The reign of Catherine II. Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II

Domestic policy of Catherine II

First of all, Catherine II carried out a reform of public administration. The Cabinet of Ministers introduced by Anna Ivanovna was liquidated. The Senate was weakened, divided into six departments, each of which had certain powers. The departments were supervised by the Prosecutor General Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, known for his incorruptibility. Hetmanship was abolished in the Left-bank Ukraine, which began to be ruled by the Governor-General of Little Russia.

Catherine carried out the second secularization of the monastery lands, taking them to the treasury. The clergy was losing economic power, it finally turned into a special category of bureaucracy.

The Empress decided to create a Commission to draw up a new Code. 564 delegates were elected to it throughout Russia (nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, foreigners, state peasants, etc.). For two years (1764-1765), Catherine II worked on compiling the "Instruction", a guide for deputies, which proclaimed that the goal of power was to promote goodness, to introduce the best laws, and this could only be done by an enlightened, autocratic sovereign. However, the Legislative Commission, having failed to fulfill its task and created a new general law, was dissolved in 1769 (and abolished in 1774).

An administrative reform was carried out. The empire was divided into 50 provinces, the provinces were abolished, and the provinces were divided into counties. Power in the provinces belonged to the governor appointed by the Senate. The Treasury was in charge of all financial affairs of the province.

The judicial system, which was built according to the class principle, has completely changed. The highest judicial body of the empire was the Senate.

The nobles actually received the right of local self-government. At their meetings, they elected the district marshal of the nobility, in the province the provincial marshal of the nobility was elected. In 1785, the “Letter of Letters to the Nobility” was published, which confirmed the class rights and privileges of the nobles - exemption from poll tax, corporal punishment, and compulsory service.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite successful. Thanks to the successes of the empress in this area, Russia gained unprecedented prestige in Europe.

Immediately after her accession to the throne, Catherine terminated the military alliance with Prussia, concluded by Peter III. Under Catherine, a new foreign policy of Russia was formed, which consisted in acting in accordance with its own interests, without being constantly dependent on other states.

Catherine had to solve three problems that she inherited:

Return of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that remained part of Poland;

Ensuring the security of the southern outskirts of Russia and access to the Black Sea;

The strengthening of Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

With Courland and Poland, matters were settled through diplomacy, without war. The solution of the Black Sea problem required serious military efforts. The interests of Russia and Turkey clashed not only in the Black Sea region, but also in Orthodox Moldavia and in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, where the pro-Russian orientation of the ruling circles of Georgia and Armenia was outlined.

At the end of 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia. Military operations unfolded on three fronts: in the Crimea, on the Danube and in Transcaucasia, where Russian troops entered at the request of Georgia. The war with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace (1774), according to which significant territories were ceded to Russia. But in 1787 the second Russian-Turkish war. In it, A.V. showed his military leadership talents. Suvorov. The war ended with a Russian victory in 1791.

While the Russian-Turkish war was going on, Austria and Prussia, without the participation of Russia, began the division of Poland. Under these conditions, Russia, which benefited from a united but dependent on Russia Poland, was forced to enter into negotiations on the division of this country. As a result of an agreement between the three states, Poland ceased to exist as an independent state, after three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795), its entire territory was divided between Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia.

Since childhood, the independent and inquisitive Catherine II managed to carry out a real coup in Russia. Since 1744, she was summoned by the Empress to Petersburg. There, Catherine converted to Orthodoxy and became the bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich.

Fight for the throne

The future empress tried in every possible way to win the favor of her husband, his mother and the people. Catherine spent a lot of time studying books on economics, jurisprudence, history, which influenced her worldview. When Peter III came to the throne, his relationship with his wife grew into mutual hostility. At this time, Catherine began to plot. On her side were the Orlovs, K.G. Razumovsky. N.I. Panin and others. In June 1762, when the emperor was not in St. Petersburg, Catherine entered the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment and was declared an autocratic ruler. After long requests for negotiations, her husband abdicated in writing. internal, foreign policy Catherine II began its development.

Features of the board

Catherine II was able to surround herself with talented and outstanding personalities. She was very supportive interesting ideas which could be used to your advantage. With subjects, the Empress behaved tactfully and with restraint, had the gift of listening to the interlocutor. But Catherine II loved power and could go to any extreme to keep it.

The empress supported the Orthodox Church, but did not refuse to use religion in politics. She allowed the construction of Protestant and catholic churches and even mosques. But the transition from Orthodoxy to another religion was still punished.

Catherine 2 (briefly)

The Empress chose three postulates on which her activities were based: consistency, gradualness and consideration of public sentiments. Catherine was in words a supporter of the abolition of serfdom, but pursued a policy of supporting the nobles. She set the number of population in each province (the inhabitants should not be more than 400 thousand), and in the county (up to 30 thousand). In connection with this division, many cities were built.

A number of government agencies were organized in each provincial center. These are such as the main provincial institution - the Office - headed by the governor, the Criminal and Civil Chambers, the financial management body (Treasury Chamber). Also were established: the Upper Zemstvo Court, the Provincial Magistrate and the Upper Massacre. They played the role of a court for different estates and consisted of chairmen and assessors. A body was created for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, which was called Here, the cases of insane criminals were also dealt with. The problems of organizing schools, shelters and almshouses were dealt with by the Order of Public Charity.

Political reforms in the counties

The internal policy of Catherine II also influenced the cities. Here, too, a number of boards appeared. Thus, the Lower Zemstvo Court was responsible for the activities of the police and administration. was subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court and considered the cases of the nobles. The place in which the townspeople tried was the City Magistrate. To solve the problems of the peasants, the Lower Massacre was created.

Control over the correct implementation of the law was assigned to the provincial prosecutor and two solicitors. The governor-general monitored the activities of several provinces and could directly address the empress. The internal policy of Catherine 2, the table of estates are described in many historical books.

Judicial reform

In 1775 it was established new system for resolving disputes. In each estate, the problem was solved by its own judicial body. All courts, except for the Lower Punishment, were elected. The Upper Zemstvo dealt with the affairs of the landowners, and the Upper and Lower massacres dealt with peasant strife (if the peasant was a state peasant). The disputes of the serfs were sorted out by the landowner. As for the clergy, they could only be judged by bishops in provincial consistories. The Senate became the Supreme Judiciary.

municipal reform

The empress strove to create local organizations for each estate, granting them the right to self-government. In 1766, Catherine II presented the Manifesto on the formation of a commission to resolve local issues. Under the leadership of the chairman of the society of nobles and the elected head for the city, deputies were elected, as well as the transfer of orders to them. As a result, a number of legislative acts appeared, which fixed separate rules local government. The nobility was endowed with the right to elect county and provincial chairmen, secretary, county judge and assessors and other managers. Two Dumas were engaged in the management of the city economy: the General and the Six-Glass. The first had the right to issue orders in this area. The mayor was the chairman. The general council met as needed. The six-vowel met every day. She was executive body and consisted of six representatives of each estate and the mayor. There was also the City Duma, which met every three years. This body had the right to elect the Six-voice Duma.

The internal policy of Catherine 2 did not ignore the police. In 1782, she created a decree that regulated the structure law enforcement, directions of their activity, as well as a system of punishments.

The life of the nobility

The internal policy of Catherine II legally confirmed the advantageous position of this class in a number of documents. It was possible to execute a nobleman or take away his property only after he had committed a serious crime. The court verdict was necessarily coordinated with the empress. The nobleman could not be subjected to physical punishment. In addition to managing the fate of the peasants and the affairs of the estate, a representative of the estate could freely travel abroad, direct his complaints immediately to the governor-general. The foreign and domestic policy of Catherine II was based on the interests of the class.

The rights of the poor representatives were slightly infringed. So, take part in provincial noble assemblies could an individual with a certain property qualification. This also applied to approval for a position, in which case the additional income should be at least 100 rubles per year.

economic reform

In 1775, the Manifesto was announced, in which everyone was allowed to “voluntarily start all kinds of mills and produce all kinds of needlework on them, without requiring any other permission” from both local and higher authorities. The exception was the mining business, which existed in the form of a state business until 1861, as well as enterprises serving the army. The measures taken contributed to the growth of the economy of the merchant class. This estate took an active part in the formation of new production and enterprises. Thanks to the action of the merchants, the linen industry began to develop, which later turned into a section of the textile industry. Catherine II in 1775 established three merchant guilds, which were divided among themselves according to the available capital. Each association was charged a fee of 1% from the capital, which was declared and not checked. In 1785, a letter was announced, which stated that merchants had the right to participate in local government and court, they were exempt from corporal punishment. Privileges applied only to the first and second guilds, and in return, an increase in the size of the declared capital was required.

The domestic policy of Catherine II also concerned rural residents. They were allowed to practice their craft and sell the resulting products. The peasants traded on churchyards, but were limited in many trade transactions. The nobles could organize fairs and sell goods at them, but they did not have the right to build factories in cities. This estate sought in every possible way to push back the merchants and capture the textile and distilling industries. And they gradually succeeded, since by early XIX century, 74 nobles had factories at their disposal, and there were only twelve merchants at the head of enterprises.

Catherine II opened the Assignation Bank, which was created for the successful activities of the upper classes. The financial organization accepted deposits, issued issues, and accounted for bills of exchange. The result of active actions was the merger of the silver ruble and banknotes.

Reforms of education, culture and science

Features of the internal policy of Catherine 2 in these areas were as follows:

1. On behalf of the Empress, teacher I.I. Betskoy developed the "General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth". On its basis, the Society of Noble Maidens, a commercial school and educational institution at the Academy of Arts. In 1782, a Commission was formed on the establishment of schools to carry out school reform. Its plan was developed by the Austrian teacher F.I. Yankovic. In the course of the reform in the cities, public schools were opened for everyone, both main and small. The institutions were maintained by the state. Under Catherine II, the Medical College, the Mining School and other educational institutions were opened.
2. The successful domestic policy of Catherine 2 in 1762-1796 gave impetus to the development of science. In 1765, an organization appeared that was designed to expand knowledge in the geography of the country. In the period from 1768 to 1774, scientists of the Academy of Sciences participated in five expeditions. Thanks to such trips, knowledge was expanded not only in the field of geography, but also in biology, and in other natural sciences. In the 80s, the Russian Academy was built to study language and literature. During the reign of Catherine II, more books were printed than in the entire 18th century. The first public library in the state was opened in St. Petersburg. Reading books was carried away by almost every class. At this time, education began to be valued.
3. The internal policy of Catherine 2 did not bypass the appearance of high society. An active social life in the highest circles obliged ladies and gentlemen to follow fashion. In 1779, the Fashionable Monthly Essay, or Library for the Ladies' Toilet began to publish examples of new clothing. A decree of 1782 obliged the nobles to wear costumes in accordance with the colors of the coat of arms of their province. Two years later, a requirement was added to this order - a certain cut of the uniform.

Foreign policy

Catherine II did not forget about improving ties with other states. The Empress achieved the following results:

1. Thanks to the annexation of the Kuban region, Crimea, Lithuanian provinces, Western Russia, the Duchy of Courland, the borders of the state expanded noticeably.

2. The Treaty of St. George was signed, which indicated the role of Russia's protectorate over Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).

3. A war for territories with Sweden was unleashed. But after the signing of the peace treaty, the borders of the states remained the same.

4. Exploration of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

5. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the territory of Poland was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

6. Greek project. The aim of the doctrine was to restore the Byzantine Empire centered in Constantinople. According to the plan, the grandson of Catherine II, Prince Konstantin, was to head the state.

7. In the late 80s, the Russian-Turkish war and the struggle with Sweden began. The prisoner in 1792 consolidated the influence of the Russian Empire in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, and also confirmed the annexation of Crimea.

Foreign and domestic policy of Catherine 2. Results

The great Russian Empress left an indelible mark on the history of Russia. Having overthrown her husband from the throne, she carried out a number of activities, many of which significantly improved the life of the people. Summing up the results of the domestic policy of Catherine II, one cannot fail to note the special position of nobles and favorites at court. The Empress strongly supported this estate and her beloved associates.

The domestic policy of Catherine 2, briefly describing it, has the following main aspects. Thanks to the decisive actions of the Empress, the territory of the Russian Empire increased significantly. The population in the country began to strive for education. The first schools for peasants appeared. Issues related to the administration of counties and provinces were resolved. The Empress helped Russia to become one of the great European states.

Catherine the Great born May 2, 1729 in the Prussian city of Stettin, in 1745 she married Peter III, and on July 9, 1762, she herself became the ruling empress as a result of a palace coup, while Peter abdicated and was taken into custody. A week later he died (most likely he was strangled by his jailers, who played cards with him).

In fact, it turned out that Catherine II made a double seizure of power - she took it from her husband, but did not give it to her son Paul (according to the rules, she was supposed to become regent under the infant emperor). However, from the height of history, it can be argued that she was worthy of the title of empress.

Catherine became the first empress of non-Russian origin (since she was German), but still the Romanov dynasty on Petre III did not interrupt, since after Catherine came to the throne Pavel Romanov, her son. It should be noted here that the direct male line of the Romanovs was interrupted for another Peter II Alekseevich, and later the Romanovs went down the female line, and officially the dynasty became known as the Romanovs-Holstein-Gottorp.

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

In domestic politics Catherine in many ways continued the line of Peter I. Just like Peter, the empress paid a lot of attention to foreign policy and Russia's image in the world, because of which she also had failures in the internal reforms of the state.

Catherine was well versed in people and knew how to select close people (assistants and consultants), found talents and supported them in every possible way (and in all areas - in the military, in art, in architecture and culture). The only problem was that the vast majority of these advisors and talented artists were invited foreigners, most often Germans and French. This was explained by the desire to bring the Enlightenment of Europe to Russia. As a result, much less attention was paid to the education of one's own minds and talents in the Russian Empire than one would like.

With regard to religious issues, Empress Catherine II carried out a number of successful transformations. The Russian Orthodox Church was actively supported by the ruler, the Old Believers were returned to Russia, and their persecution ceased (except for a couple of incidents). In the Far East, Buddhists received many privileges, and the Jewish community that appeared after the annexation of part of the lands of the Commonwealth (and a considerable one - about 1 million people) could preach Judaism and lead their national way of life beyond the line of permanent Jewish settlement, which provided the Jews with the territory of modern Ukraine , Belarus and Lithuania. In the event that a Jew wanted to live in Moscow, he had to accept Orthodoxy. I must say that for all the anti-Semitism of this decree, the reform was still quite liberal in that era.

Speaking of national policy, it is also necessary to mention the manifesto, according to which Catherine invited foreigners to Russia for permanent residence, granting them benefits and privileges. As a result, in the Volga region, for example, German settlements arose (Volga Germans). Five years after the publication of the manifesto (1767), their number already exceeded 23 thousand people.

In 1763, Catherine II reformed the Senate. In 1764, the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks (Hetmanate) was liquidated, the first prerequisite was the liquidation of customs between Russia and the Hetmanate ten years earlier (essentially, the abolition of autonomy).

The main goal of the abolition of the Cossacks is the centralization of power and the unification of the country, the secondary one is the removal from Moscow (to the Kuban) of such an unstable class as the Cossacks.

Catherine's liberal policy sometimes let her down. In 1766 Catherine published order- her vision of government, and convened Statutory commission to reform Codes which was adopted in 1649. Representatives of the nobility, townspeople and free peasants were convened, as well as one deputy from Synod.

Obviously, there was not enough "Instruction" for the direction of activity, and a firm hand was needed, since the interclass differences of the deputies prevented them from promptly conducting legislative activities. The first few meetings they only chose the title for the empress (the choice was "Great"). After working for about a year and a half, the Legislative Commission was dissolved, although the undertaking was good.

The same liberalism in relation to the nobility (for all the time not a single person was executed and even seriously repressed) gave its representatives a reason to become impudent and bribery to flourish. By the way, immediately after coming to power, Catherine issued a manifesto on the prevention of "extortion", but there were no concrete actions, and many took bribes.

After suppression uprisings of Yemelyan Pugachev Catherine II carried out an administrative reform. Instead of 23 provinces, the country was divided into 53 governorships. The reform was not bad in that for the same number of square kilometers, there were more local governments, which made it possible to closely monitor the local population in order to more effectively prevent possible conflicts. The disadvantage of the reform was the increased bureaucracy, which required three (if not five) times more budget funds than before. Naturally, this affected the economy.

On April 21, 1785, the Charter on the rights and liberties of the noble nobility was adopted. This document secured the rights of the nobles, most of which had already been published earlier. The letter strengthened the support of Catherine from the nobility, but did not have a particularly good effect on the peasants. It was planned to issue a charter to the peasants, but was not implemented due to the wars with the Turks and the Swedes.

The export of grain, forbidden by Elizabeth, was opened, and duties on export goods were reduced. International trade immediately revived, although sometimes the export of grain exceeded the norm and there was a shortage within the country. Of course, this is not about the Holodomors (as some researchers of Polish and Ukrainian origin, as well as other non-authoritative sources), but still it would be worth creating a body that controls the export of grain and other goods.

New credit institutions were established - a loan office and a state bank, and such a function as deposits appeared. In addition, Insurance Expedition was established - the first insurance company in Russia.

The role of the Russian Empire in the world economy has grown significantly. Russian ships began to ply the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, delivering goods from and to England, France, Spain, etc.

Here the only negative point is that Russia sold mainly raw materials (metals, flour, wood) or semi-finished products (meat, for example). At that time, the industrial revolution was in full swing in Europe, factories and factories with machine tools were being created, but Catherine was in no hurry to bring "colossus" (as she put it) to Russia, fearing that they would deprive people of jobs and cause unemployment. This purely feminine short-sightedness set back the development of Russian industry and economic growth for several decades.

With all this, the empress carried out a number of extremely successful reforms in education, as well as in science and health (Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, a network of city schools, Academy of Sciences, and the best in Europe, various schools, a library, an observatory, botanical gardens, etc.).

Catherine the Great introduced compulsory vaccination against smallpox, and, by the way, she was the first to be vaccinated. In addition, other infectious diseases were fought, medical schools and specialized hospitals (psychiatric, venereological, etc.) were created.

Homes for homeless minor children and even social assistance for widows were created.

Thus, in the domestic policy of Catherine II there were both positive and negative points, and the latter were useful in that they gave invaluable experience for future generations.

Catherine II - All-Russian Empress, who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is the strengthening of serfdom tendencies, the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformational activities and an active foreign policy aimed at the implementation and completion of some plans.

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Foreign Policy Goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

• strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
• expansion of the territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of the 19th century. The main rivals of Russia at that time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and the Ottoman Empire in the East. The empress adhered to the policy of "armed neutrality and alliances", concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the wake of someone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine II

Tasks of foreign policy of Catherine II (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives that required a solution were:

• conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after the Seven Years' War)
• maintaining the positions of the Russian Empire in the Baltic;
• solution of the Polish question (preservation or partition of the Commonwealth);
• expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of the Crimea, the territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
• exit and full consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
• creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine 2

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

• western direction (Western Europe);
• east direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also point out

• the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
• Balkan direction, referring to the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of foreign policy of Catherine II"

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Prussian-Russian alliance	1764	The beginning of the formation of the Northern System (allied relations with England, Prussia, Sweden)
The first division of the Commonwealth	1772	Accession of the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands (part of Livonia)
Austro-Prussian conflict	1778-1779	Russia took the position of an arbiter and actually insisted on the conclusion of the Teshen peace by the warring powers; Catherine set her own conditions, by accepting which the warring countries restored neutral relations in Europe
"Armed neutrality" with respect to the newly formed USA	1780	Russia did not support either side in the Anglo-American conflict
Anti-French coalition	1790	The beginning of the formation by Catherine of the second Anti-French coalition; rupture of diplomatic relations with revolutionary France
Second division of the Commonwealth	1793	Empire ceded part of Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (eastern part of modern Ukraine)
Third Section of the Commonwealth	1795	Accession of Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French coalition was undertaken by the Empress, as they say, "to divert eyes." She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "North-Western Direction of Foreign Policy"

Table. "Balkan Direction of Foreign Policy"

The Balkans are becoming the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting precisely with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress planned the Greek project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He has not been implemented due to:

• changes in Austria's plans;
• independent conquest by the Russian Empire of a large part of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Catherine II"

The eastern direction of the foreign policy of Catherine 2 was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia on the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Russo-Turkish War (declared by Turkey to Russia)	1768-1774	A series of significant victories brought Russia into some of the strongest in the military plan of the European powers (Kozludzhi, Larga, Cahul, Ryabaya Grave, Chesmen). The Kuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty, signed in 1774, formalized the accession to Russia of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, the Black Sea, the Kuban and Kabarda. Crimean Khanate became autonomous from Turkey. Russia received the right to keep the navy on the Black Sea.
Accession of the territory of modern Crimea	1783	The protege of the Empire, Shahin Giray, became the Crimean Khan, the territory of the modern Crimean peninsula became part of Russia.
"Patronage" over Georgia	1783	After the conclusion of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Georgia officially received the protection and patronage of the Russian Empire. She needed this to strengthen the defense (attacks from Turkey or Persia)
Russian-Turkish war (unleashed by Turkey)	1787-1791	After a series of significant victories (Fokshany, Rymnik, Kinburn, Ochakov, Izmail), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Jassy, ​​according to which the latter recognized the transfer of Crimea to Russia, recognized the Treaty of St. George. Russia also crossed territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers.
Russo-Persian War	1795-1796	Russia has significantly strengthened its positions in the Transcaucasus. Gained control over Derbent, Baku, Shemakha and Ganja.
Persian campaign (continuation of the Greek project)	1796	Plans for a large-scale campaign against Persia and the Balkans was not destined to come true. In 1796 the empress Catherine II died. But, it should be noted that the beginning of the campaign was quite successful. Commander Valerian Zubov managed to capture a number of Persian territories.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated, first of all, with the activities of outstanding commanders and naval commanders, "Catherine's eagles": Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to an unattainable height.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine's contemporaries, including the illustrious commander Frederick of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were merely a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the decomposition of its army and navy. But, even if this is true, no other power, except Russia, could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

The results of Catherine II's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

Everything foreign policy goals and objectives Catherine were brilliantly executed:

• The Russian Empire entrenched itself in the Black and Azov Seas;
• confirmed and secured the northwestern border, fortified in the Baltic;
• expanded territorial possessions in the West after the three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Russia;
• expanded possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean peninsula;
• weakened the Ottoman Empire;
• gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
• having created the Northern System, strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! When Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the reign of the empress

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy in different ways. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a "barbaric action" that ran counter to the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the Empress preached. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the prerequisites for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. In the future, the country had to fight with these large countries that directly bordered the Russian Empire.

Receivers of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Output

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

Much attention was paid to Catherine's policy foreign policy: numerous wars, of course, were expensive, they devastated the treasury. Although there are not only negative consequences here, the new conquered territories had a positive effect on the economy. The chernozem lands of Novorossia, Ukraine and the Crimea began to be quickly developed, which contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But the lifting of the ban on the export of grain led to the fact that famine often began to flourish in the villages. In addition, the price of bread has risen.

In addition, there was also an increase in industrial production. In 1740, Russia overtook England in terms of the amount of iron smelted. Under Catherine II, Russia was an exporting country. She sold sailcloth, iron, cast iron, timber, bread, and so on.

She pursued a policy of protectionism, while Catherine, on the contrary, switched to liberalization. She abolished several foreign trade monopolies and a ban on grain exports.

Catherine II set fixed prices for salt, hoping thereby to increase competition and improve the quality of the goods, but as a result, the cost of salt soon began to grow.

In 1754, the State Loan Bank was opened, which consisted of the Noble and Merchant banks. They made loans for low interest. The noble bank served, respectively, only the nobles, their estates and jewelry acted as collateral. In 1768, another noble bank was opened, it offered loans for up to 20 years, the main purpose of creating this institution was to support the ruined nobles.

Promissory notes were also distributed, which greatly simplified the process of international trade.

In 1763, to reduce inflation, it was forbidden to exchange copper money for silver. In 1768, Count Yakov Sievers suggested to Catherine that paper cash. A year later, the first paper money appeared, they were supposed to displace copper coins from circulation and replenish the treasury, which was depleted due to the Russian-Turkish war.

Reforms of education, science and culture of Catherine II

One of the goals of Catherine II was the enlightenment of the people whom she rules. The Empress paid attention to women's education, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened - the first women's educational institution in Russia. In 1768, the Empress founded a number of city schools and colleges.

On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded. All teachers were invited from foreign countries, teaching was conducted in Latin and French. Also, an observatory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, a physics office, etc. were opened. The first public library appeared in St. Petersburg.

The position of the nobility and peasants under Catherine II

It is believed that it was under Catherine II that the nobility had the greatest rights and privileges, the period of her reign is even called the “golden age of the nobility”. On April 21, 1785, two charters were issued: “A letter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “A letter of grant to cities”. In accordance with them, already existing rights granted to them were assigned to the nobles. They could not be subjected to physical punishment, even if they committed criminal offenses, their estates could not be confiscated. In the trial of a nobleman, the verdict must necessarily be agreed with the empress.

Despite the fact that Catherine II believed that all people should be free, it was during her reign that the serfs were in the worst conditions, they were considered slaves. They could not move more than 30 miles from their village without the permission of the landowner and the authorities, they could not take the oath. The landowners traded peasants, lost them in gambling, gave them, exchanged them, and punished them. In 1765, a decree was adopted, according to which, for the disobedience of a serf, the landowner could be sent not only into exile, but even to hard labor. The peasants could not complain about the master (in accordance with the decree of 1767). Serfdom was introduced in Little Russia and New Russia, and also tightened up in Right-Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Poland and Belarus.

National policy of Catherine II

In 1762, Catherine issued two manifestos in which she called for foreigners to move to the Russian state, and also offered them a number of benefits. After that, German settlements in the Volga region were formed rather quickly. The effect of these manifestos exceeded all expectations, in 1766 the authorities were even forced to suspend the reception of foreigners.

The Russian state included lands that used to belong to the Commonwealth. As a result, about 1 million Jews appeared in Russia. In 1791, Catherine II established the so-called Pale of Settlement, i.e. border beyond which Jews were forbidden to live. If they accepted Orthodoxy, all restrictions were removed from them.

As a result, each nationality had its own living conditions, its own special economic regime. It is noteworthy that the indigenous population had the least privileges and the worst conditions.

In 1774 he was concluded Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty, as a result of which the Russian Empire received the Crimea and, consequently, access to the Black Sea. Now there was no need to grant privileges to the Zaporizhian Cossacks. In June 1775, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated.

Conspiracies against Catherine II and internal unrest

As you know, Catherine II did not have official rights to the throne, so they constantly tried to overthrow her. From 1764 to 1773, conspiracies were organized by seven "False Peters III". The eighth was Emelyan Pugachev, who became the leader of the Peasant War of 1773-1775, but in the end the rebellion was suppressed, and Pugachev was executed.

In addition, the former Russian emperor conspired against Catherine the Great, but they were also not successful, and Ivan himself was killed.

In 1771, a plague epidemic broke out in Moscow, which led to an uprising. September 26 (15) Plague Riot, as a result of which the people defeated the Chudov Monastery, and then captured the Donskoy Monastery. Lieutenant General Eropkin and G. G. Orlov with troops suppressed the rebellion in three days.

Between 1762 and 1778 in Russian Empire Freemasonry flourished among the nobles. Catherine II did not establish bans on their activities as long as they did not contradict her interests. In 1786, all the lodges, in whose publicistic publications there were hints of her reign, were closed, and books were banned.