Mongolo-Tatars are all nomadic peoples living in the Trans-Volga region and further to the East, with whom Russia fought in the 13th-15th centuries. Named after one of the tribes
“In 1224 an unknown people appeared; an unheard-of army came, godless Tatars, about whom no one knows very well who they are and where they came from, and what kind of language they have, and what tribe they are, and what faith they have ... "
(I. Brekov “The World of History: Russian Lands in the 13th-15th Centuries”)
Mongol-Tatar invasion
- 1206 - Congress of the Mongol nobility (kurultai), at which Temujin was elected leader of the Mongol tribes, who received the name Genghis Khan (Great Khan)
- 1219 - The beginning of the three-year conquest campaign of Genghis Khan in Central Asia
- 1223, May 31 - The first battle of the Mongols and the combined Russian-Polovtsian army near the borders of Kievan Rus, on the Kalka River, near the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov
- 1227 - Death of Genghis Khan. Power in the Mongolian state passed to his grandson Batu (Batu Khan)
- 1237 - The beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The Batu army crossed the Volga in its middle course and invaded the borders of North-Eastern Russia
- 1237, December 21 - Ryazan is taken by the Tatars
- 1238, January - Kolomna is taken
- February 7, 1238 - Vladimir is taken
- February 8, 1238 - Suzdal is taken
- 1238, March 4 - Pal Torzhok
- 1238, March 5 - The battle of the squad of Moscow Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich with the Tatars near the Sit River. The death of Prince Yuri
- 1238, May - Capture of Kozelsk
- 1239-1240 - Batu's army encamped in the Don steppe
- 1240 - Devastation by the Mongols of Pereyaslavl, Chernigov
- 1240, December 6 - Kyiv destroyed
- 1240, end of December - The Russian principalities of Volhynia and Galicia are destroyed
- 1241 - Batu's army returned to Mongolia
- 1243 - Formation of the Golden Horde, the state from the Danube to the Irtysh, with the capital Saray in the lower reaches of the Volga
The Russian principalities retained statehood, but were subject to tribute. In total, there were 14 types of tribute, including directly in favor of the Khan - 1300 kg of silver per year. In addition, the khans of the Golden Horde reserved the right to appoint or overthrow the princes of Moscow, who were supposed to receive a label in Sarai for a great reign. The power of the Horde over Russia lasted more than two centuries. It was a time of complex political games, when the Russian princes either united with each other for the sake of some momentary benefits, or were at enmity, while at the same time attracting the Mongol detachments as allies with might and main. A significant role in the politics of that time was played by the Polish-Lithuanian state that arose near the western borders of Russia, Sweden, the German knightly orders in the Baltic states, and the free republics of Novgorod and Pskov. Creating alliances with each other and against each other, with the Russian principalities, the Golden Horde, they waged endless wars
In the first decades of the fourteenth century, the rise of the Moscow principality began, which gradually became the political center and collector of Russian lands.
On August 11, 1378, the Moscow army of Prince Dmitry defeated the Mongols in the battle on the Vazha River On September 8, 1380, the Moscow army of Prince Dmitry defeated the Mongols in the battle on the Kulikovo field. And although in 1382 the Mongol Khan Tokhtamysh plundered and burned Moscow, the myth of the invincibility of the Tatars collapsed. Gradually, the state of the Golden Horde itself fell into decay. It split into the khanates of Siberia, Uzbek, Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Kazakh, Astrakhan (1459), Nogai Horde. Of all the tributaries, only Russia remained with the Tatars, but she also periodically rebelled. In 1408, the Moscow Prince Vasily I refused to pay tribute to the Golden Horde, after which Khan Edigey made a devastating campaign, robbing Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Dmitrov, Serpukhov, Nizhny Novgorod. In 1451, Moscow Prince Vasily the Dark again refuses to pay. The raids of the Tatars are fruitless. Finally, in 1480, Prince Ivan III officially refused to submit to the Horde. The Mongol-Tatar yoke ended.
Lev Gumilyov about the Tatar-Mongol yoke
- “The army of Batu, who opposed the Polovtsy, with whom the Mongols had been at war since 1216, in 1237-1238 passed through Russia to the rear of the Polovtsy, and forced them to flee to Hungary. At the same time, Ryazan and fourteen cities in the Vladimir principality were destroyed. In total, there were about three hundred cities there at that time. The Mongols did not leave garrisons anywhere, they did not impose tribute on anyone, being content with indemnities, horses and food, which was done in those days by any army during the offensive "
- (As a result) “Great Russia, then called Zalessky Ukraine, voluntarily united with the Horde, thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky, who became the adopted son of Batu. And the primordial Ancient Russia - Belarus, Kiev region, Galicia with Volhynia - almost without resistance submitted to Lithuania and Poland. And now, around Moscow - the "golden belt" of ancient cities, which remained intact under the "yoke", and in Belarus and Galicia there were not even traces of Russian culture left. Novgorod was defended from the German knights by Tatar help in 1269. And where the Tatar help was neglected, everyone lost. In the place of Yuryev - Derpt, now Tartu, in the place of Kolyvan - Revol, now Tallinn; Riga closed the river route along the Dvina for Russian trade; Berdichev and Bratslav - Polish castles - blocked the roads to the "Wild Field", once the fatherland of Russian princes, thereby taking control of Ukraine. In 1340 Russia disappeared from the political map of Europe. It was revived in 1480 in Moscow, on the eastern outskirts of former Russia. And its core, ancient Kievan Rus, captured by Poland and oppressed, had to be saved in the 18th century.
- “I believe that Batu’s“ invasion ”was actually a big raid, a cavalry raid, and further events have only an indirect connection with this campaign. In ancient Russia, the word "yoke" meant something that fastens something, a bridle or collar. It also existed in the meaning of a burden, that is, something that is carried. The word “yoke” in the meaning of “domination”, “oppression” was first recorded only under Peter I. The Union of Moscow and the Horde was kept as long as it was mutually beneficial”
The term "Tatar yoke" originates in Russian historiography, as well as the position of his overthrow by Ivan III, from Nikolai Karamzin, who used it as an artistic epithet in the original meaning of "a collar worn around the neck" ("they bowed the neck under the yoke of the barbarians" ), possibly borrowing the term from the 16th-century Polish author Maciej Miechowski
Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia historians call the period of the invasion of the Mongol Empire with the aim of conquest, on the territory of the Russian principalities (1237-1240) during the Kipchak (Western) campaign, which was led by Batu and the commander Subedei.
Plans to conquer Eastern Europe were long before Batu. In 1207, Genghis Khan himself sent Jochi (his son) to conquer the tribes living in the Irtysh valley. A little later, reconnaissance missions were organized to find out about weak positions Of Eastern Europe.
Tatars were considered very good warriors. Their army was large and armed "to the teeth". In addition, in addition to weapons, they often used psychological intimidation of the enemy (usually the strongest soldiers walked in front of the troops, who brutally killed opponents, preventing them from surrendering). I would like to note that the Tatars frightened the enemy with their own appearance.
The Russians first encountered the Mongols at Kalka in 1223. when the Polovtsy asked for military support from the Russian princes. Those, in turn, agreed to help, but for many reasons, the main of which was the lack of cohesion and unity between the principalities, the battle was lost by them.
Ryazan was attacked in 1237, thus starting his military campaign to the West. As the literary monuments of that time say (for example, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”), the city was completely plundered, and most of the inhabitants were killed.
After Ryazan, the Mongols burned Moscow, which resisted for a long time, but still fell, and then Vladimir, after the conquest, which the Mongols sent their army to the north-east of Russia, burning one city after another. In 1238, a battle between Russian and Mongol warriors again took place on the Sit River, which was again won by the latter.
During the Mongol attack on the cities, the Russian army fought with dignity, but nevertheless, in the majority suffered defeats (the exception was the recaptured city of Smolensk and Kozelsk, which had been defending for a long time).
After that, the Mongols were forced to return to their homeland in order to gather strength. They repeated the next campaign against Russia already in 1239, trying to capture it from the south side. First, Pereyaslavl was taken by them, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240, the city of Kyiv, unable to withstand the pressure, fell.
The Mongol invasion ended with the capture of Kyiv, and the period from 1240 to 1480 is called by historians and researchers of the Slavs Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.
The first principality to undergo ruthless ruin was the Ryazan land. In the winter of 1237, the hordes of Batu invaded its borders, ruining and destroying everything in their path. The Princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan. The Mongols laid siege to Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded obedience and one-tenth "of everything." Karamzin also points out other details: “Yuri of Ryazan, left by the Grand Duke, sent his son Theodore, with gifts to Batu, who, having learned about the beauty of Feodorova’s wife Evpraksia, wanted to see her, but this young prince answered him that Christians do not show their wives wicked pagans. Batu ordered to kill him; and the unfortunate Eupraxia, having learned about the death of her beloved husband, together with her baby, John, threw herself from the high tower to the ground and lost her life. The bottom line is that Batu began to demand from the Ryazan princes and nobles "daughters and sisters in his bed."
Everything was followed by the courageous answer of the Ryazantsev: "If all of us are not there, then everything will be yours." On the sixth day of the siege, December 21, 1237, the city was taken, the princely family and the surviving inhabitants were killed. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).
In the grateful memory of the people, the story of the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who entered into an unequal battle with the invaders and earned the respect of Batu himself for his valor and courage, has been preserved.
Having devastated the Ryazan land in January 1238, the Mongol invaders defeated the grand duke guard regiment of the Vladimir-Suzdal land near Kolomna, led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich. Actually it was all the Vladimir army. This defeat predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Russia. During the battle for Kolomna, the last son of Genghis Khan Kulkan was killed. Genghisides, as usual, did not take direct part in the battle. Therefore, the death of Kulkan near Kolomna suggests that the Russians; probably managed to inflict a strong blow on the Mongolian rear in some place.
Then moving along the frozen rivers (Oka and others), the Mongols captured Moscow, where for 5 days all its population put up strong resistance under the leadership of the voivode Philip Nyanka. Moscow was completely burned, and all its inhabitants were killed.
On February 4, 1238, Batu laid siege to Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich left Vladimir in advance to organize a rebuff to uninvited guests in the northern forests on the Sit River. He took with him two nephews, and left the Grand Duchess and two sons in the city.
The Mongols prepared for the assault on Vladimir according to all the rules of military science, which they had learned back in China. They built siege towers near the walls of the city in order to be on the same level with the besieged and at the right time to throw “strings” over the walls, they installed “vices” - wall-beating and throwing machines. At night, a "tyn" was erected around the city - an external fortification to protect against attacks by the besieged and in order to cut off all their escape routes.
Before the assault on the city at the Golden Gate, in front of the besieged Vladimirites, the Mongols killed the younger prince Vladimir Yuryevich, who had recently defended Moscow. Mstislav Yurievich soon died on the defensive line. The last son of the Grand Duke, Vsevolod, who fought with the horde in Kolomna, during the assault on Vladimir, decided to enter into negotiations with Batu. With a small retinue and large gifts, he left the besieged city, but the khan did not want to talk with the prince and "like a ferocious beast, do not spare his youth, he ordered to be slaughtered in front of him."
After that, the horde rushed to the last assault. Grand Duchess, Bishop Mitrofan, other princely wives, boyars and part of ordinary people, the last defenders of Vladimir, took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. On February 7, 1238, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall and set it on fire. Many people died from fire and suffocation, not excluding those who took refuge in the cathedral. The most valuable monuments of literature, art and architecture perished in the fire and ruins.
After the capture and devastation of Vladimir, the horde spread throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, ruining and burning cities, villages and villages. During February, 14 cities were plundered in the interfluve of the Klyazma and the Volga: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev and others.
On March 4, 1238, beyond the Volga on the City River, a battle took place between the main forces of North-Eastern Russia, led by the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich, and the Mongol invaders. 49-year-old Yuri Vsevolodovich was a brave fighter and a fairly experienced military leader. Behind him were victories over the Germans, Lithuanians, Mordovians, Kama Bulgarians and those Russian princes who claimed his grand princely throne. However, in the organization and preparation of Russian troops for the battle on the City River, he made a number of serious miscalculations: he showed carelessness in the defense of his military camp, did not pay due attention to intelligence, allowed his governors to disperse the army over several villages and did not establish reliable communication between scattered detachments.
And when a large Mongol formation under the command of Barendey quite unexpectedly appeared in the Russian camp, the result of the battle was obvious. The chronicles and excavations of archaeologists in the City testify that the Russians were defeated in parts, fled, and the horde whipped people like grass. Yuri Vsevolodovich himself also died in this unequal battle. The circumstances of his death remain unknown. Only the following testimony about the Prince of Novgorod, a contemporary of that sad event, has come down to us: “God knows how he died, others say a lot about him.”
Since that time, the Mongol yoke began in Russia: Russia became obliged to pay tribute to the Mongols, and the princes were to receive the title of Grand Duke from the hands of the Khan. The very term "yoke" in the meaning of oppression was first used in 1275 by Metropolitan Kirill.
Mongolian hordes moved to the north-west of Russia. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the suburb of Novgorod, Torzhok, was defended. However, the approach of the spring thaw and significant human losses forced the Mongols, not reaching Veliky Novgorod about 100 miles, from the stone Ignach Cross to turn south, into the Polovtsian steppes. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities from north to south. Smolensk managed to fight back. Kursk was destroyed, like other centers. The small city of Kozelsk, which held out for seven (!) weeks, put up the greatest resistance to the Mongols. The town stood on a steep, washed by two rivers - Zhizdra and Druchusnaya. In addition to these natural barriers, it was reliably covered by wooden fortress walls with towers and a moat about 25 meters deep.
Before the arrival of the horde, the Kozeltsy managed to freeze a layer of ice on the floor wall and the entrance gate, which greatly complicated the assault on the city for the enemy. The inhabitants of the town wrote a heroic page in Russian history with their blood. Yes, it is not for nothing that the Mongols called it the "evil city". The Mongols stormed Ryazan for six days, Moscow for five days, Vladimir for a little longer, Torzhok for fourteen days, and little Kozelsk fell on the 50th day, probably only because the Mongols - for the umpteenth time!-- applied their favorite trick - after another unsuccessful assault, they simulated a stampede. The besieged Kozeltsy, in order to complete their victory, made a general sortie, but were surrounded by superior enemy forces and all were killed. The Horde, finally, broke into the city and drowned in the blood of the inhabitants who remained there, including the 4-year-old Prince Kozelsk.
Having devastated North-Eastern Russia, Batu Khan and Subedei-Bagatur took their troops to the Don steppes for rest. Here the horde spent the entire summer of 1238. In the fall, Batu's detachments repeated raids on Ryazan and other Russian cities and towns that had so far survived from devastation. Murom, Gorokhovets, Yaropolch (modern Vyazniki), Nizhny Novgorod were defeated.
And in 1239, the hordes of Batu invaded the borders of Southern Russia. They took and burned Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other settlements.
On September 5, 1240, the troops of Batu, Subedei and Barendei crossed the Dnieper and surrounded Kyiv from all sides. At that time, Kyiv was compared with Tsargrad (Constantinople) in terms of wealth and population. The population of the city was approaching 50 thousand people. Shortly before the arrival of the horde, the Galician prince Daniel Romanovich took possession of the throne of Kyiv. When she appeared, he went west to protect his ancestral possessions, and entrusted the defense of Kyiv to the thousand Dmitry.
The city was defended by artisans, suburban peasants, merchants. There were few professional soldiers. Therefore, the defense of Kyiv, as well as Kozelsk, can rightly be considered popular.
Kyiv was well fortified. The thickness of its earthen ramparts reached 20 meters at the base. The walls were oak, with earth filling. Stone defensive towers with gate openings stood in the walls. Along the ramparts stretched a moat filled with water 18 meters wide.
Subedei, of course, was well aware of the difficulties of the impending assault. Therefore, he first sent his ambassadors to Kyiv demanding his immediate and complete surrender. But the people of Kiev did not negotiate and killed the ambassadors, and we know what this meant for the Mongols. Then the systematic siege of the ancient city in Russia.
The Russian medieval chronicler described it as follows: “... Tsar Batu came to the city of Kyiv with many soldiers and surrounded the city ... and it was impossible for anyone to leave the city or enter the city. And it was impossible to hear each other in the city from the creak of carts, the roar of camels, from the sounds of trumpets ... from the neighing of horse herds and from the screams and screams of countless people ... Many vices beat (on the walls) incessantly, day and night, and the townspeople fought hard, and there were many dead ... the Tatars broke through the city walls and entered the city, and the townspeople rushed to meet them. And one could see and hear the terrible crack of spears and the sound of shields; the arrows darkened the light, so that the sky behind the arrows was not visible, but there was darkness from the many arrows of the Tatars, and the dead lay everywhere, and everywhere blood flowed like water ... and the townspeople were defeated, and the Tatars climbed the walls, but from great fatigue sat down on city walls. And the night came. The townspeople that night created another city, near the Church of the Holy Mother of God. The next morning, the Tatars came to them, and there was an evil slaughter. And people began to faint, and ran with their belongings into the church vaults, and the church walls fell down from the weight, and the Tatars took the city of Kyiv in the month of December on the 6th day ... "
In the works of the pre-revolutionary years, such a fact is given that the Mongols seized the courageous organizer of the defense of Kyiv, Dimitra, and brought him to Batu.
“This formidable conqueror, having no idea about the virtues of philanthropy, knew how to appreciate extraordinary courage and with an air of proud pleasure said to the Russian governor: “I give you life!” Demetrius accepted the gift, because he could still be useful for the fatherland and was left under Batu.
Thus ended the heroic defense of Kyiv, which lasted 93 days. The invaders looted the church of St. Sophia, all other monasteries, and the surviving Kyivans killed everyone to the last, regardless of age.
In the next 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was defeated. On the territory of Russia, the Mongol yoke was established, which lasted 240 years (1240-1480). This is the point of view of historians of the Faculty of History of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov.
In the spring of 1241, the horde rushed to the West to conquer all the "evening countries" and extend its power to the whole of Europe, right down to the last sea, as Genghis Khan bequeathed.
Western Europe, like Russia, was going through a period of feudal fragmentation at that time. Torn apart by internal strife and rivalry between small and large rulers, she could not unite in order to stop the invasion of the steppes with common efforts. Alone at that time, not a single European state was able to withstand the military onslaught of the horde, especially its fast and hardy cavalry, which played a decisive role in hostilities. Therefore, despite the courageous resistance of the European peoples, in 1241 the hordes of Batu and Subedei invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moldavia, and in 1242 they reached Croatia and Dalmatia - the Balkan countries. For Western Europe the critical moment has come. However, at the end of 1242, Batu turned his troops to the east. What's the matter? The Mongols had to reckon with incessant resistance in the rear of their troops. At the same time, they suffered a number of, albeit small, but failures in the Czech Republic and Hungary. But most importantly, their army was exhausted by battles with the Russians. And from the distant Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia, came the news of the death of the great khan. On the subsequent division of the empire, Batu must be himself. It was a very convenient excuse to stop the difficult campaign.
About the world-historical significance of the struggle of Russia with the Horde conquerors, A.S. Pushkin wrote:
“Russia was assigned a high destiny ... its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe; the barbarians did not dare to leave enslaved Russia in their rear and returned to the steppes of their east. The emerging enlightenment was saved by a torn and dying Russia…”.
Reasons for the success of the Mongols.
The question of why the nomads, who were significantly inferior to the conquered peoples of Asia and Europe in economic and cultural terms, subjugated them to their power for almost three centuries, has always been in the center of attention, both of domestic and foreign historians. No textbook study guide; historical monograph, to some extent considering the problems of the formation of the Mongol empire and its conquests, which would not reflect this problem. Presenting it in such a way that if Russia were united, it would show the Mongols is not a historically justified idea, although it is clear that the level of resistance would be an order of magnitude higher. But the example of a united China, as mentioned earlier, destroys this scheme, although it is present in the historical literature. More reasonable can be considered the quantity and quality of military force on each side and other military factors. In other words, the Mongols outnumbered their opponents in military power. As already noted, the Steppe militarily always surpassed the Forest in ancient times. After this short introduction to the "problem", let's list the factors of the victory of the steppes, cited in the historical literature.
The feudal fragmentation of Russia, Europe and the weak interstate relations of the countries of Asia and Europe, which did not allow, by combining their forces, to repulse the conquerors.
Numerical superiority of the conquerors. There were many disputes among historians about how much Batu brought to Russia. N.M. Karamzin indicated the number of 300 thousand soldiers. However, a serious analysis does not allow even close approach to this figure. Each Mongol horseman (and they were all horsemen) had at least 2, and most likely 3 horses. Where in the forest of Russia to feed 1 million horses in winter? Not a single chronicle even raises this topic. Therefore, modern historians call the figure a maximum of 150 thousand Moghuls who came to Russia, more cautious ones stop at the figure of 120-130 thousand. And all of Russia, even if united, could put up 50 thousand, although there are figures up to 100 thousand. So in reality, the Russians could put up 10-15 thousand soldiers for battle. Here the following circumstance should be taken into account. The striking force of the Russian squads - the princely ratis were in no way inferior to the Mughals, but the bulk of the Russian squads are warriors-militias, not professional warriors, but who took up arms simple people, not like professional Mongol warriors. The tactics of the warring parties also differed.
The Russians were forced to stick to defensive tactics designed to exhaust the enemy. Why? The fact is that in a direct military clash in the field, the Mongolian cavalry had clear advantages. Therefore, the Russians tried to sit out behind the fortress walls of their cities. However, wooden fortresses could not withstand the onslaught of the Mongol troops. In addition, the conquerors used the tactics of continuous assault, successfully used siege weapons and equipment perfect for their time, borrowed from the peoples of China, Central Asia and the Caucasus they conquered.
The Mongols conducted good reconnaissance before the start of hostilities. They had informants even among the Russians. In addition, the Mongol commanders did not personally participate in the battles, but led the battle from their headquarters, which, as a rule, was in a high place. The Russian princes, up to Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462), themselves directly participated in the battles. Therefore, very often, in the event of even the heroic death of a prince, his soldiers, deprived of professional leadership, found themselves in a very difficult situation.
It is important to note that Batu's attack on Russia in 1237 came as a complete surprise to the Russians. The Mongol hordes undertook it in the winter, attacking the Ryazan principality. The Ryazans, on the other hand, are accustomed only to the summer and autumn raids of enemies, mainly Polovtsy. Therefore, no one expected a winter strike. What did the steppe dwellers pursue with their winter attack? The fact is that the rivers, which were a natural barrier for enemy cavalry in the summer, were covered with ice in winter and lost their protective functions.
In addition, in Russia, stocks of food and fodder for livestock were prepared for the winter. Thus, the conquerors were already provided with fodder for their cavalry before the attack.
These, according to most historians, were the main and tactical reasons for the Mongol victories.
Consequences of Batu's invasion.
The results of the Mongol conquest for the Russian lands were extremely difficult. In terms of the scale of destruction and the victims suffered as a result of the invasion, they could not be compared with the damage caused by the raids of nomads and princely civil strife. First of all, the invasion caused huge damage to all the lands at the same time. According to archaeologists, out of 74 cities that existed in Russia in the pre-Mongolian period, 49 were completely destroyed by the hordes of Batu. At the same time, a third of them were depopulated forever and were no longer restored, and 15 former cities became villages. Only not hurt Velikiy Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Polotsk and the Turov-Pinsk principality, primarily due to the fact that the Mongol hordes bypassed them. The population of Russian lands also sharply decreased. Most of the townspeople either died in battles, or were taken away by the conquerors to "full" (slavery). Handicraft production was particularly affected. After the invasion in Russia, some handicraft industries and specialties disappeared, stone construction stopped, the secrets of making glassware, cloisonne enamel, multi-colored ceramics, etc. were lost. Professional Russian soldiers suffered huge losses - princely combatants, and many princes who died in battles with enemy .. Only after half a century in Russia, the service class begins to be restored, and, accordingly, the structure of the patrimonial and only nascent landlord economy is re-created.
However, the main consequence of the Mongol invasion of Russia and the establishment of Horde dominion from the middle of the 13th century was a sharp increase in the isolation of Russian lands, the disappearance of the old political and legal system and the organization of the power structure that was once characteristic of Old Russian state. For Russia of the 9th-13th centuries, located between Europe and Asia, it was extremely important in which direction it would turn - to the East or to the West. Kievan Rus managed to maintain a neutral position between them, it was open to both the West and the East.
But the new political situation of the 13th century, the invasion of the Mongols and crusade European Catholic knights, who called into question the continued existence of Russia, its Orthodox culture, were forced political elite Russia to make a certain choice. The fate of the country for many centuries, including modern times, depended on this choice.
The collapse of the political unity of Ancient Russia also marked the beginning of the disappearance of the ancient Russian people, which became the progenitor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples. Since the 14th century, the Russian (Great Russian) nationality has been formed in the northeast and northwest of Russia; on the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.
The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Russia lasted five years - from 1237 to 1242 and ended with the transition of the Slavic lands under the actual authority of the Golden Horde. There are two stages of conquest.
Background and the beginning of the invasion
The main prerequisite, which determined the success of the actions of the conquering army, was the fragmentation of the principality. Instead of uniting in the fight against a common enemy, the princes continued to fight. Each principality individually was not strong enough to withstand the raids.
For the first time, an army collided with the Mongol army Kyiv prince Mstislav, which was actually destroyed in the battle on the Kalka River (1223). Then Genghis Khan attacked the lands of the Polovtsians - it was they who came to the aid of the Russian warriors on the terms of the agreement concluded with the Polovtsian princes.
Rice. 1. Battle on Kalka.
After that, the Mongols did not return to the borders of Russia for more than 10 years, until Batu Khan invaded the Slavic lands in 1237. The invasion took place in two stages: in 1237-1238 a campaign was made on the eastern and northern lands, and in 1239-1242 - on the south.
The first invasion of Russia
The Mongol invasion of Russia in the 13th century began in the second half of 1237, when Batu's army approached the borders of the Ryazan principality. The movement of the army was swift: it took 6 days to capture Ryazan, the siege of Moscow lasted 4 days and ended with a devastating battle near Kolomna, where the army of Moscow Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was defeated. Vladimir fell 8 days after the start of the siege, this happened in the autumn of 1238.
TOP 4 articleswho read along with this
It was the capture of Vladimir that became a turning point in the campaign of Batu to the eastern and northern lands of Russia - one city after another was quickly submitted to him. However, he did not reach Novgorod, turning his troops towards Kozelsk. And this city became an unexpected obstacle on his way, for which he was called "evil" - the garrison defended for seven weeks.
Rice. 2. Defense of Kozelsk.
To take the city, a trick was needed: the khan announced that if the inhabitants voluntarily open the gates, he would lower all the soldiers and civilians. However, he did not keep his word and the population of Kozelsk was completely destroyed.
This ended the first stage of Batu's invasion of Russia.
Second invasion of Russia
The invasion, which began in 1239, was focused on Chernigov and Pereyaslavl. However, this time the offensive was sluggish due to the fact that in parallel the Mongols fought against the Polovtsians. And yet, by the autumn of 1240, their army was already standing under the walls of Kyiv. In early December of the same year, it was already taken, and the conquerors almost completely destroyed the city. After that, the army was divided: one part went to conquer Galich, the second - Vladimir-Volynsky. Both of these cities were taken, and Batu's invasion of Russia ended. The Horde yoke was established.
Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion
They were the most deplorable. Russia actually ended up under the rule of the Golden Horde, which meant economic and political dependence: the principalities paid tribute (and not only in money, but also in people), and the rulers received labels for reigning from the khan. Due to the decrease in the population (in particular, artisans) and economic factors, the progress of the state slowed down very much.
One of the most tragic events in Russian history was the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia led by the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu. Until a certain time, no one imagined that the tribes of the nomadic people, once considered wild, would unite and begin to pose a serious threat to everyone. The Mongols themselves had no idea that they would soon gain power over one part of the world, and the other part would pay tribute to them.
Historiography about the Mongol-Tatar invasion
Russian historians began to study in detail the campaigns led by Batu to Russian lands from the 18th century. Not only scientists, but even writers tried to tell their version of these events in their writings. Among the people involved in the study of the Mongol invasions, the works of the following scholars are most famous:
- The well-known historian V. N. Tatishchev in his book “Russian History” for the first time considered in detail the topic of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. In his work, Tatishchev took the Old Russian chronicles as a basis. In the future, the work itself and the conclusions made by the author were used by many historians in their works.
- N.M. Karamzin, the writer, studied the invasion just as intently. Emotionally describing the conquest of Russian lands by tumens (large tactical units of the Mongol army), Karamzin concluded why the Mongol invasion is the main reason, and not the second (secondary) backwardness of Russia compared to the advanced European countries. Karamzin was the first among researchers to consider this invasion a separate page of historical heritage.
During the 19th century, researchers paid more and more attention to the issues of Batu's invasion of Russia. The phrase "Mongol-Tatars", which appeared in 1823, scientific circles owe P. N. Naumov. In subsequent years, historians focused their attention on the military details of the invasion, namely, on the strategy and tactics of the Mongol army.
The topic was considered in the book by M. S. Gastev “Discourse on the reasons that slowed down civil education in the Russian state”, published in 1832. The work of M. Ivanin “On the art of war and the conquests of the Mongols”, published in 1846, is devoted to the same issue. I. Berezin, a professor at the University of Kazan, made a significant contribution to the study of the Mongol invasions. The scientist studied many sources not considered until that time. The data he took from the works of the authors of the East Juvaini, Rashid ad-Din, were applied in the works of Berezin: "The first invasion of the Mongols on Russia", "Invasion of Batu on Russia".
The Russian historian also made his own interpretation of those events. S. M. Solovyov. In contrast to the views expressed by N. M. Karamzin and the Russian orientalist Kh. D. Fren about the strong impact of the Mongol invasion on the life of Russia, he was of the opinion that this event had an insignificant impact on the life of the Russian principalities. The same point of view was held by V. Klyuchevsky, M. Pokrovsky, A. Presnyakov, S. Platonov and other researchers. In the 19th century, the Mongolian theme becomes an important stage Russian history studying the period of the Middle Ages.
How did the unification of the Mongol-Tatars begin?
Three decades before the invasion of the territory of Russia near the Onon River, an army was formed from among the feudal lords, their warriors, arriving from different corners Mongolian steppe. The association was headed by the supreme ruler Temujin.
The All-Mongolian congress of the local nobility (kurultai) in 1206 proclaimed him the great Kagan - the highest title of nomads - and named him Genghis Khan. He gathered under his command many tribes of nomads. This association put an end to internecine wars, led to the formation of a stable economic base on the path of development of a new emerging state.
But despite the favorable circumstances and prospects, the authorities turned the people they ruled towards war and conquest. The result of such a policy in 1211 was the Chinese campaign, and a little later an invasion of Russian lands was made. The Mongol invasion itself, its causes, course, and consequences have been studied and analyzed many times by various researchers: from historians to writers. The main reason that caused the repeated campaigns of the Tatar-Mongols in other countries was the desire for easy money, the ruin of other peoples.
In those days, the cultivation of local breeds of livestock brought little profit, so it was decided to enrich themselves by robbing people living in neighboring countries. The organizer of the tribal association - Genghis Khan was a brilliant commander. Under his leadership, the conquest of Northern China, Central Asia, the steppes from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific Ocean took place. Own territories, large in area, did not stop the army: new conquest campaigns were planned on foreign lands.
Reasons for the success of the Mongolian army
The main reason for the victories won by the Mongols was the superiority of their military strength, thanks to a well-trained and organized army, its iron discipline.. The army was distinguished by maneuverability, the ability to quickly overcome considerable distances, since it mainly consisted of cavalry. Bows and arrows were used as weapons. In China, the Mongols borrowed weapons that made it possible to successfully attack a large enemy fortress.
The success of the Mongol-Tatars was accompanied by a well-thought-out strategy of action, the political inability of the conquered cities and countries to offer worthy resistance to the enemy. The tactical actions of the Mongol-Tatars consisted in a surprise attack, creating fragmentation in the ranks of the enemy and further destroying it. Thanks to the chosen strategy, they were able to maintain influence in the territories of the occupied lands for a long time.
First conquests
The years 1222−1223 were inscribed in history as the period of the first wave of conquests, which began with an invasion of the Eastern European steppes. The main troops of the Mongols, led by the talented and cruel commanders Jebe and Subedei, beloved by Genghis Khan, set off in 1223 on a campaign against the Polovtsians.
Those, in order to expel the enemy, decided to seek help from the Russian princes. The combined troops of both sides moved towards the enemy, crossed the Dnieper River and headed towards the East.
The Mongols, under the guise of a retreat, were able to lure the Russian-Polovtsian army to the banks of the Kalka River. Here the soldiers met in a decisive battle on May 31. There was no unity in the squads of the coalition, there were constant disputes between the princes. Some of them did not participate in the battle at all. The logical outcome of this battle was the complete defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian army. However, after the victory, the Mongol troops did not set off to conquer the Russian lands due to the lack of sufficient forces for this.
After 4 years (in 1227), Genghis Khan died. He wanted his tribesmen to rule the world. The decision to start a new aggressive campaign against European lands was made by Kurultai in 1235. Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, stood at the head of the cavalry.
Stages of the invasion of Russia
The army of the Mongol-Tatars twice invaded the Russian land:
- Campaign to the North-East of Russia.
- Campaign to South Russia.
First, in 1236, the Mongols ravaged the Volga Bulgaria, a state that at that time occupied the territory of the middle Volga region and the Kama basin, and went towards the Don to conquer once again the Polovtsian lands. In December 1937, the Polovtsians were defeated. Then Batu Khan invaded northeastern Russia. The path of the troops lay through the Ryazan principality.
Mongol campaigns in 1237-1238
Events in Russia began to develop precisely in these years. At the head of the cavalry, consisting of 150 thousand people, was Batu, with him was Subedei, who knew Russian soldiers from previous battles. The cavalry of the Mongols, conquering all the cities along the way, quickly moved across the country, as evidenced by the map, reflecting the direction of the movement of the Mongols on Russian soil.
Ryazan kept the siege for six days, was destroyed and fell at the end of 1237. The army of Batu went to conquer the northern lands, especially Vladimir. On the way, the Mongols ravaged the city of Kolomna, where Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and his retinue tried in vain to detain the enemies and were defeated. The siege of Moscow lasted 4 days. The city fell in January 1238.
The battle for Vladimir began in February 1238. The prince of Vladimir, ruling the city, tried in vain to organize a militia and repulse the enemies. The siege of Vladimir lasted 8 days, and then, as a result of the assault, the city was taken. He was set on fire. With the fall of Vladimir, virtually all the lands of the eastern and northern directions passed to Batu.
He took the city of Tver and Yuriev, Suzdal and Pereslavl. Then the army split up: some Mongols came to the Sit River, others began the siege of Torzhok. On the City, the Mongols won on March 4, 1238, defeating the Russian squads. Their further goal was to attack Novgorod, but a hundred miles from it they turned back.
Foreigners ravaged all the cities they entered, but suddenly they met a persistent rebuff from the city of Kozelsky. The townspeople fought off enemy attacks for a long seven weeks. Yet the city was defeated. Khan called it an evil city, destroying it in the end. Thus ended the first campaign of Batu to Russia.
Invasion 1239-1242
After a break that lasted more than a year, the Russian lands were again attacked by the Mongol army. In the spring of 1239, Batu went on a campaign to the south of Russia. It began with the fall of Pereyaslav in March and Chernigov in October.
The slow advance of the Mongols was explained by the simultaneous active struggle against the Polovtsians. In September 1940, the enemy army approached Kyiv, which belonged to Prince Galitsky. The siege of the city began.
For three months, the people of Kiev fought, trying to repel the onslaught of the enemy. Only through colossal losses on December 6 did the Mongols take possession of the city. The enemies acted with unprecedented brutality. The capital of Russia was destroyed almost completely. According to chronology, the completion of the conquests and the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (1240−1480) in Russia are associated with the date of the capture of Kyiv. Then the enemy army split in two: one part decided to capture Vladimir-Volynsky, the other was going to strike at Galich.
After the fall of these cities, by the beginning of the spring of 1241, the Mongol army was on its way to Europe. But huge losses forced the invaders to return to the Lower Volga region. The warriors of Batu did not dare to start a new campaign, and Europe felt relieved. In fact, the Mongol army was dealt a serious blow by the fierce resistance of the Russian lands.
The results of the Mongol invasion of Russian lands
After enemy raids, the Russian land was torn to pieces. Foreigners destroyed and ruined some cities, only ashes remained from others. The inhabitants of the defeated cities were captured by the enemies. In the west of the Mongol Empire in 1243 Batu organized the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy. There were no captured Russian territories in its composition.
The Mongols put Russia in vassalage, but could not enslave. The subordination of the Russian lands to the Golden Horde was manifested in the annual obligation to pay tribute. In addition, the Russian princes could rule the cities only after they were approved for this position by the Golden Horde Khan. The Horde yoke hung over Russia for two long centuries.
According to the official version of historians, the definition of the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia is briefly as follows:
- Deep dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde.
- Annual payment of tribute to invaders.
- The complete lack of development of the country due to the establishment of the yoke.
The essence of such views lies in the fact that the Mongol-Tatar yoke was then to blame for all the problems of Russia. A different point of view was held by the historian L. N. Gumilyov. He gave his arguments, pointed out some inconsistencies in the historical interpretation of the Mongol invasion of Russia. Until now, there are disputes about what impact the Mongol yoke had on the country, what were the relations between the Horde and Russia, what this event turned out to be for the country. One thing is certain: it played a significant role in the life of Russia.
Chocolate biscuit: the secrets of cooking in a slow cooker and oven
Chemical composition and nutritional value
Apple chips at home
Braised cabbage with white beans, recipe
How to reduce the ass, hips and stomach at home?