than Atlantis and even Middle-earth from Tolkien's children's fairy tale). The capital of Great Tartary was Asgard of Iria (on the site of modern Omsk), founded at the beginning of the 6th millennium from the so-called Great Migration from Daaria (myth-makers are convinced that around 105 thousand years BC people moved from North Pole to Eurasia).
As proof of the existence of the Great Tartaria, myth-makers, in addition to old maps, cite articles from the Encyclopedia Britannica (XVIII century), the French Encyclopedia (XVII century), the Spanish Encyclopedia (end of the XVIII century), as well as the work "World History" of the French Cardinal, historian Dionysius Petavius, who lived at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Further, the myth-makers tell about the fact that at one moment the enemies of the Slavic-Aryans forcibly baptized Kievan Rus of Moscow Tartaria into the “slave” Christian faith, left alive 3 million people out of twelve (all figures are taken, of course, from the ceiling), out of three hundred only 30 cities were preserved, and the entire world history was rewritten to hide the “truth”.
Where is the truth?
Let's start with archaeological data. There is a rule in historical science: if possible, verify information from written sources (if they have been verified for authenticity) by archaeological data. In the case of those spaces (we recall that they are incredibly huge) on which the Great Tartary is depicted, it is not necessary to talk about the totality of material monuments confirming the existence of a single civilization on these lands in a specific period.
Regarding cartography, the question is also childish. The first more or less accurate maps of Central Asia were compiled by Russian explorers and pioneers in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. At the same time, positive changes come in European cartography, and they are associated primarily with the Great geographical discoveries (XV-XVII centuries). It is worth noting here that the crusaders went to recapture Jerusalem in the 11th century according to maps that placed Jerusalem itself in the center of the world. By the way, such cards were in use in the 16th century. The earth was depicted on them in the form of a shamrock: Asia, Europe, Africa, in the center - Jerusalem, and around - a continuous ocean. If we follow the logic of the myth-makers, then North and South America did not exist in the 16th century.
Europeans locally defined Tartary as the region of Central Eurasia - the area where various Turkic and Mongolian peoples lived. Without close contact with them, they did not particularly distinguish them by nationality and language, so they called everyone Tatars, that is, Tartars. And those contacts that existed since the invasion of the Huns (5th century) forced Europeans to perceive the distant eastern peoples as aliens from the deepest region of hell - Tartarus. This is how the name of the region was fixed and became habitually used even when compiling some of the later maps. A real revolution began in the 17th century, when Europeans became interested in Oriental studies (the corresponding field of scientific knowledge began to develop then). And already in the XVIII century, the term "Tartaria" ceased to have a universal meaning for designating the geographical space and the peoples who inhabited it.
So, the myth about the Great Tartary is nothing more than fiction. The myth-makers used a classic move for them: in pursuit of a sensation, they selected only those facts that fit into the concept they had previously formulated, the rest of the facts were simply guessed - and a myth was created.
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sedition the death of tartaria the author is glad to light the great tartaria disappeared from the political map of the world about 200 years ago, more precisely, it was erased from this map so carefully that for almost 200 years no one had heard of them and didn’t know until the works of Academician Fomenko appeared according to the new chronology of return lice and in scientific circulation there is a lot of evidence of the existence of this state, the largest that has ever existed on our planet Figure 1 the expansion of the territory of Russia from 1613 to 1914 the official version of the natural boundaries of the great tartaria in the middle of the century that occupied the entire northern hemisphere were ocean shores, despite the fact that these three the ocean of the four available, the Arctic, the Pacific and the Atlantic were, in fact, also inland water bodies at the end of the 18th century, according to modern chronology, having succumbed to the influence of monotheism Judaism and Christianity, Islam, the population of the European part of the great Tartary plunged into the bloody horror of religious and predatory in oin of political intrigues of revolts and revolution and broke away from the axis and managed to withstand the vicious onslaught of new world religions and retained the moral purity and faith of their ancestors, the border between the metropolis and the western lands ran from the Arctic to the Indian Ocean along the Ural mountains of the Caspian Sea and the last border war with Britain and Muscovy developed for the great Tartary, having unsuccessfully suffered a number of serious defeats, it was forced to admit the loss of some of its territories in the southern Urals in the northern Caspian region and the south of western Siberia in central and northeastern India and on the east coast of North America at present, various episodes of this war are truly global in scope and consequences, known as the suppression of the Pugachev rebellion and the development of Siberia, the colonization of India and the war for the independence of the British colonies in America, and we are presented that the Anglo-Saxons allegedly conflicted vay pathological propensity of professional historians to falsification, it can be assumed that the matter was not quite so, but even in the event of the victory of the English coalition by the beginning of the nineteenth century, the great tartaria remained the largest and most powerful state in the world in any way then, for some reason unknown to us, official historiography describes the events that actually happened, the great tartaria suffered a military defeat and suffered territorial losses, such insignificant losses could not lead to the death of such a great power even if the defeat caused a serious internal political crisis, because no internal political crisis could lead to the collapse of the great tartaria because the people who inhabited Asia 200 years ago were united and completely homogeneous both in nationality and in language and religion two hundred years ago in the great tartaria on the land of tarkha and tara lived exceptional tartar and tall fair-haired white-skinned people with eyes of cornflower blue fiery or silver color Slavic-Aryans or Russ are friendly and kind-hearted in times of peace brave and merciless in battle just and merciful in the days of victories and steadfastness in times of adversity because they have preserved the moral purity and faith of their ancestors from the Urals to Alaska from new land to Tibet, in order to destroy the great Tartaria, it was necessary first to destroy its people to the last person, and this was still beyond the power of either Britain, Muscovy, or their coalition, even if the rest of Europe would join this coalition, the famous commander Alexander Suvorov, who received participation in the pogrom of Pugachev and personally from your escort to Moscow could bring a major defeat to the Tatar troops Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov Prince of Italy Count belts kski Count of the Holy Roman Empire Generalissimo of the Russian land and sea forces Field Marshal of the Austrian and Sardinian troops grant of the Sardinian kingdom and prince of the royal k he is a cavalier of all Russian military and foreign orders, that is, in fact, most of Europe, including Muscovy, it was the Roman Empire Emelyan Pugachev Suvorov puts Pugachev in a cage, and apparently he inflicted this defeat for which he was awarded a golden sword with diamonds, the cost of such a sword was equal to the sum of the annual salaries of the whole regiment and received several higher orders Russian empire the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called and the Order of St. George and Vladimir 1st Class, although the official historical science is silent about this like a fish on ice, more precisely, it hides the history of the Tartar wars of Muscovy among its warriors with the Ottoman Turks and other Crimean khans, however, note that Russia fought from the brilliant ports for more than one century, but so and was not able to finally defeat despite the glorious victories of the Rumyantsev-Transdanubian Orlov Chesmen Potemkin-Taurian Suvorov Rem Nevsky Kutuzov Smolensk dibich for the Balkan and Paskevich Erivan although the Turkish empire, even at the time of its heyday, was ten times smaller than Tartaria, the Ottoman Empire, the official version of Turkey suffered many times defeat in battles lost wars and lost territories, but it never disappeared from the political map of the world, unlike the great tartaria, which was erased not only from the map, tartaria was wiped off the face of the earth along with the people and inhabited it happened in February 1816, which later received the name G In the United States, without a summer, it is still called 1800 and, frozen to death, official science considers the beginning of the Little Ice Age, which lasted three years in March, the temperature in North America continued to remain winter in April and May, there was an unnatural amount of rain and hail, a sudden frost destroyed most of the crops in June for giant snow storms and caused deaths in July and August, the rivers froze even in Pennsylvania every night it was frosty and in New York and in the northeast of the USA it fell up to a meter of snow Germany was tormented by strong storms many rivers including rain overflowed their banks in switzerland the weather was terrible every month it snowed unusual cold led to a catastrophic crop failure in the spring of 1817 grain prices in europe rose 10 times and hunger began among the population for the world darkness descended in the truest sense of the word the sun could not break through the cloudy veil and did not warm the earth Lord Byron wrote in 1816 the bright sun went out and the stars Wandered aimlessly and without rays in the eternal space lady flock earth rushed blindly in the moonless air the hour of the morning stood and passed but the day did not bring after him the dwellings of all those who had dwellings in the bonfires the cities were built by the gorilla terrible hunger tormented people quickly died people the solution of the three-year cold was found 100 years later, the American researcher ear and mv flight linked climate change in 1816-19 with the eruption of the Tambora volcano on the island of Sumbawa, this hypothesis is currently considered generally accepted in scientific world it is not clear why the explosion of a volcano south of the equator so affected the climate of the northern hemisphere, although it is known in science that the air currents of the southern hemisphere never cross the equator and at the same time this volcano did not affect the climate of the southern hemisphere in any way an eruption of the same power of about 800 megatons occurred in 1883 in Indonesia Krakatoa and in 1912 in Alaska as May and in 1991 in the Philippines Pinatubo led to a decrease in temperature by no more than half a degree without causing midday darkness or snow storms in the middle of years of one massive river overflow, it is interesting to note that while Europe and America were freezing and starving in Russia, from 1816 to 1919, nothing unusual was noted, there was no cold, no hunger, glory in the highest to God and on earth, peace and goodwill in people in the sense of everything, as always, and frosts and crops, and this is in Russia, and even after the recent invasion of twelve languages and the complete ruin of the western provinces, as they say, fresh legend about hard to believe even in ordinary for years, winter in Russia lasts half a year from frost, the trunks of centuries-old trees crack, and by spring, the barrels and a handful of flour are not in place, so the point here is not the habit of the Russian people for cold and fasting and in the absence of eternal Western democracy and the presence of reliable censorship, meanwhile, Russia is more likely of all, it was the source of the climatic problems of Europe and America, which is indirectly evidenced by the age of modern forests in Russia and Belarus, which are no more than two hundred years old for all forests and Siberian, Russian and Belarusian, this fact can only be explained by the fact that 200 years ago all Russian forests disappeared in a crowd and the ancients, by the way, live for three hundred years whether 400 pine and larch 500 and 600 cedar a thousand oak one and a half thousand and of course all the young died, most likely burned down and the current ones grew in their place on the central Russian alignment the forest was restored in the middle of the 19th century by mass planting in verst squares, and the Siberian taiga has risen by itself, since trees are planted here there was no one to say now a few words about the so-called karst lakes, which are very common in Russia, especially near settlements in Siberia, ideally round, these lakes often have a higher water level due to a dense bowl than the lakes surrounding the reservoirs that arose not only above the maps, that is, cavities formed under the influence of carbon dioxide-saturated water in the thickness of the soluble rock of gypsum or limestone, and even where there were no karst spawning and some of them were never filled with water, the name of these lakes is hellish lake shaitan lake devil's lake dead lake and the like are completely meaningless from the point of view of the official science, of course, which did not find anything unusual in them, unlike the local population, and it’s still a strange thing, but the diameter of these lakes correlates well with the diameter of craters from air nuclear explosions with a capacity of 1 to 10 megatons, but this is just a note to the word for completeness, we note that according to amazing coincidence in the 19th century where mankind got acquainted with cancers, where they came from is still unknown to science, although today none of the doctors doubts that one of the main causes of cancer is increased radioactive radiation, in any case, in the middle of the twentieth century, an outbreak of cancer was caused precisely by an increase in radioactive background due to the nuclear tests of 2422 nuclear and thermonuclear, including 525 atmospheric, because in the 19th century, not Muscovy, not Britain, did not have nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, as we know, therefore, neither one nor the other could use it, but if she had they were, given the level of philanthropy of the English colonialists and royal satraps, to doubt their determination and use the atomic bomb, whether it was available, it was not necessary even in the absence of modern means of delivery and detonation, but one way or another, not from Muscovy, not from Britain atomic bomb there wasn’t yet, but there seemed to be a reason for its use, and a very good Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2, after a terrible battle near the village of Borodino, Russian troops successfully repelled all French attacks, retaining reserves, having excellent positions and strong rears at their disposal, suddenly retreated and not just retreated gave the enemy the largest city of the country and the historical center for desecration, which Emperor Alexander the first publicly proclaimed the head of other Russian cities as soon as Napoleon crossed the border, probably so that he would not be mistaken with the direction of the main blow Alexander the first blessed generous powers restorer emperor and autocrat all Russian Moscow Kiev Vladimir Novgorod Tsar Kazan Tsar Astrakhan Tsar of Siberia Tsar of Kherson Tauride Sovereigns of Pskov and the Grand Duke of Smolensk Lithuanian Volyn and Podolsk Prince of Istra Livonian Kurgan and 7 Gallic Sam children's Karelian Tver Yugra Perm Vyatka Bulgarian and other Sovereign and Grand Duke of the New City Nezov Lands Chernigov Ryazan Polotsk Rostov and Yaroslavl Belozersky Udora Obnorsky Kandinsky Vitebsk and Mstislavsky ipsy Northern countries Sovereign and Sovereign of Iversky Kartlinskaya Georgian Kabardian Land of Cherkassy and Gorsky Books and other Hereditary Sovereigns and owner heir Norwegian Duke of Schleswig Holstein storm Arena and Oldenburg and the sovereign of the Jews and other things other Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov His Serene Highness Prince of Smolensk General Field Marshal of the Russian troops a day before the shameful surrender of the head of all other cities Commander-in-Chief of all Russian armies and militia my Serene Highness Prince of Smolensk the other day Promoted by the highest decree to Field Marshal of the Russian Empire and receiving 100,000 rubles for expenses, he held the notorious military council in Fili and insisted on leaving Moscow despite the fierce resistance of some saints. of both young and stupid generals cut off all the cries and ordered to retreat, although yesterday, in an order dated August 31, he swore to give the adversary a new decisive battle under the walls of Moscow during the retreat, more than 30 thousand wounded and a huge number of weapons 156 guns and 27000 Jager 75 thousand guns were abandoned in Moscow and 40 thousand sabers 600 banners and 1000 standards this decision of the field marshal has not yet found an unambiguous interpretation, someone justifies him based on the final result, someone considers him a traitor who sold soot to a Freemason in the person of the French or the British or for a snuff at his age having everything you could want, including money, the glory of the order and titles, why did Napoleon, famous for his determination, sit on bow mountain and waited for some unknown thing, not daring to enter Moscow, although he already knew that it was empty and no one was going to organize street fights in it, despite the old Russian habit of fighting for every house, as was the case in Smolensk and many other places, or maybe he finally sensed a trap, maybe something told him that such experienced military commanders as Kutuzov, whom he knew well from previous soldiers, just don’t give up the historical centers of their homeland, especially covered by well-fortified positions, provided with strong rears and also reserves, however, there was nowhere to go, so enter Moscow all the same I had to at least in order to have something to bargain in peace negotiations by this time Napoleon had already lost his numerical advantage and, most importantly, confidence in victory of all my battles, the most terrible thing that I gave near Moscow, the French showed themselves worthy of winning and the Russians acquired the right be invincible he declared after the battle to this unfortunate bull on the desk and it was unaware that no one was going to enter into any negotiations with him because there is no need for everything is already predetermined mines God has numbered your kingdom and put an end to everything to kill you are weighed on the scales and found very light pepper divided your kingdom your food by us dm and therefore, the Persians, therefore, Kutuzov received an order to leave Moscow because his army had fully completed its task, lured the Corsican monster into a trap, now the army had to be saved by the brightest and it was saved for which he will have eternal memory, because it was this army that escorted the remnants of foreign troops back to the border, well As for the Muscovites, they all knew that Moscow would be left, they didn’t have to take their feet so as not to get Bonaparte, who would not stand on ceremony, but would rob, kill and rape, so as they say, who did not hide, however, there were only a few, only 20 thousand citizens aber became Napoleon’s mester Marquis Armand de Caincourt subsequently recalled the city without inhabitants was embraced in gloomy silence during our long journey we did not meet a single local resident the trap slammed game caught on the same night in Moscow there was a fire brigadier general comte philippe de segur wrote in his memoirs two officers settled down in one of the Kremlin buildings from where they had a view of an unusual light woke them up in the northern and eastern parts of the city around midnight and they saw that the flames engulfed the palaces, first it illuminated the graceful noble outlines of their architecture and then all this collapsed information brought by the officers who tied the messi from all sides coincided with each other on the very first night from 14 to 15 a fireball descended on the palace of Prince Trubetskoy and set fire to this building a very strange fire, to put it mildly, not an ordinary light a fireball flame falling qi is not an adobe hut but a multi-storey building that does not light but illuminates first and then already falls on the ball’s account without any comments at all in the sense you can guess from one about the time what kind of ball it is, and if you don’t guess, look at the chronicle of nuclear tests, the city center suffered the most, despite the fact that it was built up exclusively with stone and brick buildings, even almost nothing remained of the Kremlin, although it was separated from the surrounding buildings by wide squares and ditches, such as olive zav ditch 34 meters wide and 13 deep which ran from the arsenal tower to beklemishev sky this huge ditch after the fire turned out to be completely littered with debris and debris, after which it became easier to level it than to clear it by the way Napoleon, who is accused of arson by Moscow and the explosion of the Kremlin himself barely Survived during this fire, Count de Segur tells then, after a long search, ours, after a long search, found an underground passage near a pile of stones that led to the Moscow River through this narrow passage Napoleon with his officers and guards managed to get out of the Kremlin, everyone who survived was in a state of shock still remembers those of ours who used to walk around the city are now about muffled storms of fire, blinded by ashes, did not recognize the terrain, and besides, the streets themselves disappeared in smoke and turned into heaps of ruins from the great moscow there were only a few surviving houses scattered among the ruins, this slain with a burnt colossus like a corpse emitted a heavy smell to a heap of ashes up to some collapsed walls and the fragments of the rafters alone indicated that there had once been streets on the outskirts, Russian men and women covered up, burned by their clothes, they wandered like a ghost among the ruins from the French army, as well as from Moscow, only one third survived, more after the fire, Moscow diseases began a resident says the barracks were littered with sick soldiers deprived of any care, and the hospital was littered with hundreds of wounded umirov scheme from a lack of medicines and even food, the streets and squares were littered with dead, bloody bodies of people and horses, the walls were wounded, fighting death, and others elevated level background radiation in the center of Moscow form a characteristic spot with a torch extended towards the south map of the radiation background of the city of Moscow the epicenter of the spot is located exactly at the place on which the windows of the two officers mentioned in the memoirs of Comte de Segura went out, the very ones in whose eyes they were first illuminated and then collapsed elegant and noble palaces that were at the epicenter, official historical science still has not figured out who did set fire to Moscow, the French believed that Muscovites themselves did it and even shot 400 arsonists so that others would not like the picture of the execution of Moscow arsonists, the Russians believed that everything was to blame the Corsican monster is vengeful and vicious out of natural bloodthirstiness, which destroyed a huge city and tens of thousands of people, including 30,000 of its own soldiers and officers, but was it really so that the French had no reason to set fire to Moscow ahead of winter from Moscow to Paris 666 potion, that is, very far, among other things, Napoleon needed Moscow as a quality As a bargaining chip at the upcoming peace negotiations, Muscovites themselves also had no need to burn themselves ahead of winter and they had to somehow survive despite the occupation, in addition, 30 thousand wounded were left in Moscow, who almost all perished in the fire along with twenty thousand citizens who did not have time to leave the doomed city, as for Emperor Alexander the First, there are very serious doubts about his non-involvement in this crime. On April 5, 1813, the emperor arrived to say goodbye to Kutuzov, who lay dying behind the screens near the bed of the Most Serene Prince, there was an official of the Krupennikov who was with him and saved for descendants of Kutuzov’s last conversation with Alexander the first, forgive me, Mikhail Illarionovich said the sovereign and the autocrat of all Russia, I forgive the sovereign, but Russia will never forgive you for this, the field marshal answered for which the emperor asked for forgiveness from Kutuzov, maybe for his top secret order to leave Moscow or for the fact that with it happened after it was abandoned shortly before the invasion, Alexander the first told the Austrian ambassador I assume that at the beginning of the war we are expected to lose, but I am ready for this, retreating, I will leave the desert behind me, the bloody nightmare of Austerlitz, Kai catastrophes forever instilled fear in the emperor’s soul and assured Bonaparte’s invincibility in the sense of impossibility to defeat the corr session to and the monster by conventional means and could push in the search for unusual ones, either Alexander was the first author of a terrible trap prepared for Napoleon in Moscow or heeded some advice or obeyed some order one way or another, at least the emperor should have not known therefore, he ordered to surrender the capital to Napoleon, blaming all responsibility for this on Kutuzov, the latter, by the way, is quite understandable if the proposal to surrender Moscow came from the lips of the tsar, he would not have long to reign, even huge authority and Kutuzov’s words could hardly bear the weight of this decision, the ruler is weak and crafty the dainty dandy enemy of labor was accidentally crushed by this heaviness in the literal sense of the word in the sense of an officer's scarf, as happened by his father 10 years ago, so who nevertheless organized such a terrible trap for Napoleon, look for whom the ancient Romans favorably spoke to whom it was profitable to destroy the Corsican villain who was the most sworn enemy the usurper modern historians laugh at the stupid Bonaparte and who, after the battle of Borodino, sat on the bow mountain and waited for the boyars to bring him the keys to Moscow and it’s really funny, because in the Russian empire by that time there were already a hundred years like no the boyars and was no longer in Russia, indeed, there were no boyars of him, and now about the great Tartaria, the enemy of my enemy is my friend, therefore it is not at all surprising that Napoleon was looking for an alliance with the power that had recently fought with Britain and Russia, counting on its help to defeat both and fulfill your cherished dream of taking out of the British crown and the best a pearl of the sense of india if the military alliance of france tartaria took place the possession of the east india company in india would change owners very soon the prime minister of england the earl of liverpool formed his cabinet in june 1812 and ruled for almost 15 years in the previous government he was minister of war and minister of colonies and before that he was the Minister of the Interior, it was he who managed to solve the most important foreign policy problems of England, to weaken France and Russia as much as possible and to destroy the great Tartaria, the most terrible threat to the Indian colonies, the observance of British interests in Russia was monitored by the envoy count kat kart, who became famous for his cruelty and senselessness by the bombing Copenhagen in September 1807, when in just 3 nights 50 English ships of the line made 14,000 broadside salvos and leveled a third of the Danish capital before this rink, the RT managed to distinguish itself in the war with the British colonies in North America, fought in Spain and fl Russian-Turkish war and rubber energy Suvorov's peace treaty for the defense of Kinburn and for Focsani, it is interesting for what such feats of the highest order of the Russian Empire the English envoy was awarded, apparently for his subject's advice about the trap and also for organizing the procedure, more precisely for mediating in its organization, because the main role in Moscow tragedies were played by other forces besides Britain, Napoleon had another powerful enemy, the much more vindictive and dangerous Rothschild brothers, the Rothschild brothers were not awarded Russian orders and were not mentioned anywhere in connection with Napoleon’s campaign against Moscow, but his defeat could not and did not do without their participation of the family Rothschilds, given the nosy nature of this family and the number of spies it kept, as well as the authority of the Rothschilds in the Jewish diaspora and proximity to the ruling circles of Europe, as well as to those who stood behind these circles and pulled their strings, it is possible that the Rothschild family had contacts of the very top part of the pyramid sense with those who were above and are watching what is happening, what did Napoleon annoy the Rothschild family, and actually nothing, except for his appeal to the French State Council in 1806 in connection with complaints about the usury of the Jews, they are the main troublemakers in the modern world, they are vultures, humanity is evil in they do not come from individuals, but from the fundamental nature of this people, the activity of the Jewish nation since the time of Moses, by virtue of all its predisposition, has consisted in usury and extortion; provinces of old alsace entire villages both occupied by Jews they reintroduced slavery it is real flocks of ravens the harm done by Jews does not come from individuals but from this people as a whole it is worms and locusts devastating france i do everything to prove my contempt for this meanest nation of the world the Jews are nations capable of committing the most heinous crime the philosophical teachings of the Jewish character cannot be changed for them they need exceptional special laws the Jews are treated with disgust but it must be admitted that they are really disgusting they are also despised but they are deserving of contempt before this anti-Semitic appeal of Bonaparte did not show his essence in any way, but on the contrary, for the first time, he met representatives of the most persecuted nations in the world only during the Italian campaign when he was already 28 years old and immediately took them under protection and since then has supported his army in every possible way and even promised to restore the canopy was dry, he and the Jewish state in Palestine, but he did not last long after this appeal, the fate of the presumptuous Corsican upstart who lost his scent after countless victories in Europe was a foregone conclusion with victory suddenly ended the words went downhill in less than three years as his empire was shaken housing, the economic crisis, the population was dissatisfied with the assassination attempt, followed one after another by the Russian tsar eternal love suddenly became insolent and refused to marry his sister to him, first one then the second, obviously running into a scandal and still managed to achieve his Bonaparte gathered troops moved to Moscow and himself climbed into the Hasidic garden prepared for him and built a kozinets after learning about Napoleon's invasion of Russia to the question about the prospects of his campaign, he answered at fort pol in literal translation, which means he will inevitably fall curious that at the same time the said Israel used a pun on the background and on the field, consonant with your name Napoleon, the rest was a matter of technology in the literal sense of the word during the Napoleonic invasion and foreign campaign irretrievable losses the Russian army amounted to about 300 thousand people, despite the presence of a huge number of archival documents, memoirs and scientific works on the history of the Patriotic War of 1812, the total losses suffered by Russia during the invasion are not known; Russia during this period amounted to more than three million people, with a total number of 36 million, in other words, almost 10 percent of the population died as much as during the Great Patriotic War, how to explain such a huge number of deaths and deaths from diseases of cold and hunger of the Corsican monster with its bloodthirstiness the local population did not touch the retreating Russian troops, who, on the orders of Alexander the first blessed magnanimous powers of the restorer, arranged a scorched desert along the old Smolensk road, planted hundreds of cities and villages of multipliers, yet they did not shoot at least until the complete expulsion of Napoleon, official historical science somehow vaguely state the reason for the cessation of the partisan they say the wars were driven out by the adversaries and everything immediately ended, the clubs went to kindling and the swords to plowshares as unnecessary, why the peasants just with weapons in the hands of those who defended their land again surrendered to the mercy of the beasts of the feudal lords, this is in ro Russia has not yet forgotten their homeland and Pugachev and is always ready for the last and decisive battle, that is, for senseless and merciless ones, even in the most peaceful time, as it happened more than once before and after 1812, historians attribute the loss of the civilian population of Russia to the harsh winter of 1812 and 1813, or maybe the people's war did not calm down by itself and 10 percent of the population did not die from cold and hunger, in the sense not only from them 1800 and frozen to death claimed tens of thousands of lives in Europe and North America in Russia, the bill went to millions but also greater life Academician Fomenko took this year in Tartar in his works and expressed the hypothesis that the great Tartaria was defeated and divided between Russia and the United States immediately after the defeat of the Pugachev rebellion, if we assume that this is how a number of questions arise why, after the death of the great Tartaria, several smaller states, as it usually happens after the collapse of the empire, for example, the Roman Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian German Russian British, or during the collapse of large countries, the Soviet Union of Yugoslavia, why, having suffered a military defeat, the proud and freedom-loving Tartars and submitted to the cruel conqueror, they raised the cudgel of people's war, as they always do Slavic-Aryan situations in similar situations, why is it real that the development of new lands in Russia and the United States began only half a century later, and finally, the most important thing is why the vast space from the Urals to Alaska turned out to be deserted where did more than 100 million defeated tartars go, in addition, the Fomenko hypothesis remained ignores a number of important facts already mentioned by us earlier a year without a summer for 200 years, not both forests and karst lakes, as well as an outbreak of cancer, even after half a century, the development of new lands was only cartographic in nature both in Russia and in the USA because they are not in the USA in Russia there were simply no non-human, intangible resources for their occupation, not to mention the constant threat of popular unrest in the occupied territories, if not only the small ethnic groups of the north, but at least some Slavic-Aryans survived in these territories, by the way, why did the northern nationalities become so small in the northern In America, the invaders ruthlessly destroyed the local population west of the Appalachians, however, the Russian empire was not caught in the genocide, however, all the northern peoples of the Axis and who survived after 1816 since then are on the verge of extinction, and now suppose that the great Tartaria was not divided not in 1775 no later than lost another war and suffered territorial losses but remained a single state, as before, the largest in the world, still representing a huge danger for both the Russian Empire and the British Romanovs, they were afraid to lose the usurped throne, and the Hanoverian dynasty trembled for its Indian colonies, and here the chimera of the French revolution gives rise to a Corsican monster who dreams only one thing to take away from Britain everything acquired by overwork in the sense of removing the best pearl from her crown soon Napoleon agrees with Paul the first on a joint Indian campaign, which breaks down only because of the murder of the Russian emperor as a result of a conspiracy organized and paid for by Britain, but the failure does not stop the stubborn Corsican disappointed in the new Russian Tsar Bonaparte, he is ready to conclude an alliance with the great Tartaria and undertakes a campaign against Moscow, after the capture of which a direct road to India opens for his legions, is it because great army Napoleon was so great that she had to overcome not only Russia, but go half the world more, it is difficult to imagine a more terrible nightmare, the unfortunate Hanoverian dynasty, the huge Frenchman, the Qatari army, under the general command of the most brilliant commander of all times and peoples, whose rears are provided with all the military economic potential of the great Tartaria of its free dominions and Chinese tartare, but without hindrance and advancement to the Indian Ocean with their diplomatic support, is it not from this nightmare that King George the third king of Great Britain, the king of Hanover, the duke of brunswick, people of burg skil, finally went crazy main reason what happened in 1816 was still not in this, the people of the great Tartary withstood the vicious onslaught of the new world religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam retained the moral purity and faith of their ancestors and would never allow worms and locusts to engage in usury and extortion, rip off villages to sticky and introduce slavery on his own land in a country that was the largest in the world by 1812, it became quite clear that it was impossible to defeat Bonaparte on land, the emperor of the French, the king of Italy, the protector of the Rhine Union and the mediator of the Swiss confederation, brought all of Europe to its knees, with the exception of Britain, someone joined France to someone then he imposed his relatives on the rulers, forced someone to join the continental blockade, who ultimately won as a result of the victory over Napoleon and the destruction of the great Tartary along with its entire population, no doubt Britain or such Rothschild families, however, paraphrasing the classic, one can say i say britain i mean rothschild i say rothschild i mean britain because in 1816 after nathan rothschild's famous stock exchange swindle connected with the battle of waterloo britain took possession of the aforementioned family from that moment for almost a hundred years britain ruled the seas and britain was ruled by the rothschilds and no one was them it was not a decree that the great tartaria was wiped off the face of the earth france defeated russia until the end of the nineteenth century could not recover from the invasion provoked by alexander the first and when the rothschild recovered they gave her new no less destructive problems the expansion of the british empire after the destruction of the great tartaria the british empire as for napoleon, then after moscow the fire he lived for another nine years and died barely over half a century, in the last years of his life his health was greatly shaken, although before this fire he had not complained about him, official science had not established the cause of the death of the emperor of the French, someone thinks that he was poisoned, someone believes that he died of cancer, someone believes that from both at once, however, it may very well be that Napoleon suffered the fate of hibakusha, as mentioned above, during the atomic explosion in Hiroshima, 70 thousand people died in Nagasaki 60, but the list of victims of nuclear this strike is far from exhausting the total number of hibakusha people exposed to a nuclear explosion who died over the next five years from radiation sickness and other long-term consequences of atomic bombings amounted to more than 250 thousand people, the total power of nuclear charges used by the earth in 1816 on the territory of the great tartaria survived all Russian forests and caused a three-year nuclear winter in the northern hemisphere, according to the calculations of climatologists, amounted to about 800 megatons, in other words, 40,000 kerosene, some of the funnels left after the explosions and turned into karst lakes indicate the use of not only nuclear weapons with a capacity of 1 to 10 megatons, but even in this case above, the mentioned number of bombs should have been enough to guarantee the destruction of all settlements of the great tartaria and large cities and small sketes and large villages and individual farms and noble kremlin and small border fortresses, which is why after the death of the great tartaria several smaller states did not arise on its territory as this usually happens after the collapse of an empire or during the collapse of large countries, which is why the Tartars did not raise the cudgel of a people's war, as the Slavic-Aryans always do in the event of a military defeat, which is why the vast expanse from the Urals to Alaska in the middle of the 19th century, when their development began, turned out to be practically deserted a picture of a Valkyrie over the defeated warriors the vast majority of the population of great tartaria burned down in the fire of atomic explosions, which explains the absence of the remains of millions of the dead, the survivors suffocated in the smoke of fires or died of cold and hunger, as well as from radiation sickness and cancer and were Annas to the cleansing flame of comrades, for making kro before going to the family with the help of a funeral pyre is a sacred duty and a sacred duty of every Slavic-Aryan in relation to their dead or dead brethren, a huge flowering country was suddenly turned into radioactive ashes and remained so for many years but years taiga rose on the site of burnt forests craters turned into lakes and most of the radioactive isotopes decayed the radioactive background at the epicenter of a nuclear explosion does not remain high for a long time, since the main isotopes decay rather quickly the activity of cesium-137 falls by half in 30 years strontium-90 in 29 cobalt 60 in five years iodine-131 in 8 days, in addition, it is necessary to take into account the release of a nuclear cloud into the stratosphere, which is why the development of vast spaces from the Urals to Alaska began only in the middle of the 19th century, when the radioactive background finally dropped to a safe level, but even half a century later, the settlers did not
Etymology. The first descriptions of Tartaria
The names "Tartaria" and "Tartars" come from the ethnonym Tatars, by which in ancient times they understood all Turkic and Mongolian peoples, without distinguishing them too much by languages and nationalities. Europe learned about the "Tatars" during the invasions of the troops of Genghis Khan and his descendants, but until the 19th century, information about them and their states remained extremely scarce and fragmentary. At the same time, among Western Europeans, the term turned into "tartars" due to contamination with Tartarus. The latter in the Middle Ages meant both the deepest regions of hell and the distant unknown regions of the Earth. Researcher S. Gorshenina writes that the ominous images of Tartaria and Tartars, reflecting the fear of the Mongol conquerors, replaced in the minds of the Europeans Gog and Magog, who also lived in the northeast of the world. As it is more picturesquely stated in the Russian academic edition of 1846: “ In the understanding of Europeans, “tartars” are a people who bring horrors and the end of the world, and the form of this word has become common, hinting at the origin of the enemies of Christianity from pagan Tartarus.».
For the first time, the term "Tartaria" probably appears in 1173 with the Navarre traveler Benjamin Tudelsky, who wrote about "the Tibetan province of Tartaria ... in the direction of Turkestan and Tangut, in the north of Moghulistan". The term "Tartars" without a specific designation is used in the book "Relatio de David" (1221), which tells about the exploits and victories over the Saracens of the Nestorian king of the Tartars David, as well as the French chronicler Alberic. These initial references did not yet have a negative connotation; based on Eastern sources, they connected the Mongols with the kingdom of Prester John. The first relatively accurate use of the word "tartars" dates back to 1224, when the Georgian queen Russutana in a letter to Pope Honorius III called the Mongols who attacked Georgia tartars. To describe the Mongols, the word "Tartars" was used by the Dominican monk and traveler Julian (1238), who went to the Kipchak steppes in search of Great Hungary. As S. Gorshenina writes, the myth of Prester John retained its influence for a long time, and only in 1236-1238 the perception of "tartars" began to change in a negative direction, after the spread of information about the devastating consequences of the Mongol conquests. The appearance of tartars on the borders of Europe was associated with the coming of the Antichrist: in the situation between 1250 and 1400, against the background of the expectation of the Last Judgment, the Mongols for hundreds of years turned into horsemen of the Apocalypse, warriors of the Antichrist, both in popular beliefs and among educated Europeans. S. Gorshenina dates the construction of the concept of "Tartaria" between 1238 and 1242. Around 1241-1242, in connection with Mongol invasion to Europe, there was an inclusion in the toponym "Tataria" of the Christian hell (Tartar); as a result, "Tartaria" arose as a specific geographical name. The 19th-century orientalist O. Wolf believed that the appearance of "" in European languages was caused by the influence of Persian dialects, in which "r" could be pronounced or not. However, most likely due to the lack of links between European chroniclers and Persia, the word "Tartaria" arose without external influence, as a result of a historically determined paronymic attraction, during which two phonetically close and semantically different words turned into one.
According to the English chronicler Matthew of Paris, in 1241 the French king Louis IX, who in 1244 proclaimed crusade against the Mongols, he was the first to connect three concepts - "Tartaria", "Tartar" and "Tartars"; in a letter to his mother, Blanca of Castile, the king lamented about the tartars who came out of Tartarus. There is a point of view that before Louis the expression had already been used for several years, but it is the French king who is most often called the author of this association; in the same year, the German emperor Frederick II correlated Tartar and tartar in a similar way. The descriptions of Matthew of Paris and Emperor Frederick already contain the characteristics of the tartars as "demons", "sent by Satan himself", representatives of the "race of Satan", etc., which refers to Tartarus. "Tartaria" was gradually fixed in use: Louis IX used the term in correspondence with the Mongol khans in 1248-1262. In the description of Matthew of Paris, Tartaria appears as a place surrounded by an "insurmountable mountain barrier"; in the mountains originates the river of the dead Tartar, which gave the name to the people of Tartaria. Around the same time (1242) the name of the river in Hungarian sources is Egog. The Dominican monk Simon de Saint-Quentin, who in 1245-1248 participated in the papal embassy of Ascelinus of Lombard to the court of the Mongol Khan, localized Tartaria "outside of Persia and Armenia" and placed it within the borders of India; David was the king of the Tartars. According to the researcher J. Richard, India meant the Kara-Khitay Khanate.
Tartaria in the XIII-XVI centuries: the era of tartars
Images of Tartaria: Biblical and Antique Influence
In the millennial period (III-XIII centuries), Western European cosmographers gradually formed the image of Central Asia as a country surrounded by mountains, located close to the earthly paradise; it was inhabited by mythical creatures and monsters associated with Alexander the Great and Gog and Magog. The perception of Tartaria in a later period was largely determined by these earlier images. In the XIII-XIV centuries, the term "Tartaria" gradually spreads in texts, becomes the main one for describing the spaces of Central Asia and the generalized designation of the Mongol Empire, although various equivalents are used (Asian Sarmatia, the country of Gog and Magog, the Steppe, etc.). As S. Gorshenina notes, a number of changes in the ethnonym Mongghol or Monghhal in European languages, ultimately leads to the identification of the Mongols (tartars) with the descendants of Gog and Magog; already at Matthew of Paris, the tartars belong to the peoples locked up by Alexander the Great in the mountains beyond the Caspian Sea until the end of the world. This fact was "confirmed", for example, by the Dominican missionary Ricoldo da Montecroce, who visited Baghdad taken by the Mongols at the end of the 13th century. Presbyter John was the guardian of these "accursed peoples". In the 1236 version of The Romance of Alexander, the locked mythical kings Gog and Magog are the kings of the Tartars: the popularity of the myth of Alexander the Great linked him to the Mongol Empire. On geographical maps, the parallel between Tartaria and Gog and Magog appears later, although Matthew of Paris indicated on his map of the Holy Land in 1253 that the Tartars came from the vicinity of Gog and Magog (northeast). The imposition of ancient images on the toponym Tartaria determined the similarity of the tartars and Gog and Magog, and the confusion took place both in texts and in iconography; for example, a French miniature of the beginning of the 15th century (an illustration of Marco Polo's Book of Wonders of the World), describing the battle of Kublai Khan in Burma, clearly reproduced the structure of the contemporary miniature about the battle between Alexander and Pore.
In addition to Gog and Magog, tartar was associated with the ten “lost” tribes of Israel, also locked up by Alexander the Great (the legend goes back to the early Middle Ages), the Ismailites and Midianites from the Old Testament (the last two comparisons are available from Julian); biblical associations and references to Alexander somewhat counterbalanced the negative ideas about the Tartars. A common place was the identification of Mongols and Jews, which arose as early as the 9th century and spread by the time of the Mongol conquests. The Mongols turned out to be descendants of Jewish tribes expelled to Media by the Assyrian king: as a result, in the 13th century, Media and Persia were not distinguished from Tartaria; Ricoldo da Montecroce wondered about the connection between Jews and Tartars. Traces of these fantastic etymologies and imaginary connections can be traced back to the 18th century. Another common comparison was the "connection" between the Tartars and the Scythians (mediated through Gog and Magog, with whom the Scythians were associated even by ancient Roman historians); as S. Gorshenina writes, in opposing the Tartars to settled peoples, the ancient dichotomy between civilization and barbarism, the ecumene and the outside world was embodied, supplemented by the distinction between Christians and infidels. This dichotomy took place, for example, in the descriptions of Rubruk, Plano Carpini, Matthew of Paris. At the same time, the contradictory connotations, the combination of positive (the imaginary kingdom of Prester John or the alleged religious tolerance of the Mongols) and negative (the image of hell) elements during the construction of the image of Tartaria were inscribed in the political context of that time: fear of the Mongols was combined with the hope of their help in fight against Muslims. The latter circumstance was supported by the fact of Genghis Khan's military campaign in the Middle East; thus, Rubruk reported on the anti-Muslim plans of the Mongols.
The Mongol conquest changed ideas about the "monsters" of Central Asia; if earlier real peoples turned into monsters, then from now on monsters became peoples (although the process began with the “Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius”). According to the calculations of the researcher P. Gauthier Further, the number of monsters on the maps increased during the first half of the 13th century; in the future, the trend also manifested itself in literature (John Mandeville). A striking example was the evidence of Plano Carpini: in an attempt to tell the story of the Tartars, the author just as carefully described the monsters that inhabited the countries they conquered, as well as the real life of the Mongols. The list includes mute, creatures without joints in the legs, cynocephali, with dog muzzles and bull hooves, one-legged and one-armed people, etc .; Carpini describes stuffed animals spewing fire, mountains of magnets that attract arrows, a roar at sunrise, etc. It was obvious to travelers that such monsters and miracles could not be seen (which, however, did not cast doubt on their existence), so they are constantly localized in new regions of Tartaria. The country of women with male bodies was located outside of Cathay, the Armenian historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi reported; the men in his description were like dogs. Cynocephali lived in the northeast of Tartaria, according to the map of Henri from Mainz (XIII century). Around the same place, north of Samogedi they are placed by Plano Carpini and his companion Benedict the Pole. Gog and Magog and cannibals on the shores of the Northern Ocean are adjacent to the cynocephals of the German cartographer Andreas Walsperger (XV century). The first doubts about the veracity of fairy-tale descriptions can be seen in Rubruk, who wondered about the existence of “damned peoples” in the north; nevertheless, similar images of the inhabitants of Siberia are preserved until Sigismund von Herberstein (XVI century).
Travels to Tartaria in the XIII-XVI centuries
The emergence of the Mongol Empire and the weakening of the immediate threat to Europe after 1260 contributed to the attempts to study Tartaria in the 13th-14th centuries by missionaries, merchants and diplomats; despite the dangers, between 1245 and 1235 they tried to establish contact with China at a time when the sea route was not yet known. Among the first explorers of the "Central Asian" space were Plano Carpini, the first ambassador of Pope Innocent IV (1245-1247), his brother Guillaume de Rubruk (1253-1255), who traveled as an ordinary missionary, and the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1260-1295) . For travelers of the XIII century (Plano Carpini), the northern border of Tartaria was the ocean, the eastern border was the land of the Chinese, Solongyos(Koreans or Manchus), from the south Tartaria bordered on the country of the Saracens (or Bisermines), to the southwest lay lands Guires(Uigur East Turkestan or Mongolia), and in the west of Tartaria, between Khangai and the Altayn-Nuru mountains (the Black Irtysh valley), the Naimans lived. During this period, Tartaria was sometimes identified with the Mongol Empire, which reached its greatest expansion under Khan Kublai, and stretched from the Black Sea to the Chinese, from Siberia to Cambodia.
In 1329, the Catholic diocese was founded in Samarkand by the Dominican missionary Thomas Mancasola, and in 1342 - in the capital of the Chagatai ulus Almalyk (by the efforts of the Franciscan Giovanni de Marignolli). Despite the activity of Catholic missionaries in the first half of the 14th century, contacts between Europe and Tartaria soon weakened again; among the reasons are the plague epidemic in Europe (1340), the strengthening of the Ottoman state, which interfered with direct contacts, the collapse of the Mongol Empire and the fall of the Mongol dynasty in China, the “closure” of China from Europeans during the Ming dynasty. After the final Islamization of "Central Asia", a new renewal of contacts takes place at the beginning of the 15th century, at the time of the emergence of the ephemeral empire of Tamerlane. The Spanish ambassador Gonzalez de Clavijo arrives in 1404 at the court of Tamerlane; captured by Bayazet I, and then by Tamerlane, the Bavarian Johann Schiltberger spends 25 years in Asia (1402-1427). A century later, the Englishman Anthony Jenkinson manages to visit Tartaria (1557-1559) before its “closure” to Europeans. All travelers shared the well-established mythological ideas about Tartaria, setting off in search of a country surrounded by mountain ranges, Gog and Magog, the kingdom of Prester John, the lost Israeli tribes, Alexander the Great, various monsters, etc. Their descriptions combined reality and fiction, which, however, , emphasized the diversity of the "new world".
Tartaria on European maps of the 13th-15th centuries
In the XIII-XIV centuries on European geographical maps ( mappae mundi) "Tartaria" is still rarely used. According to the calculations of the researcher A. D. von den Brinken, at that time Tartarorum terra occurs only three times. Tartars are first mentioned on the Italian map of 1320-1321 by the geographers Marino Sanudo and Pietro Visconte. Influenced by Arabic sources, several mappae mundi Sanudo, Visconte and Paulina were compiled in the 1310s-1330s. The cards introduced a new "Central Asia"; in addition to "Tartar", "Iron Gates" and "Katai Kingdom" appeared on the maps. On the map of 1320-1321, the country of Tartars is located near the walled castle, fortification ( castrum) Gog and Magog in the northeast near the Northern Ocean. The map is accompanied by comments: “tartars were locked here” and “a great multitude of tartars gathered here”. The map shows two Caspian Seas, which are designated by the same word, but located in different places. One has the shape of an ocean bay: it is there that the “tartars are locked”; the other is in the mountains, a river flows out of it Gion (Oxus, Amu Darya). According to S. Gorshenina, such a bifurcation characterizes an attempt to combine ancient sources and new information about Central Asia.
In the XIV-XV centuries, the development of the cartography of Tartaria took place mainly in Italy, Portugal and Catalonia, which maintained contacts with the countries of the east. New, more modern names appear on the famous Catalan Atlas of 1375, compiled by Abraham Cresques, a Jewish cartographer from Mallorca: "Central Asian" toponyms were first borrowed from Marco Polo, as well as from Odorico Pordenone and John Mandeville. This atlas quite accurately conveyed the general political situation of that time, despite the approximation of cities, rivers, etc.; fantastic elements were also preserved in it (giants in the north; pygmies in the south - between Cathay and India; the kingdom of the Amazons, Gog and Magog, etc.). After the appearance of portolans in the 14th century and the rediscovery of Ptolemy's maps, the appearance of new evidence from travelers, the maps of "Central Asia" gradually abandon the principles of the T-O map and gradually move on to other ways of marking the continents. The main feature is the rejection of the traditional eastern orientation of maps in favor of the northern (Ptolemy) or southern. In contrast to medieval cartography, which considered the Caspian Sea to be an inlet of the outer ocean, Ptolemy correctly considered it to be an inland sea. At the same time, the antique image (as in T-O cards) the periphery of northern Asia and, in particular, medieval ideas about the Caspian Sea, preserve several maps made in the tradition of the Catalan atlas of the first half of the 15th century: the Italian maps of Andrea Bianco (1432-1436) and Borgia (1410-1458), the Catalan map from the Estense de Modena (1450). The Hyrcanian (Caspian) Sea is a bay of the outer ocean; next to the bay is the land of Gog and Magog surrounded by mountains. On the map of Andrea Bianco, on opposite sides of the Hyrcanian Gulf, the earthly paradise and Gog and Magog are located; two hundred years after the travels of Plano Carpini and Rubruk, such a neighborhood was already an anachronism. On these maps, the images of Gog and Magog and the tartars are separated from each other, due to the positive descriptions of Marco Polo and especially in connection with the fall of the Mongol Empire (1368). Now cartography is beginning to view Gog and Magog in an anti-Semitic perspective: the Jews are taking the place of the Tartars. On the Borgia map, the Tartars are no longer locked, but freely located in the space between the Black Sea and Katai (with their carts, camels and yurts). A large number of “Tartarian” toponyms dating back to Marco Polo in “Central Asia” are present on the Venetian map of 1460: around the Caspian Sea (twenty toponyms), in Turkestan, Siberia (“Tartaria” is noted six times), different places of Karakorum and Katai. The Vinland map (c. 1440; if we consider it authentic) depicts the "boundless Tartar Sea" ( Magnum mare Tartarirum) between Eurasia and the eastern islands; "river Tatartata" ( Tatartata fluuius) flows out of the Caspian Sea and flows into the Northern Ocean. The famous Venetian map Fra Mauro (1448-1459) generalizes medieval cartography and marks the transition to the modern era, however, despite the high quality, the image of Tartaria on this map and in the cartography of the 15th century as a whole does not undergo significant changes. In the published editions of Ptolemy's Geography, the ancient nomenclature of Asia is preserved. Toponyms Bactrian, Sogdian, Scythian are reproduced on maps until the beginning of the 16th century, along with relatively new toponyms: Tartaria, Balor, katai, Tangut(Florentine map by Francesco Rosselli 1492-1493, etc.)
Beginnings of modern cartography: 16th century
The break with the legacy of Ptolemy occurs at the beginning of the 16th century, with the advent of large atlases; the most innovative was the Martin Waldseemüller map (publ. 1516). On this map, Tartaria includes a number of territories of Russia and the Far East: the Mongols live in "genuine Tartaria" (" Terra Mongal et que vera Tartaria dicitur"), and two Tartar the provinces - "Khorasin Tartaria" (a mixture of Khorasan and Khorezm) and "Turkestan Tartaria" - are located to the south, east of the Caspian Sea. These two Tartaria replace, respectively, the Ptolemaic Scythia, Sogdiana and Bactria. During the XVI century there is an "offensive" modern titles to the territory previously attributed to Tartaria; in particular, Gerard Mercator and Abraham Ortelius. The toponym "Turkestan" (on maps and in texts), which for the first time designated a separate territory on the Waldseemüller map (previously it was often confused with Turkey; as, for example, on the Paulin map of 1321), is gaining popularity. In the second half of the 16th century, the toponym "Maverannahr" appeared to designate the interfluve of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya ( Mā warāʾ al-nahr; Maurenaer on the Mercator map of 1596), the ethnonym "Uzbek", replacing "Chagatai". On the world map of Abraham Ortelius (1564), Tartaria is “exiled” to the north of Asia and occupies an indefinite position between Russia and the Far East; while on the territory of Turkestan you can see the main modern toponyms: Kabul, Balkh, Kandahar, Bukhara, Samarkand, etc.
An important aspect of the evolution of the cartography of Tartaria was the messages received as a result of travels to Russia, which began in the second half of the 15th century. According to S. Gorshenina, “Notes on Muscovy” (1549) by Sigismund von Herberstein occupied a special place. The map of Augustine Hirschvogel included in the book uses Russian, Polish, Lithuanian sources. Information about Tartaria is scarce, partly mythologized; von Herberstein did not travel outside of Moscow. Tartaria continues its "shift" to the north of Asia; a path to China through the northern ocean appears on the map - these ideas are developed by Anthony Jenkinson. Jenkinson's map (1562, included in the Ortelius Atlas of 1598), compiled based on the results of travels to Central Asia and Persia (1557-1564), decisively influenced the images of "Central Asia", primarily the Turkestan basin. Unlike ancient maps, on which the Yaksart (Syrdarya) flows into the Caspian Sea, on Jenkinson’s map, the river flows north, through the regions Taskent(Tashkent) and Boghar(Bukhara); Amu Darya originates in the vicinity Shamarcandia(Samarkand) and merges with the Syr Darya, which then flows into the lake Kitaia Lacu(probably the Aral Sea). The lake is connected to the Northern Ocean by a river Oba(Ob). The search for the northern sea route was also reflected on the map of Tartaria by Mercator (1569), and then on the Atlas of the Flemish cartographer Jodocus Hondius (1606); city name Cambalich(Beijing) repeats ( Cambalu) on the Pacific coast. Probably, under the influence of Russian toponymy, the borders of Katai reach the lake kitaia from which the Ob River flows. Jenkinson's and Mercator's descriptions generally accurately reflect the (largely erroneous) European perceptions of northeast Asia in the second half of the 16th century. So, in his major multi-volume work "Relationi universali" (1595), the Italian priest and diplomat Giovanni Botero (Italian) Russian described Tartaria as follows:
Original text (Italian)
Si chiamaua prima Scithia; mà da trecento anni in quà i Tartari (popoli usciti sotto il gran Chingi, da un cantone dell "Asia detto in lor lingua Mongal), che ne hanno occupato il dominio, hanno anche mutato il nome: sotto" l quale si contiene (lasciando i Tartari Precopiti, de "quali habbiamo parlato al suo luogo) poco meno della metà della terra ferma dell" Asia: per che si stende dalla Volga sino ai confini della China, dell "India: dall" Oceano Scitico, sino alla palude Meotide, al mare Hircano.<…>
Tartaria in the XVI-XVIII centuries: the era of "orientalism" and colonialism
In the course of the evolution of the European cartography of Tartaria, well-known (in particular, ancient) toponyms were used to describe new "white spots", which moved further and further away. During the 17th century, ancient names almost completely disappear, although the ideas of Eratosthenes and Ptolemy, who did not distinguish between the Caspian and Aral Seas, remain; like some other mythological elements. A centuries-old mistake placed the Caspian Sea at the center of the world map; as S. Gorshenina writes, his shift to the west paradoxically influenced the later concepts of the “centrality” of Central Asia (as Eurasia) after the disappearance of “Tartaria”. The first more or less accurate depictions of Central Asia were maps compiled by Russian explorers in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In the 18th century, the outline of the mountain systems of the Hindu Kush, the Pamirs and the Himalayas and the river basins of Central Asia was completed, which finally made it possible to separate the Aral and Caspian Seas.
The emergence of scientific Orientalism ("Orientalism") at the beginning of the 17th century revolutionizes the concept of Asia; the most significant changes occur in the 1630s and 1640s. According to S. Gorshenina, the image of Tartaria - Central Asia - is now being formed at the intersection of four different perspectives. Firstly, from the point of view of the study of the Near and Middle East (Levant), constructed in the form of the "classical East", the East as such, the new antiquity. Secondly, from the side of Sinology - studies of the Far East, full of exotic, different from Europe in nature; finally, Tartaria is being studied by powers that have their own political interests: from the north-west it is mastered by Russian travelers, from the south, from India, by British researchers.
Tartaria in European Studies
The Muslim perspective is vividly presented in the "Oriental Library" (1697) by the French philologist Barthelemy d'Herbelot - a general encyclopedia of the East, which described Central Asia based on the information of Muslim travelers and explorers. The encyclopedia combined Ptolemy's heritage with more modern toponyms: Tartars, Mongols, Western and Eastern Turks. D'Herbelot does not mention Tartaria, but follows Eastern authors: Iran and Turan, whose opposition dates back to the epic Persian tradition, include all of "Upper Asia" outside of India and China; toponyms Turkestan and Maverannahr are used. The correlation of names is rather vague: on the one hand, Turan and Turkestan are synonyms; on the other hand, Maverannahr and Turkestan are parts of Turan. In the south, the border of Turan-Turkestan is Oxus, in the east - the country of Khotan ( Khotan or Khoten), which is located "outside of Bukhara and Kashgar"; the northeastern borders, by contrast, are unknown. The cities of Karakomum, Almalyk, Beshbalyk, according to d'Erbelo, are in the country of the Mongols. The Eastern Turks or the Turks of Turkestan, Tartars, Mongols and Khotans live there - "obviously the northernmost of the peoples of China." The encyclopedist introduces the name "Transoxania" (translation of the Arabic toponym Maverannahr) into scientific circulation, in the first half of the 18th century it spread rapidly.
In the 17th century, missionaries gradually moved deep into Tartaria, along with the Manchu army; in 1682-1683, contacts began with Russian researchers who were interested in Chinese sources on Tartaria. Jesuit missionaries Ferdinand Verbiest, Jean Francois Gerbillon and others were looking for a way from Beijing to Europe through Great Tartary; the missionaries were in contact, in particular, with the Russian diplomat Nikolai Spafari. As a result of the knowledge sharing collaboration, Tartaria has become more accessible. “The path through the country of the Uzbeks to China was not as difficult and long as the majority believes,” concluded the Jesuit traveler Philipp Avril in 1693. Maps became more accurate; the most important work was the fundamental Geographical, Historical, Chronological, Political and Physical Description of the Chinese Empire and Chinese Tartaria by Jean-Baptiste Duald (1735). Duhald attached great importance to the Great Wall of China - the border between the "civilized world" and "barbarism". The barbarian world behind the Great Wall of China gets a name Great Tartaria :
| ... The whole part of our continent between the eastern sea north of Japan, the Arctic Sea, Muscovy, the Caspian Sea, the Mughals, the kingdom of Arakan next to Bengal, the kingdom of Ava, the Chinese Empire, the kingdom of Korea is called Great Tartaria; in the west, Great Tartaria is bounded by Muscovy, the Caspian Sea and part of Persia; from the south - the same part of Persia, the Mughals, the kingdoms of Arakan and Ava, China and Korea; from the east - by the Eastern Sea, and from the north - by the Arctic Sea. This whole vast area was once divided among innumerable rulers, and today is almost completely united under the rule of the emperor of China or the kings of Muscovy. Only a few areas are not subject to one of the two empires: the country of the Uzbeks, part of the country of the Kalmuk or Kalmaks, Tibet, several small states in the mountains towards the kingdom of Ava and to the west of Sichuan province. |
According to Duhald, Great Tartaria is divided into three parts: Moscow Tartaria or Northern Tartaria, a sparsely populated region discovered by the Russians; "Independent Tartary", whose center was never visited by the Jesuits; finally, Chinese Tartaria (Eastern Tartaria or the country of the Mongols between the Great Wall of China and Russian possessions), described by Gerbillon. The Chinese territories behind the Great Wall, Duhald writes, are now dependent on the Tartar-Manchus who once inhabited Eastern Tartaria. The historian describes Eastern Tartaria in detail, noting that it is mainly a vast desert, half the size of China. In the center of Eastern Tartaria is the country of Hami, whose inhabitants consider themselves descendants of Tamerlane. Hami is an arid and sandy region, which the Chinese sometimes call the sandy sea, and the Tartars themselves - the Gobi. It is a very inhospitable country for travelers and dangerous for horses, which is why the Tartars use camels more often. About Independent Tartaria, Duald writes that in Maverannahr it was called Chagatai, after the name of the son of Genghis Khan, the current name is Uzbek, the name of a part of the Tartars. The country is also called Great Bukhara, which is different from Little Bukhara, located in the Kashgar region. Bukhara live in cities, nomadic Tartars are subjects of both Bukhara.
The Jesuit missionaries in China were practically contemporary with Barthélemy d'Herbelot; Thus, Bishop Claude Visdelou, a member of a scientific expedition to China (1685-1709), did not agree with the "Muslim" version of Central Asia. Visdelou considered Muslim sources less reliable than missionary ones, and was critical of the work of the "armchair scientist" d'Herbelot, who rejected the term "Tartaria". The bishop wrote (1779) that Tartaria should be called the territory northwest of China - the former Scythia, called Turkestan and Turan by Muslims. Visdelu described the etymology of the term, which came from the name of the people conquered by the Mongols; the Mongol empire occupied the space between the "four seas" (South, East, Arctic and Mediterranean), only Muscovy, South India and several other states remained outside its power. According to Visdel, the border of Tartaria runs along the northern shores of Pontus Euxinus and the Caspian Sea, and then turns south as far as India, or rather Khorasan; Tartaria borders countries between India and China, the Kingdom of Korea, the border ends at the East Sea. In the north, the country is washed by the Arctic Sea, and, finally, in the west, an imaginary line can be drawn from the western tip of Pontus Euxinus to the mouth of the Ob in the Arctic Sea. Tartaria in truncated sizes, according to Wisdel, looks different - without Europe and Russia; the border runs from the mouth of the Volga to the Arctic Sea, and in the most reduced version - from the north of Khorasan, along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea and further to the Arctic Sea. Tartaria in the description of Visdelu includes almost the entire territory of modern Russia, the former Soviet republics of Central Asia, part of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, Tibet and Mongolia. In a smaller version of Tartaria, the border runs along the Ural Mountains. This last Tartaria is divided into Western and Eastern by the meridian between Beijing and the Arctic Sea. Following the Chinese authors, Visdelou proposes to draw a line between the northernmost point of the Caspian and the Beijing meridian. The territory south of the imaginary border should be called Southern or Immovable Tartaria, it is inhabited by peoples ruled by several Tartar states. Northern or Wandering Tartaria is inhabited by "tramps", wandering peoples living in yurts and moving in wagons. Southern Tartaria is also divided into two parts: the researcher identifies Chinese Tartaria, located east of Mount Imaus.
In addition to the "Tartar" terminology, Visdelou used the term "Upper Asia" introduced by d'Herbelot instead of "Scythia, Tartaria, Turkestan or Turan", clearly separating it from Tibet. The location of Tartaria on a hill is also emphasized by other descriptions of that time. So, the Swedish geographer Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg (1730) wrote about Tartary as a gentle hill, with an inclination to the Arctic Sea, which corresponded to the direction of the winds and the flow of rivers. High-mountainous Tartaria included the “terrible” Gobi Desert: in the “New Atlas of China, Chinese Tartaria and Tibet” (1737), the French cartographer Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville wrote that the Great Gobi is a high-mountainous sandy plain; it is so cold there that ice is almost always found shallow underground. According to d'Anville, other similar regions of Tartaria are also called Gobi, although they are not so extensive; Russians call them the Steppe. Scientists of the end of the 18th century place the ancestral home of mankind in the highland region; Thus, the French traveler Baron Franz Tott wrote in 1784-1785 that the plateau of Tartaria, where the Tartars now live, was the first region in Asia discovered and inhabited by people. According to Tott, peoples migrated from that place towards China, Tibet and the Caucasus, South Asia, up to Europe (Goths, Ostrogoths and Visigoths). The plateau of Tartaria continues the mountain ranges of the Caucasus and Tibet to the north, up to Korea; this is the most elevated part of the territory between India and Kamchatka, the sources of rivers flowing north and south take it.
At the end of the 18th century, the idea of Central Asia was also formed among the British thanks to the publications of the geographer James Rennell, known primarily for his map of India. Rennel studied the region from a southern perspective, using, in particular, information obtained by the traveler-ethnographer Georg Forster. Following in the footsteps of the Forster expedition (1783-1784), Rennell notes the difficulty of exploring the areas between Russia, India and Persia. According to Rennell, the "gloomy" land between Kandahar and the Caspian "belongs to Persia rather than to India", and the area further north-west is dependent on Tartaria. The geographer describes the vast "Great Bukhara", shifting Turkestan to the western borders of Kashgar, which in his description pass in the Shash or Tashkand (Tashkent) region. Hindustan at Rennell borders Tibet in the north and Tartaria in the west; Tartaria, like Persia, is localized to the northwest of India. Kashmir is the closest Indian province to Tibet and Tartaria, while Kashgar lies between India and China. The third volume of the Britannica Encyclopedia, published in 1773, contains information about Tartaria:
Tartaria, a huge country in the northern part of Asia, bordering Siberia in the north and west: it is called the Great Tartaria. Tartars living south of Muscovy and Siberia in the northwest of the Caspian Sea are called Astrakhan, Cherkasy and Dagestan; Kalmyk Tartars occupy the territory between Siberia and the Caspian Sea; The Uzbek Tartars and Mongols live to the north of Persia and India, and, finally, the Tibetan ones live in the northwest of China.
Original text (English)
TARTARY, a vast country in the northern parts of Asia, bounded by Siberia on the north and west: this is called Great Tartary. The Tartars who lie south of Muscovy and Siberia, are those of Astracan, Circassia, and Dagistan, situated north-west of the Caspian-sea; the Calmuc Tartars, who lie between Siberia and the Caspian-sea; the Usbec Tartars and Moguls, who lie north of Persia and India; and lastly, those of Tibet, who lie north-west of China.
In the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, the confusion of the terms "Tartaria" and "Upper Asia" gave rise to the toponym "Upper Tartaria". The name first appeared with the French author Charles-Claude de Paysonel in 1765 in his essay "Historical and geographical observations on the barbarian peoples inhabiting the banks of the Danube and Pontus Euxine"; Paysonel called Upper Tartaria territories close to China. A toponym unknown a century earlier came into use, although it was not accepted by all scientists; Upper Tartaria was outside the Aral-Caspian lowlands, the Pamirs, the Tien Shan and Tibet, but the toponym did not have such a universal meaning as Upper Asia. According to S. Gorshenina, intellectuals from the Jesuits to Voltaire were looking for an Asian opposition to China, which was perceived in Europe as an enlightened despotism. The negative perception of Tartaria at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries was characterized by a historical perspective, combined with geographical and temporal proximity: the descendants of the “barbarians” of Tartars were pagans, cruel nomads prone to despotism. Visdelu (1779) wrote that Tartaria was an endless source of barbarian invasions that brought devastation to Europe and Lower Asia; in the vastness of Tartaria, the bloodiest tragedies in the world unfolded. S. Gorshenina concludes that the exact definition of the boundaries of Upper Tartaria or Upper Asia was not mandatory, since, as Visdelu noted, “everyone can move and place them as he sees fit”; this approach was fully consistent with the political situation of that time - the advancement of European colonialism, during which the borders of the East were constantly shifting to the southeast, towards India and China.
Tartaria and Muscovy. Russian perception of Tartaria
According to S. Gorshenina, if Western ideas about Tartaria constructed the image of the Other, opposing European civilization, remote, mysterious and dangerous, then the history of Russian ideas about Tartaria had its own characteristics. Under the influence of European cosmography, the first Russian cartographers accepted the border between Europe and Asia, dating back to antiquity, along the Tanais (Don); for Russians, the border initially had no religious meaning of the medieval dichotomy between good and evil. This approach had important implications. Despite the fact that Muscovy west of the Don was in Europe, the Russian state became almost completely Asian. Movements in geographical space were a series of pilgrimages; they did not refer to "civilization" in the European sense, nor to natural boundaries or natural laws. The perception by Europeans of Muscovy as an archaic country, comparable to the states of the Incas, Aztecs, Ottomans or Moguls, was reflected in the iconography, which combined the images of Muscovy and Tartaria. Jenkinson's map (1562), Ortelius' Atlas (1570-1598) and John Speed's "New Map of Tartaria" (1626) depict the Russian tsar in a Tatar yurt, and the tartar in the clothes of an oprichnik. In these specific conditions (between the "civilized West" and the "Asia of the wild Scythians") in the 16th century, Russian researchers began to study Tartaria, relying both on own experience spatial proximity, and on European sources, which, in turn, often used Russian information.
The first large cartographic synthesis ("Big" drawing) dates back to the time of Ivan the Terrible and shows the territory from the Urals to the Ishim and Sarysu rivers and the Karatau mountains, in the south - to Tashkent, Samarkad and Bukhara. For the first time, the Aral Sea (“Blue Sea”) is clearly marked on the map. Unlike Jesuit missionaries, Russian explorers reach China via southwestern Siberia; this is facilitated by the completion of the conquest of Siberia at the end of the 17th century. More or less reliable were the maps of Central Asia by Nicholas Spafari (“Description of the first part of the world called Asia”, compiled after a trip from Tobolsk to China in 1675-1678) and Semyon Remezov (1697); the map of the Aral Sea by Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky (1715) was quite accurate. During this period, the Russians are not too interested in Independent Tartaria - in the works of Spafariy and Remezov, the territories subject to Russia are described in much more detail. As von Stralenberg (1730) noted, the Russians trade little with Great Tartaria when they cross it on their way to China. In the era of Peter I, the situation gradually changes; the king had an interest in "Central Asia" and had plans to conquer it. Despite local failures (in 1729-1735, Russia returned part of the territories in Central Asia to Persia), the Central Asian space remains in the sphere of Russian interests, although it is difficult to access: in 1735, the Russian geographer and statesman Ivan Kirilov wrote about the difficulties of studying the Great Tartaria associated with the danger of staying in those lands.
Features of the Russian perception of Tartaria can be seen in the "Atlas" by Ivan Kirilov (1724-1734), "The New Geographical Description of Great Tataria" by the Swede von Stralenberg (1730) and the "New Map of the Caspian Sea and the Regions of the Land of Uzbek" by the Dutch cartographer Abraham Maas (1735). Although von Strahlenberg and Maas were not Russian researchers, both worked in Russia and used Russian sources. S. Gorshenina notes two differences from the European tradition. Firstly, Tataria replaces Tartaria: there is a break with the medieval symbolic and phonetic chain "Tartar-Tartars" (mythical hell and nomadic peoples). Secondly, "Tartar" geographical terms are used less frequently. Von Strahlenberg explained the difference in pronunciation this way:
On the von Stralenberg map, where most of the Imperium Russicum, Great Tataria is located south of Regnum Siberiae, its borders reach the western coast of the Caspian Sea; behind Tataria is Mungalia, whose location roughly corresponds to modern Mongolia. According to Stralenberg, the word "Tataria" comes from biblical texts. The change in pronunciation may have been due to Russian influence; although European cartographers continued to use the spelling "Tartary", Russian dictionaries (with the exception of "Tartar" as hell) did not contain either Tartaria or Tartars. Russian tradition used ethnonyms Tatars, Tatar and Tatarva to refer to nomadic peoples; the rare use of "Tartary" was due to European influence. So, among the first Russian maps printed in Amsterdam by order of Peter I (1699), there is a map of Little Tartaria. The toponym Great Tartaria is contained in the "Drawing of all Siberia, taken in Tobolsk by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich" by Peter Godunov (1677) or Semyon Remezov's maps, made between 1697 and 1720. Tartaria is present on the map of the surveyors Ivan Evreinov and Fedor Luzhin (1720) and in the Atlas composed for the benefit and use of youth and all readers of Vedomosti and historical books (1737), which depicts several Tartaria. In the first official atlas of the Russian Empire, issued in 1745, there was a map "Little Tataria with the border provinces of Kiev and Belgorod". There is neither Chinese nor Russian Tartaria (Tataria) on von Strahlenberg's map. Kirilov's sketchy "Atlas" depicts "Eastern Tataria", denoting Chinese Tartaria. The Abraham Maas map does not use "Tartar" terminology, however, it indicates that the independent "Central Asian" khanates are called "Independent Tartaria" in European historiography. S. Gorshenina concludes that in Russian ideas "Tataria" meant only "Independent Tartaria" of European cartographers, and not any Russian possessions in Asia; such a campaign followed from the "enlightened" policy of the tsars, who considered Russia a European power. The Russian elite avoided associations with Tartaria, that is, with distant Asia, whose negative images embodied barbarism, immobility and backwardness; at the same time, in Europe, Russia was often considered one of the Asian countries.
Features of ideas about Tartaria
In the 18th century, the term Tartaria did not have a universal meaning; its transliteration, content, and the geographical space described were different. Encyclopedic descriptions (including Wisdelu's relatively detailed analysis) of the time remained rather vague. According to S. Gorshenina, the term had different content depending on the type of discourse: ethnographic, regionalist and political, which coexisted in cartography, historical or philosophical descriptions.
Tartaria as an ethnographic term had two aspects. On the one hand, the ethnonym Tartaria referred to various peoples who inhabited the Mongol Empire and its environs. The diversity of "Tartar" terminology was facilitated by the studies of the Jesuits and Russian travelers, as well as political factors - the emergence of spheres of influence between Russia and China. In European and Russian cartography, the "genuine" Tartars (that is, the Mongols) were opposed to all the rest, conquered or assimilated peoples. On the other hand, the negative idea of the Tartars as a distant enemy remained, causing associations with Satan, Gog and Magog, the lost Jews and the Antichrist; the Tartars did not have an exact geographic location or ethnic identity. Ethnographic descriptions include the studies of von Strahlenberg, Duhald, the work of Russian scientists Tatishchev and Rychkov. Thus, von Stralenberg, relying mainly on the information he gleaned in Western Siberia, compiled a detailed classification of the Tatar peoples; the scientist identified six different groups of Tatars, localizing Great Tataria south of Siberia. From a different perspective, from China, Duhald proposed to distinguish four types of tartars: Western tartars, Eastern or "smelly" tartars, Muslim tartars, Muscovy-ruled tartars. Descriptions of Independent Tartaria, however, remained rather vague. So, Russian scientists Vasily Tatishchev and Petr Rychkov noted that the inhabitants of Khiva and Bukhara, Tashkent or Turkestan are Muslims, but there is no reliable information about them. In general, the general term Tartaria did not disappear, however, in the 18th century the number of "Tartar" ethnonyms of "Central Asia" decreased; in Russia, Tartaria was gradually replaced by Tartaria. According to S. Gorshenina, western tartars paradoxically, have been less studied than Eastern tartars(Manchus).
Another way to describe Tartaria was the ethnographically independent regionalist discourse presented on the maps of the 16th and 17th centuries up to the beginning of the 18th century. The geographical extent was emphasized with the help of the epithet "Big" or "Great" ( magna). Starting from the last third of the 17th century, the name grande tartarie, in English - Great Tartaria, in German - Tartareij. Russian geographer Vasily Tatishchev contrasted the steppe world of "Great Tartaria" with "Small Tartaria" (Crimea and the settled countries of Turkestan). Like the border between Europe and Asia, the location of Tartaria as a whole remained extremely blurred, thus the image of Tartaria retained links with Gog and Magog. Tartaria was placed in different directions, even in the west, up to the region west of the Urals, which clearly contradicted the Fra Mauro map of the 16th century. The border of Tartaria along the Dnieper, bringing Tartaria closer to Europe, is noticeable on the map of Jodocus Hondikus (1606). Paysonel (1765), who identified Great Tartary and Asiatic Scythia, wrote:
Other cartographers, primarily Francois de Belforet (1575) and Sebastian Munster (Cosmography, 1544), placed Tartaria a little to the east, behind Tanais. On one of the maps of Munster (1543), Europe is depicted as an anthropomorphic "Queen of Europe", whose dress slightly touches Tartaria, located beyond Tanais. For Anthony Jenkinson, Tartaria began with Astrakhan. This localization of Tartaria to the northeast of the Volga is present in Gerardus Mercator (1569), Abraham Ortelius (1570), Adam Olearius (1656), on whose map the surroundings of Astrakhan are illustrated with oriental decorations; on an illustration map for von Herberstein's "Notes on Muscovy" and other maps of the late 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. Tartaria also turned out to be much to the east, outside of Scythia and Imaus. So, Mattias Kvaden Magoga, whose descendants were those inhabitants) by the inhabitants themselves is called Mongolia. Tartaria is called by the Tartar River, which irrigates a significant part of the country. This is a great empire (as large as any other country, except for the colonies Spanish king- but here also it has the advantage that all its parts are connected by land, when, as mentioned, it is strongly divided), it extends 5400 miles from east to west and 3600 miles from north to south, thus the great Khan, that is, the emperor, rules over many kingdoms and provinces, with many glorious cities. In the east, it is bounded by China, the Qing Sea (or Eastern Ocean) and the Strait of Anian. In the west, the Ural Mountains. In the south by the rivers Ganges and Oxus (now Abiam) of Hindustan and the upper part of China<…>; in the north by the Scythian or Frozen Ocean - there the lands are so cold that they are uninhabited.<…>
Original text (English)
Tartaria (known of old by the name of Scythia, from their first King Scythu, and who were at first called Magogius, from Magog, Japhet's son: whose posteriry its Inhabitants were) is called by the Inhabitants Mongul: but Tartaria, from the River Tartar, watering a great part of it. It is a great Empire, (not yielding to any other in largeness of Countries, but to the King of Spain's Dominions: whom also it exceeds, in that it is all united by some bond: whereas the other are very much disjoyned) extending 5400 miles from East to West, and 3600 from North to South, so that the great Cham or Emperor hereof, hath many great Realms and Provinces under him, containing a great number of good towns. It is bounded on the East with China, the Sea of Cin or Eastern Ocean, and the strait of Anian: on the West with the Mountain Iraw<…>, on the South with the River Ganges and Oxus (now Abiam) Indostan, and the upper part of China<…>; on the North with the Scythick or frozen Ocean; the Country of whose shoar is so cold, that it is held inhabited.<…>
Where to look for the pyramids of Tartaria?
Many have already heard about the Great Tartaria. Some researchers and even scientists have found it on old maps digitized by Western libraries and museums or photographed at historical exhibitions in Russia and neighboring countries. Tartaria was an empire, had its own ruling dynasty, coat of arms, flag and other attributes of an independent state with its own characteristics and history.
Tartaria new facts. Pyramids of the tombs of emperors and the capital. Formation and collapse of the Great Empire
This legendary country, founded by the Scythians by origin, has become a bone in the throat of the official version of history. Unfortunately, the topic of Tartaria is discredited in every possible way by various theories that are shocking, and at the same time, they hardly stand up to criticism. One of these versions says that the political center of the country was located in southern Siberia, a little south of the modern city of Anadyr, and the tombs of the Tartar emperors are or were located in Chukotka. We decided to test these two versions and were amazed by the results of our research.
Indeed, what prevents us from being researchers of Tartaria for a while? We offer you a fascinating journey into the depths of centuries, to the times when Moscow was still a small fortress, and Samarkand - a huge metropolis.
Where was the center of Tartaria?
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, European cartographers had little idea of what the continents, state borders, and coastlines really look like. They knew little about the real distances from one region to another. At that time, on the basis of Christian ideas about the world and biblical events, maps were depicted in the form of the letter T, placed in a circle.
Asia was usually placed at the top, Europe at the bottom left, and Africa at the bottom right. After the global flood, which allegedly happened several millennia before the birth of Jesus Christ, the earth was distributed among the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham, Japhet. Which region went to whom is an open question, because opinions on this differ in different sources. Jerusalem and Noah's Ark were often placed in the center of such maps.
On maps dated approximately to the 13th century, next to the countries modern at that time, there is no Tartaria, but there is Scythia. But the Scythians should have disappeared from the maps of their contemporaries as early as the seventh century! Tartaria appears on the maps of the 14th century - exactly on the site of Scythia, moreover, the new state acts as an empire. Europeans stubbornly write about a certain emperor of the Tartars, whose residence is located in the Cathay region (Catayo, Cathay, Catai).
At the same time, the borders, sizes, cities, rivers, reservoirs of Tartaria are known to Europeans quite approximately, everyone sculpts them wherever he pleases.
Sometime in the second half of the 14th century, and perhaps even later, an atlas of the world was created in Spanish Catalonia. If you believe its authors, the capital of Tartaria was at that time somewhere in northeast Asia, the concept of "Siberia" did not exist in the minds of Europeans then. This atlas does not contain either Chukotka or Kamchatka. Toponyms and country names are scattered in Asia according to the principle “out there”.
1452 year from the birth of Christ. Venice. We approach the map, over which the Catholic monk carps ... His name is Fra Mauro. Let's look over our shoulder... what do we see? The majestic capital of Tartaria Khanbalyk or Kambala with the residence of the great khan is located somewhere on the territory of modern Siberia. The tombs of the emperors are not so far away, approximately on the territory of modern Chukotka. Until everything fits.
We are moving closer to our time ... Yes, this is Christopher Columbus himself! Shortly before his famous discovery of America, the legendary traveler imagined the world something like this: (map of Christopher Columbus). The map dates from the late 15th century.
On it, the Tartar regions of Katai and Tenduk are located much further south than previously thought, the kingdom of Gog and Magog is somewhere in the northeast.
Asia itself and Tartaria are written with the prefix - “Magna”, that is, “Great”. Let us note that the outlines of Asia are generally drawn very approximately - there is no Hindustan, Chukotka, Kamchatka, the Korean Peninsula, the African continent is generally twisted. The northwestern part of Eurasia is also “sick”. In fact, everything is logical. At that time, Europeans did not have a clear idea of the location of certain Asian states and regions.
Sixteenth century! Where shall we go? Let's visit Nicolas Desliens. It is now 1566. North and South America have already been discovered, but their outlines on the maps are still far from ideal. The same applies to Asia, the south has already been studied enough, but Europeans practically did not drive deep into the continent, to the center and north of this part of the world. Thus, the north of Asia is outlined uncertainly, without detailed place names and coastlines. Moreover, the inscription “Terra Incognita” - “Unknown Land” is walking along the north of Eurasia. This means that the northern part of modern Russia did not exist in the geographical understanding of the inhabitants of Europe.
A similar situation exists with other maps of this period. Here, for example, is the famous atlas of Abraham Ortelius of 1570, on which Novaya Zemlya is almost a whole continent in the Arctic Ocean.
The outlines of the north of Asia are already close to real, but the regions that the same Columbus placed in Central Asia are located here in its northern part. On the face - the fragmentation of geographical data on these territories. The inscription “Katay” as the center of Tartaria, together with neighboring regions, “roams” from the center of Asia to its north; this happens on different maps at about the same time. Therefore, it is by no means possible to use at least one of them as a sample for comparison with satellite images.
Seventeenth century. Toward the end of the century, Moscow Tartaria and Siberia appear on the maps of Europeans. In reality, this means the gradual conquest, as we would now say, the annexation of the western part of Tartaria by the Muscovite tsars from the Romanov dynasty. In parallel with the formation of Moscow Tartaria, Velikaya appeared, in which the Tartar capital of Khanbalik and the residence of the great khan no longer exist.
On some atlases, you can still find the Cathay region - the same political center with neighboring regions and cities. And, by the way, in Russian culture, the memory has been preserved that Katai or China is the foundation around which a fortress, a kingdom, an empire is built. Look from above at the Moscow Kitay-Gorod - the Kremlin, Moscow, then Muscovy, and even later - the Russian Empire were rebuilt around it.
And this is the year 1626. Map of the Englishman John Speed. Cathay is shifting south to such an extent that it practically borders the Great Wall of China.
A similar trend is observed on other maps of the 17th century. We see the same thing on the Manesson-Mullet map of 1683, and so on.
Want to see the missing territories? Before you is a French atlas of travels and discoveries of 1752. And here it is, finally - Chukotka and Kamchatka, drawn as it should! We see adequate coastlines and sizes. On these lands there is an inscription that the Muscovites discovered them 20 years ago!
And the Russian official version of history pushes this date back almost 100 years earlier! We are told that Kamchatov discovered the peninsula in 1658-61, and the Russian reconnaissance team visited these places in 1696 ... Given that since the reign of Peter the Great, that is, since the end of the 17th century, relations between Russia and Europe became denser than dense, we can say with confidence: the French in 1752 had reliable data on the geographical discoveries of the so-called “Muscovites”.
The collapse of Tartaria. The fate of the Cathay region
And what do we get? The closest successors of Peter the Great are actively developing the territories of Siberia, renaming cities, villages, rivers, lakes, building new fortresses, establishing infrastructure, because these regions have not developed for a long time due to the fact that Tartaria has been mired in an economic, industrial and political crisis for decades: it has lost ruling dynasty, the capital and broke up into kingdoms, or in our opinion, republics. And after some time, they were snapped up by neighboring empires.
Western cartographers are surprised to learn about the existence of hundreds of millions of unexplored hectares in the north and northwest of Asia. The former political center of Tartaria Katai on the maps of European and Russian scientists has shifted to Central Asia, namely to Mongolia and the expanses of modern Northern China. And this is the most correct location of the capital of Tartaria, Khanbalyk or Kambalu. Therefore, we say “China”, and not “China” or “China” - because our language has preserved the memory that the Cathay region, that is, the center of the Horde, on which we have long depended, is located somewhere in the south Mongolia. On the maps of the 18th century, Katai is still present for some time - between the lands of modern Mongolia and the Great Wall of China.
Such neighboring cities of Khanbalik as Kampion, Guza or Zuza, Kamul, as well as the Tangut region continue to stand in their places - that is, in Central Asia. Approximately, from the middle of the 18th century, Western cartographers get used to the new name of these places and sign them with the word “Ordos” or “Orthus”. And it's not for nothing that French travelers in Chinese Tartaria, even in the 19th century, found ruins and fragments of palaces similar to European ones and completely uncharacteristic of Chinese architecture.
In the north and northwest of modern China, mummies of white people - Scythians, as well as pyramids are often found. This circumstance constantly prevents the PRC authorities from promoting the idea of a great ancient China, a great Chinese culture and a great Chinese future. Therefore, they try to advertise the mummies of the Scythian-Tartars as little as possible, and plant the pyramids with trees, while secretly conducting excavations, which are not allowed to mere mortals.
Pyramidal tombs of the great khans of Tartaria
We have dealt with the political center. Focusing on old maps and the real location of the main residence of the emperors, we will try to find their tombs. In fact, there is no need to reinvent the wheel here. Since European cartographers remembered the burial places of the rulers of Tartaria for quite a long time and always placed them in the Altai Mountains - both on early maps of the 15th and 16th centuries, and on later ones, for example, the 18th century. Closer to the time of the collapse of Tartaria, Europeans stop changing the name “Altai” into “Aitai” or “Antai” and are already finally determined with the location of this mountain system.
Together with KATAY and its neighboring cities, the tombs of emperors in the form of pyramids (as contemporaries describe them) cease to “roam” and finally “settle” in Central Asia.
Now it becomes clear to us, as well as to Western cartographers of that time, that the Altai Mountains with the pyramids of the great khans should be looked for not in the north of Asia, not in Chukotka, but in the region of Mongolia, as well as in the Altai Republic. And the capital of Tartaria and the former region of KATAY are in the north of present-day China-China.
Over time, Western scientists realized that Altai was at a fairly decent distance from the political center of Tartaria, but when this became clear, the KATAY region ceased to be listed on maps starting from the second half of the 18th century. Instead of KATAY, ORDOS appeared, which means “PALACES” in Mongolian.
Back to our time...
Now mummies of the Scythian-Tartar elite are being found in Altai. Let us recall at least the Altai princess and other mummies of white people found in the region of the Altai Mountains. Perhaps the tombs of the great khans are hidden much more securely, and we cannot find them? Perhaps the imperial tombs have long been secretly studied, and all traces are hidden. Or European pundits and travelers like Marco Polo were wrong, and Altai had nothing to do with it at all, and the tombs were not pyramids. Or are the Chinese pyramids the same tombs?
We need research not only from European written sources, but also from Russian-language sources, which for some reason are hidden from us. Research documents in other languages are needed. It is important to raise the topic of Tartaria to a high level of study and begin a professional analysis of the terrain, archaeological finds, cultural similarities, and so on - both in Russia and in China and other countries whose lands were once part of Tartaria. It is time to expose this lie about the Tatar-Mongol yoke, so that in the future there will be no room for deliberate or accidental distortion of historical truth.
Anastasia Kostash
6 772
Ancient Siberian cities
Curious information about the ancient settlements that existed in Siberia and Altai even before the mass arrival of people from the Russian Plain, for some reason, is deprived of the attention of historians, archaeologists and other specialists. Allegedly, Siberia is not a historical land? An assessment of Siberia as a "non-historical land" was first given by one of the creators of the notorious "Norman theory", a German in the Russian service, Gerard Miller.
In the "History of Siberia" and "Description of the Kuznetsk district of the Tobolsk province in Siberia in its current state, in September 1734" he only briefly mentions the cities that existed in this territory before the arrival of the Russian people. For example, he notes that in the Malyshevskaya Sloboda (which for almost two centuries belonged to the Altai mining plants, now in the Novosibirsk Region), “at the mouth of the Nizhnyaya Suzunka River, 8 versts above the settlement, and near the village of Kulikova, 12 versts above the previous places on the Ob - you can still see traces of old cities that were built here by the former inhabitants of these places, probably the Kyrgyz. They consist of earthen ramparts and deep ditches with holes dug here and there, over which, it seems, houses stood. In another place, the first historian of Siberia specifies that “immediately before the Russian conquest of these places, they ... were owned by the Kyrgyz, a pagan Tatar nation ... Here and there, traces of old cities and fortifications in which these peoples were located are still found.”
Such an approach, when the existence of ancient cities on the territory of Siberia, as it were, is not denied, but is not of particular interest to researchers, has been preserved to this day. The overwhelming majority of domestic historians still share the assessment given by the "father of the history of Siberia" Gerard Miller as a non-historical land, and in this regard they stubbornly ignore the cities that stood here for hundreds, but what's there! - thousands of years before the appearance of Yermak. Archaeologists, with a few exceptions, hardly excavated the remains of Russian fortresses, cities and settlements, although there is a lot of information about these signs of the highest civilization of the peoples who once lived here.
Accounting for Siberian cities was laid back in pre-Ermakov times. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible ordered to draw up the "Great Drawing" of the Russian land. Soon such a map was created, but during the Time of Troubles it disappeared, and the description of the lands was preserved. In 1627, in the discharge order, the clerks Likhachev and Danilov completed the “Book of the Big Drawing”, in which about a hundred cities are mentioned only in the north-west of Siberia. Yes, indeed, when the Cossacks came to Siberia at the beginning of the 17th century, they no longer discovered large cities. But small fortresses, called towns, met them in abundance. So, according to the Posolsky order, only in the Ob region at the end of the 17th century, 94 cities were surrounded by fur yasak, which, apparently, stood on the foundation of the past and came from ancient times.
In 1940-1941 and 1945-1946, employees of the Abakan Museum under the leadership of L. Evtyukhova excavated the ruins of a palace built around 98 BC, existed for about a century and left by people at the turn of the old and new eras. The majestic building is believed to have belonged to the Chinese General Li Liing. He was the governor of the western Xiongnu lands in the Minusinsk basin. The palace, which received the name Tashebinsky in literature, was located in the center big city an area of ten hectares. The building itself had 20 rooms, was 45 meters long and 35 meters wide. The building is also characterized by a tiled roof, the total weight of which was about five tons. Surprisingly, two thousand years ago, builders managed to create rafters that could withstand such a weight.
News about Siberian cities in ancient times came from Arab travelers. So, at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, the Arab Tamim ibn al-Muttavai, traveling from the city of Taraz on the Talas River to the capital city of the Uyghurs, Ordu-bylyk on the Orkhon River, reported on the capital of the Kimak king on the Irtysh. 40 days after departure from Taraz, he arrived in a large fortified city of the king, surrounded by cultivated land with villages. The city has 12 huge iron gate, many inhabitants, overcrowding, lively trade in numerous bazaars. Al-Muttawai also saw a ruined city in the southwestern Altai, near Lake Zaisan, but could not establish from inquiries who built it and when, and by whom and when it was destroyed. The richest ore region discovered by Russian ore miners in the Altai Mountains at the beginning of the 18th century, which is now called Rudny Altai, was in fact discovered many centuries before them. Miners only rediscovered it. Developments hastily left by ancient people served as a sure search sign. Who they are is still not known for certain, specialists along with publicists call them a miracle (and this is really wonderful when it comes to studying their native country!).
Legends about the wealth of the Altai Mountains were known even in Ancient Greece. The father of history, Herodotus, wrote about the Arimaspians and "vultures guarding the gold." According to well-known scientists Alexander Humboldt, Pyotr Chikhachev and Sergey Rudenko, Herodotus meant the population of Rudny Altai by arimaspi and vultures (influenza). In addition, Humboldt and Chikhachev believed that it was the Altai and Ural deposits of gold ores that were the main sources of gold supply for European Scythians and ancient Greek colonies.
In the Altai Mountains in the first millennium BC there was a rich and vibrant culture, which was discovered by Sergei Rudenko in 1929-1947 during the excavations of the Pazyryk burial mounds. As he believes, civilization disappeared in a short time, perhaps as a result of an epidemic, enemy invasion or famine. However, when the Russians ended up in the south of Siberia, they discovered that the natives, in this case the Shors, were excellent at metalworking. No wonder the first city founded here in 1618 was built on the site of their town and named Kuznetsk. This is evidenced by the replies submitted to the Siberian order by the Kuznetsk governor Gvintovkin. Tyumen, Tomsk, Omsk, Semipalatinsk, Barnaul and many other Siberian cities were also built where the settlements of ancient people used to be.
For example, it is reliably known that in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Oktyabrskaya metro station in modern Novosibirsk there was a large fortress of the local tribe Tsattyrt (in Russian - Chaty). In it, on June 22, 1589, the 16-year war of the Muscovite state with Khan Kuchum ended. Voyevoda Voeikov gave him a fight on the site of the current Novosibirsk hydroelectric power station. Khan Kuchum hid for some time in the fortress from the chase, but then decided to leave, forever parting with his Siberian Khanate. Its ruins survived until the arrival of bridge builders. And in 1912 they were described by Nikolai Litvinov, the compiler of the very first reference book of Novonikolaevsk. At the same time, however, experts, as if spellbound, continue to repeat about the "richest history of Siberia", reluctantly looking back into the depths of centuries. It’s as if they are dealing with the legendary city of Kitezh, which has sunk into the lake…
In 1999, an ancient city was discovered, located in the Zdvinsky district of the Novosibirsk region (until 1917 it was the territory of Altai), on the shores of Lake Chicha. The age of the settlement turned out to be sensationally large - VIII-VII centuries BC, that is, in much more early times, which until now dated the appearance in Siberia of the first cities of the era of the Huns. This confirmed the hypothesis that the Siberian civilization is much older than it seemed. Judging by the excavations and found fragments of household utensils, people of almost European appearance lived here. It is possible that Chichaburg was a place where the paths of various peoples crossed, the center of Ancient Siberia.
The first mention of a trading trip along the Ob River by Russian merchants was made in 1139. Then the Novgorodian Andriy went to its mouth and brought from there a large load of furs. It is interesting for us that he discovered a Russian settlement at the mouth of the Ob, in which there was a bargaining, where, as it turned out, Russian merchants had long been exchanging their goods for excellent Siberian furs. There is scarce information published, in particular, in the book of Leonid Kyzlasov "Ancient cities of Siberia", that Russian merchants in the XII - early XIII centuries traded with the cities of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Surprisingly, the well-preserved mummies of a woman and a man, discovered in the mid-1990s on the Altai high plateau Ukok, belonged not to the Mongoloid, but to the Caucasoid race. And the jewels and fine products of the Scythian, or "animal" style, dug by the buggers in the ancient burial mounds of Altai, also testify to the high culture of the ancient peoples living here, their close ties with the world, in particular, with Asia Minor. Not far from the borders of the Altai Territory and Kazakhstan, archaeologists discovered large settlements of the Bronze Age, which they called not quite aptly - proto-cities or settlements claiming the status of cities. These are unenclosed formations occupying unusually large areas - from five to thirty hectares. For example, Kent occupies 30 hectares, Buguly I - eleven, Myrzhik - three hectares. Around the settlement of Kent, within a radius of five kilometers, there were the villages of Bayshura, Akim-bek, Domalaktas, Nayza, Narbas, Kzyltas and others.
Descriptions of both flourishing and ruined ancient Siberian cities before Yermak can be found in such authors as Tahir Marvazi, Salam at-Tarjuman, Ibn Khordadbeh, Chan Chun, Marco Polo, Rashid-ad-Din, Snorri Sturlusson, Abul-Ghazi, Sigismund Herberstein , Milescu Spafari, Nicolai Witsen. The following names of the disappeared Siberian cities have come down to us: Inanch (Inanj), Kary-Sayram, Karakorum (Sarkuni), Alafkhin (Alakchin), Kemijket, Khakan Khirkhir, Darand Khirkhir, Nashran Khirkhir, Ordubalyk, Kamkamchut, Apruchir, Chinhai, Kyan, Ilay , Arsa, Sakhadrug, Ika, Kikas, Kambalyk, Grustina, Serpenov (Serponov), Kanunyon, Kossin, Terom and others.
The works of Russian scientists will tell us a lot, for example, about the Afanasiev culture of white people in prehistoric times of the Bronze Age on the territory of Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, Mongolia and northern China. Also of interest is the work of L.N. Very interesting information about the mummies of white people in China. Yes, there is a lot of evidence that all of Asia until recently was Russian!
Simultaneously with the civilization of Ancient Egypt, a complex system of religious beliefs existed on the territory of the distant Irtysh region - researchers came to this conclusion after discovering a burial in the Omsk site - a series of archaeological sites dating from the 4th millennium BC. until the 13th century AD! “The burial belongs to the Neolithic period, namely to the 4th millennium BC. It is more than six thousand years old,” said the scientific director of the excavations, Professor Boris Konikov.
What was covered by the Tatar-Mongol yoke?
Exists a large number of facts that not only unequivocally refute the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, but also indicate that history was deliberately distorted, and that this was done with a very specific purpose. Who and why deliberately distorted history? What real events did they want to hide and why? If we analyze the historical facts, it becomes obvious that the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" was invented in order to hide the consequences of the "baptism" of Kievan Rus. These facts are known to historians and are not secret, they are publicly available, and anyone can easily find them on the Internet. We will show the main points that refute the big lie about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”.
Genghis Khan. Previously, in Russia, 2 people were responsible for governing the state: the Prince and the Khan. The prince was responsible for governing the state in peacetime. Khan or "war prince" took over the reins of government during the war, in peacetime he was responsible for the formation of the horde (army) and maintaining it in combat readiness. Genghis Khan is not a name, but the title of a "military prince", which, in the modern world, is close to the position of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. And there were several people who bore such a title. The most prominent of them was Timur, it is about him that they usually talk about when they talk about Genghis Khan.
French engraving by Pierre Duflos (1742-1816)
In the surviving historical documents, this man is described as a tall warrior with blue eyes, very white skin, powerful reddish hair and a thick beard. Which clearly does not correspond to the signs of a representative of the Mongoloid race, but fully fits the description of the Slavic appearance. In modern "Mongolia" there is not a single folk tale that would say that this country once conquered almost all of Eurasia in ancient times, just like there is nothing about the great conqueror Genghis Khan.
Mongolia. The state of Mongolia appeared only in the 1930s, when the Bolsheviks came to the nomads living in the Gobi desert and informed them that they were the descendants of the great Mongols, and their "compatriot" had created in due time Great Empire to which they were very surprised and delighted. The word "Mogul" is of Greek origin and means "Great". This word the Greeks called our ancestors - the Slavs. It has nothing to do with the name of any people.
The composition of the army of the "Tatar-Mongols". 70-80% of the army of the "Tatar-Mongols" were Russians, the remaining 20-30% were other small peoples of Russia, in fact, as now. This fact is clearly confirmed by a fragment of the icon of Sergius of Radonezh "The Battle of Kulikovo". It clearly shows that the same warriors are fighting on both sides. And this battle is more like a civil war than a war with a foreign conqueror.
The museum description of the icon reads: “In the 1680s. an attachment with a picturesque legend about the “Mamaev Battle” was added. On the left side of the composition, cities and villages are depicted that sent their soldiers to help Dmitry Donskoy - Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Rostov, Novgorod, Ryazan, the village of Kurba near Yaroslavl and others. On the right is Mamaia's camp. In the center of the composition is the scene of the Battle of Kulikovo with the duel between Peresvet and Chelubey. On the lower field - a meeting of the victorious Russian troops, the burial of dead heroes and the death of Mamai.
All these pictures, taken from both Russian and European sources, depict the battles of the Russians with the Mongol-Tatars, but nowhere is it possible to determine who is Russian and who is Tatar. Moreover, in the latter case, both the Russians and the "Mongol-Tatars" are dressed in almost the same gilded armor and helmets, and fight under the same banners with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands. Another thing is that the "Spas" of the two warring parties, most likely, was different.
What did the "Tatar-Mongols" look like? Pay attention to the drawing from the tomb of Henry II the Pious, who was killed on the Legnica field.
The inscription is as follows: “The figure of a Tatar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of Silesia, Krakow and Poland, placed on the grave in Breslau of this prince, who was killed in the battle with the Tatars at Liegnitz on April 9, 1241.” As we can see, this "Tatar" has a completely Russian appearance, clothes and weapons.
In the next image - "Khan's palace in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Khanbalik" (it is believed that Khanbalik is allegedly Beijing).
What is "Mongolian" and what is "Chinese" here? Again, as in the case of the tomb of Henry II, before us are people of a clearly Slavic appearance. Russian caftans, archery caps, the same bushy beards, the same characteristic blades of sabers called "elman". The roof on the left is almost an exact copy of the roofs of the old Russian towers... (see A. Bushkov's book, "The Russia That Wasn't").
genetic expertise. According to the latest data obtained as a result of genetic research, it turned out that Tatars and Russians have very similar genetics. Whereas the differences between the genetics of Russians and Tatars from the genetics of the Mongols are colossal: “The differences between the Russian gene pool (almost completely European) and the Mongolian (almost completely Central Asian) are really great - it’s like two different worlds ...”
Documents during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. During the period of existence of the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian languages has been preserved. But there are many documents of this time in Russian.
The absence of objective evidence supporting the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongolian yoke. At the moment, there are no originals of any historical documents that would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But on the other hand, there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called the "Tatar-Mongol yoke." Here is one of those fakes. This text is called “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” and in each publication it is declared “an excerpt from the poetic work “On the Tatar-Mongol invasion” that has not come down to us intact: “Oh, bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are glorified by many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clear fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious villages, monastery gardens, temples of God and formidable princes, honest boyars and many nobles. You are full of everything, the Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!..” In this text there is not even a hint of the “Tatar-Mongolian yoke”. But on the other hand, in this “ancient” document there is such a line: “You are full of everything, the Russian land, about the Orthodox Christian faith!”
Before Nikon's church reform, which was carried out in the middle of the 17th century, Christianity in Russia was called "orthodox". It began to be called Orthodox only after this reform. Therefore, this document could have been written no earlier than the middle of the 17th century and has nothing to do with the era of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”. On all the maps that were published before 1772 and were not corrected in the future, you can see the following picture. 
The western part of Russia was called Muscovy, or Moscow Tartaria. In this small part of Russia, the Romanov dynasty ruled. Until the end of the 18th century, the Moscow Tsar was called the ruler of Moscow Tartaria or the Duke (Prince) of Moscow.
The rest of Russia, which occupied almost the entire continent of Eurasia in the east and south of Muscovy at that time, is called Tartaria or the Russian Empire.
Where did the name Tartaria come from. Our ancestors knew the laws of nature and the real structure of the world, life, and man. But, as now, the level of development of each person was not the same in those days. People who in their development went much further than others, and who could control space and matter (control the weather, heal diseases, see the future, etc.), were called Magi. Those of the Magi who knew how to control space at the planetary level and above were called Gods. That is, the meaning of the word God, among our ancestors, was not at all the same as it is now. The gods were people who had gone much further in their development than the vast majority of people. For ordinary person their abilities seemed incredible, however, the gods were also people, and the possibilities of each god had their own limit.
Our ancestors had patrons - God Tarkh, he was also called Dazhdbog (giving God) and his sister - Goddess Tara. These Gods helped people in solving such problems that our ancestors could not solve on their own. So, the gods Tarkh and Tara taught our ancestors how to build houses, cultivate the land, write and much more, which was necessary in order to survive after the catastrophe and eventually restore civilization. Therefore, more recently, our ancestors told strangers "We are the children of Tarkh and Tara ...". They said this because in their development, they really were children in relation to Tarkh and Tara, who had significantly departed in development. And the inhabitants of other countries called our ancestors "Tarkhtars", and later, because of the difficulty in pronunciation - "Tartars". Hence the name of the country - Tartaria.
Baptism of Russia. And here the baptism of Russia? some may ask. As it turned out, very much so. After all, baptism did not take place in a peaceful way. Before baptism, people in Russia were educated, almost everyone could read, write, and count. Let us recall from the school curriculum on history, at least, the same "Birch bark letters" - letters that peasants wrote to each other on birch bark from one village to another.
Our ancestors had a Vedic worldview, it was not a religion. Since the essence of any religion comes down to the blind acceptance of any dogmas and rules, without a deep understanding of why it is necessary to do it this way and not otherwise. The Vedic worldview gave people precisely an understanding of the real laws of nature, an understanding of how the world works, what is good and what is bad. People saw what happened after the “baptism” in neighboring countries, when, under the influence of religion, a successful, highly developed country with an educated population, in a matter of years, plunged into ignorance and chaos, where only representatives of the aristocracy could read and write, and then not all of them. Everyone perfectly understood what the “Greek religion” carried in itself, into which Prince Vladimir and those who stood behind him were going to baptize Kievan Rus. Despite this, the so-called dual faith was established on the lands of Kievan Rus. Most of the population purely formally recognized the imposed religion, while they themselves continued to live according to the Vedic tradition, though without showing it off. And this phenomenon was observed not only among the masses, but also among part of the ruling elite. And this state of affairs persisted until the reform of Patriarch Nikon, who figured out how to combine the two worldviews.
The Vedic Slavic-Aryan Empire (Great Tartary) could not calmly look at these intrigues. Only her response could not be instantaneous, due to the fact that the army of the Great Tartary was busy with conflicts on its Far Eastern borders. But these retaliatory actions of the Vedic Empire were carried out and entered modern history in a distorted form, under the name of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the hordes of Khan Batu into Kievan Rus. Only by the summer of 1223 did the troops of the Vedic Empire appear on the Kalka River. And the united army of the Polovtsians and Russian princes was completely defeated. So they beat us into history lessons, and no one could really explain why the Russian princes fought with the "enemies" so sluggishly, and many of them even went over to the side of the "Mongols"? The reason for such absurdity was that the Russian princes, who had adopted an alien religion, knew perfectly well who and why had come.
So, there was no Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke, but there was a return of the rebellious provinces under the wing of the metropolis, the restoration of the integrity of the state. Batu Khan had the task of returning the Western European province-states under the wing of the Vedic Empire, and stopping the invasion of Christians in Russia. But the strong resistance of some princes, who felt the taste of the still limited, but very large power of the principalities of Kievan Rus, and new unrest on the Far Eastern border did not allow these plans to be completed.
ON THE ORIGIN OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION
Maksimenko Yuri
In the Middle Ages, residents of many countries imagined that mystical monsters really existed somewhere far, far away. For example, geographers and cartographers of Western Europe believed that in the east there was a huge territory called Great Tartary. Allegedly, this is where the river of the dead originates, and the inhabitants of this country will one day announce to the whole world about the coming of the End of the World. Where was this mystical land located?
What country?
Great Tartaria is a geographical term that was used mainly by Western European scientists. From the 12th to the 19th century, they placed this state in various parts of Asia: from the Urals and Siberia to Mongolia and China.
Some cartographers believed that this was the name of all the lands that were not explored by representatives of the Catholic world. And then the borders of Tartaria moved apart from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Other scientists, on the contrary, associated this mysterious country with Turkestan or Mongolia.
For the first time this toponym is found in the writings of the Navarre rabbi Benjamin of Tudel, around 1173 this traveler wrote about Tartaria, calling it a Tibetan province. According to the Jewish religious figure, this country is located to the north of Moghulistan, on the side of the Tanguts and Turkestan.
Pagans from Hell
Scientists associate the origin of the toponym "Tartaria" with the contamination of two terms at once: the ancient Greek Tartarus and the name of the people "Tatars". It is believed that these words were combined in the minds of the inhabitants of Western Europe due to the similarity in sound.
The fact is that from the caravaners who transported goods from China along the Great Silk Road, Europeans had heard a lot about the mysterious Tatars inhabiting the eastern lands. Since the Chinese called almost all the peoples living north of the Middle Kingdom, including the Mongols and Yakuts, Tatars, the idea was formed in the West that Tartaria is a huge power that occupies almost all of Asia.
In the XIII century, after the raids of the troops of the Mongol Khan Batu on a number of European countries, the attitude towards the Tatars became negative. They began to be perceived as fearsome warriors from the east, whose hordes would one day put an end to the existence of Christian civilization. The religious texts said that the Tatars are savages, ferocious like demons, sent by Satan himself.
In addition, according to ancient Greek mythology, Tartarus is the abyss under the kingdom of Hades (the world of the dead). Due to the similarity of the ethnonym "Tatars" with the name of the pagan Hell in Western Europe, it was believed that the Great Tartaria is a land where various monsters and monsters live, including the legendary Gog and Magog, and people there worship the Antichrist. It was believed that the source of the river flowing through this territory is located in otherworldly reality.
From the Urals to the Pacific Ocean
Many scientists from Western Europe considered the Great Tartary a huge empire stretching from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. For example, the Italian diplomat and Jesuit Giovanni Botero, in his work “Universal Relations” (Relationi universali), dated 1595, wrote that this country used to be called Scythia. And it occupies half of Asia, bordering the Volga region in the west, and China and India in the south. At the same time, the lands of a huge empire are washed by the waters of the Caspian Sea on one side, and the Bering Sea on the other.
Another representative of the Jesuit order, the French orientalist Jean-Baptiste Duhald, published in 1735 the scientific work Geographical, Historical, Chronological, Political and Physical Description of the Chinese Empire and Chinese Tartaria. In his opinion, in the west this huge country borders on Muscovy, in the south - on Mongolia and China, from the north this state is washed by the Arctic Sea, and the East Sea separates Tartary from Japan.
And in 1659, an appendix to the work of the Cardinal of France Dionysius Petavius "The Science of Time" (Opus de doctrina temporum), dedicated to geography, was published in London. It said that the Tartarus River irrigated most of the vast empire. According to the cardinal, Great Tartaria is bounded by the Urals from the west, and by the Ganges River from the south. In the north of the country is the coast of the Frozen Ocean, and the waters of the Qing Sea wash this territory from the east.
central Asia
However, not all scientists were inclined to give such vast spaces to the Great Tartaria. Some geographers located this country in Central Asia. Thus, the Encyclopedia Britannica (volume 3, 1773) indicates that the state of Tartars is located south of Siberia, north of India and Persia, and west of China.
The Swedish researcher Philipp Johann von Stralenberg also adhered to this point of view. In 1730, he published a New Geographical Description of Great Tataria, placing this state between Mongolia, Siberia and the Caspian Sea.
Mongolia
A number of scientists directly associated Tartaria with the birthplace of Genghis Khan. The Italian diplomat and Franciscan Giovanni Plano Carpini, who visited Mongolia in 1246, left a whimsical description of the country. In the work "History of the Mongols, we call Tartars" he combined his travel impressions with medieval mystical traditions. For example, the author mentioned stuffed animals spewing fire, people with dog heads and cow hooves, as well as creatures whose legs do not have joints.
Probably, Plano Carpini pursued two goals in this: to impress readers and not to contradict the idea of Tartaria that was established among Catholics.
Many Western European cartographers focused their work precisely on the works of the Italian Franciscan diplomat for several more centuries.
Siberia
Some scientists considered the mysterious expanses of Siberia to be the Great Tartaria. So the Fleming Abraham Ortelius in 1570 published an atlas of the world "The spectacle of the circle of the earth." In this edition, Tartaria was located between Muscovy and the Far East.
Some researchers in their writings mentioned that it is so cold in the vast empire that ice is already shallow underground. It was here, according to the French traveler of Hungarian origin Franz Tott, that the cradle of mankind was located. In his "Memoirs of the Turks and Tartars" (1784), he wrote that the very first people migrated from Tartaria to the south and west, settling China, Tibet, India, and later Europe.
Muscovy
Many Catholic scholars considered the border between Europe and Asia to be a mystical frontier of Good and Evil. And although Muscovy was geographically located west of the Ural Mountains, in the minds of the British, Italians, French and Germans, it coincided with the image of an alien, distant, wild and dangerous land. Therefore, geographers often put an equal sign between Russia and Great Tartary.
For example, the English explorer John Speed in 1626 presented to the scientific community the “New Map of Tartaria” compiled by him. The publication contained an image of a typical inhabitant of this country, he was in the clothes worn by guardsmen under Ivan IV the Terrible. And the cartographer drew the Russian Tsar sitting in a yurt.
In addition, some historians and geographers from Western Europe considered the North Caucasus to be the westernmost part of Great Tartaria.
As for domestic scientists, they avoided this toponym for two reasons:
knew that there is no people called "Tartars";
Tartaria was associated with the world of the dead or a country ruled by evil forces.
Although this state can be found on the very first Russian maps, which is explained by the influence of the Western European tradition. So, Tartaria got on the "Drawing of all Siberia, selected in Tobolsk by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich", which was compiled in 1667 under the guidance of the boyar Pyotr Godunov.
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