Features of the domestic policy of Catherine II. Foreign and domestic policy of Catherine II

10.10.2019

Introduction

1. Domestic policy of Catherine II

1.1 Power reform

1.2 Economic, social and religious policy

2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The reign of Catherine II left a noticeable mark in the history of Russia. The policy of the Russian Empress was quite versatile and sometimes even contradictory. For example, her policy of enlightened absolutism, which was characteristic of many European states of that era and assumed the patronage of art, did not prevent, however, Catherine II from strengthening the oppression of serfdom.

Catherine II, born Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from a poor German princely family. Catherine was a rather complex outstanding personality. From early childhood, she learned a life lesson - in order to have power, you need to be able to cunning and pretend.

In 1745, Catherine II received Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Once in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, Catherine perfectly mastered the Russian language, studied many Russian customs, and, of course, thereby achieved the ability to please the Russian people. The future Russian empress read a lot. She read a lot of books by French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, and works by Russian writers. Of these, Catherine II learned the ideas of the enlighteners about public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate his subjects, about the supremacy of laws in society.

Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the tribal nobility, relying on the regiments of the guards, Catherine overthrew her husband from the throne. In the first years of her reign, Catherine II was intensely looking for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. Deciding the fate of favorites and favorites of the previous reign, Catherine II showed generosity and condescension. As a result, many talented and useful people to the state remained in their former positions.

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine II continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time. Separate innovations of the empress were of a private nature and did not give grounds to attribute the reign of Catherine II to the category of outstanding phenomena in Russian history.

It must be admitted that the circumstances under which Catherine began to reign were very difficult: finances were exhausted, the army did not receive a salary, trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to a monopoly, the military department was plunged into debt, the clergy were dissatisfied with the taking he has land.

1. Domestic policy of Catherine II

1.1 Power reform

Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I. The main features of Catherine II's domestic policy were the strengthening of autocracy, the strengthening of the bureaucracy, the centralization of the country and the unification of the government system.

On December 15, 1763, according to Panin's project, the Senate was reorganized. The Senate was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, headed by the prosecutor general. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

During the reign of the empress, an attempt was made to convene the Legislative Commission. The main goal of the commission's work was to be the clarification of people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. The first meeting of the Legislative Commission was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, but due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, county (which was based on the principle of taxable population).

The governor-general (viceroy) kept order in local centers, 2-3 provinces were subordinate to him. Each province was headed by a governor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. Land management was carried out by the provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for the nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between the townspeople, and the Upper Punishment for the trial of state peasants. The highest judicial bodies in the provinces were the criminal chamber and the civil chamber. Chambers judged all classes. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

At the head of the county was the captain-mentor - the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was executive body provincial government.

Since there were clearly not enough cities that were the centers of counties, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called philistines and merchants.

At the head of the city, instead of the governor, a mayor was appointed, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarter warden.

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack officers with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy Treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and the Crimea. Thus, there was no need to preserve the special rights and management system of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, who served to protect the southern borders of Russia. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, and also in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the Zaporizhzhya Sich to be disbanded, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

In 1787, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 they were granted the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

As a result of general administrative reforms aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire. By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members (one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts).

The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order was also eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant.

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

In an effort to create the most realistic guarantees of an "enlightened monarchy", Catherine II began to work on grants to the nobility, cities and state peasants. Letters to the nobility and cities became legally valid in 1785. The charter to the nobility secured for each hereditary nobleman freedom from compulsory service. They were exempted from state taxes, from corporal punishment. They retained the right of ownership of movable and immovable property, as well as the right to sue only equals (i.e., nobles), to trade.

1.2 Economic, social and religious policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was banned so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (the state bank and the loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, the acceptance of deposits for storage was introduced). A state bank was established and for the first time the issuance of paper money- banknotes.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the Empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increased competition and, ultimately, improving the quality of the goods.

The role of Russia in the world economy increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys. Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on the class-lesson system. Schools began to open. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

Orphanages for homeless children were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

In general, in Russia under Catherine II, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure and harassment. So, in 1773, a law was issued on the tolerance of all religions, forbidding the Orthodox clergy to interfere in the affairs of other confessions. Secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of land near the church. But already in February 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people of both sexes were removed from the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops. In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786. Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions) and were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20,000 Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to public practice of faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate estate and could be elected to local governments, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, the full Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for the first time in Russia in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication significantly differed from the European ones primarily in that it was of a Muslim nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. From 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published in St. Petersburg. Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the state system of the empire. Muslims were given the right to build and rebuild mosques.

Buddhism also received state support in the regions where it was traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Khambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Ekaterina as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.

2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening the role of Russia in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: "you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always keep the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... keep your hands free ... do not drag your tail behind anyone."

After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. Second Turkish war ends with the acquisition coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Russia Western Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising that was raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov.

On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers took place on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.

An important direction foreign policy Catherine II were also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as a pretext that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one victory after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of the Ryaba Mogila, the battle of Kagul, the battle of Largas, the battle of Chesma), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy Treaty, as a result of which Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but actually became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea, along with two important ports.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), the Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). Eventually Ottoman Empire in 1791, she was forced to sign the Yassy peace treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories by Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, Russia's political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedes' battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm that had flown in, suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This agreement served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - the union of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the XVIII century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right to armed protection when attacked by the fleet of a belligerent country).

In European affairs, the role of Russia increased during the Austro-Prussian war of 1778-1779, when she acted as an intermediary between the warring parties at the Teschen Congress, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After that, Russia often acted as an arbitrator in disputes between the German states, which turned to Catherine directly for mediation.

One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - the joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine's grandson Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich as emperor. According to the plans, the buffer state of Dacia is created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the reconquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.

In October 1782, the Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russo-Turkish wars for Russia, the Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in the three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During the reign of Catherine, the Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

Conclusion

Estimates of the reign of Empress Catherine II in historical science are ambiguous. Many of her undertakings, outwardly spectacular, conceived on a grand scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

Some historians are of the opinion that Catherine II simply implemented the changes dictated by the time, continued the policy outlined in previous reigns. Other historians recognize in the empress a paramount historical figure who took the second step, after Peter I, along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first - along the path of reforming it in the liberal-enlightenment spirit.

In domestic matters, the legislation of Catherine II completed the historical process that began under the temporary workers. Under Catherine, the nobility becomes not only a privileged class with a regular internal organization, but also a class that dominates the district (as a landowning class) and in general management(like a bureaucracy). Parallel to the growth of the rights of the nobility and depending on it, the civil rights of the landowning peasants are falling. The heyday of noble privileges in the XVIII century. necessarily connected with the flourishing of serfdom. Therefore, the time of Catherine II was that historical moment when serfdom reached its fullest and greatest development. Thus, the activity of Catherine II in relation to the estates was a direct continuation and completion of those deviations from the old Russian system that developed in the 18th century.

In foreign policy, the empress refused to follow her predecessors, Elizabeth and Peter III. She deliberately departed from the traditions that had developed at the Petersburg court, and yet the results of her activities were essentially such that they completed the traditional aspirations of the Russian people and government.

List of used literature

1. Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: World of books, 2007;

2. History of diplomacy - M., 1959;

3. History of Imperial Russia from Peter I to Catherine II. - M.: Priora, 1998;

4. History of Russia: In 2 vols. Vol. 1: From ancient times to the end of the 18th century. / A. N. Sakharov, L. E. Morozova, M. A. Rakhmatullin and others - M .: Astrel, 2007;

5. Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983;

6. Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) / Russian jurists of the XVIII-XX centuries: Essays on life and work. In 2 volumes. T.1 - M.: Zertsalo, 2007

7. Catherine and the development of the Russian military fleet // Questions of History, 2005, No. 4

8. http://www.history-gatchina.ru

Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) // Russian jurists of the XVIII-XX centuries: Essays on life and work. In 2 volumes. - M.: Zertsalo, 2007. - T. 1., S. 63

Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: Mir knigi, 2007. S.198-203

History of diplomacy - M., 1959, p. 361

Catherine and the development of the Russian Navy // Questions of History, 2005, No. 4

Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983. - S.111

Catherine II- Russian Empress, who ruled from 1762 to 1796. Unlike previous monarchs, she came to power thanks to a palace coup, overthrowing her husband, the near-minded Peter III. During her reign, she became famous as an active and powerful woman, who finally culturally strengthened her highest status. Russian Empire among European powers and mother countries.

Domestic policy of Catherine II:

Adhering in words to the ideas of European humanism and enlightenment, in fact, the reign of Catherine II was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of noble powers and privileges. The following reforms have been carried out

1. Reorganization of the Senate. Reducing the powers of the Senate to a body of judicial and executive power. The legislative branch was transferred directly to Catherine II and the Cabinet of Secretaries of State.

2. Statutory Commission. It was created to find out people's needs for further large-scale transformations.

3. Provincial reform. The administrative division of the Russian Empire was reorganized: instead of the three-level "Province" - "Province" - "County", a two-level "Gubernia" - "County" was introduced.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporizhian Sich. After the Provincial reform led to the equalization of rights between the Cossack chieftains and the Russian nobility. That. the need to maintain a special control system has disappeared. In 1775 the Zaporizhian Sich was disbanded.

5. Economic reforms. A number of reforms were carried out to eliminate monopolies and establish fixed prices for vital products, expand trade relations and boost the country's economy.

6. Corruption and favorites. In view of the increased privileges of the ruling elite, corruption and abuse of rights were widespread. The favorites of the Empress and those close to the court received generous gifts from the state treasury. At the same time, among the favorites were very worthy people who participated in the foreign and domestic policy of Catherine 2 and made a serious contribution to the history of Russia. For example, Prince Grigory Orlov and Prince Potemkin Tauride.

7. Education and science. Under Catherine, schools and colleges began to open widely, but the level of education itself remained low.

8. National policy. The Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, the German settlers were exempted from taxes and duties, the indigenous people became the most disenfranchised.

9. Class transformations. A number of decrees were introduced expanding the already privileged rights of the nobility

10. Religion. A policy of religious tolerance was pursued, and a decree was introduced prohibiting the Russian Orthodox Church from interfering in the affairs of other confessions.

Catherine's foreign policy:

1. Expanding the boundaries of the empire. Accession of Crimea, Balta, Kuban region, Western Russia, Lithuanian provinces, Duchy of Courland. Partition of the Commonwealth and the war with the Ottoman Empire.

2. Georgievsky treatise. Signed to establish a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Georgia).

3. War with Sweden. Tied for territory. As a result of the war, the Swedish fleet was defeated, and the Russian fleet was sunk by a storm. A peace treaty was signed, according to which the borders between Russia and Sweden remain the same.

4. Politics with other countries. Russia often acted as an intermediary establishing peace in Europe. After the French Revolution, Catherine joined the anti-French coalition because of the threat to the autocracy. Active colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was accompanied by wars, in which the empress was helped to win by talented generals, such as Field Marshal Rumyantsev.

The history of the Russian Empire in the era of Catherine II is replete with military conflicts, secret conspiracies and coalitions. The success of wars, intrigues and diplomacy, through which the Empress managed to significantly expand the western and southern borders of the Russian Empire, is often called one of her most significant achievements. A huge role in this regard was played by the brilliant Russian commander A.V. Suvorov.

Internal

During the reign, Catherine II united the aspirations for the ideals of enlightened absolutism, contradictory side by side with outright oppression of the peasants. The growth of social tension in the country exhausted by wars resulted in the Pugachev uprising, after which the empress began reforms aimed at increasing tax collections, strengthening the vertical of power and police supervision.

Other areas of policy of Catherine II

Attitude towards the church

Transforming the economy

Attempts to reform economic system were also undertaken - the issuance of the first paper money (banknotes), permission to open your own enterprise without additional documents and increasing resource exports. The Free Economic Society was founded to promote innovations in land use and industry. However, the Russian Empire remained a predominantly resource-exporting power - most of all timber was sold, grain sales were organized (prohibited under Empress Elizabeth). Of the value-added products, only canvas could be named. The development of production technologies was hampered by the orientation of the economy towards the slave labor of serfs. At the end of the reign of Catherine II, paper money depreciated by a third, debts from the state accumulated more than 200 million, and revenues did not cover expenses.

Catherine II - All-Russian Empress, who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is the strengthening of serfdom tendencies, the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformational activities and an active foreign policy aimed at the implementation and completion of some plans.

In contact with

Foreign Policy Goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
expansion of the territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of the 19th century. The main rivals of Russia at that time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and the Ottoman Empire in the East. The empress adhered to the policy of "armed neutrality and alliances", concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the wake of someone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine II

Tasks of foreign policy of Catherine II (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives that required a solution were:

conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after the Seven Years' War)
maintaining the positions of the Russian Empire in the Baltic;
solution of the Polish question (preservation or partition of the Commonwealth);
expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of the Crimea, the territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
exit and full consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine 2

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

western direction (Western Europe);
east direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also point out

the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
Balkan direction, referring to the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of foreign policy of Catherine II"

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Prussian-Russian alliance	1764	The beginning of the formation of the Northern System (allied relations with England, Prussia, Sweden)
The first division of the Commonwealth	1772	Accession of the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands (part of Livonia)
Austro-Prussian conflict	1778-1779	Russia took the position of an arbiter and actually insisted on the conclusion of the Teshen peace by the warring powers; Catherine set her own conditions, by accepting which the warring countries restored neutral relations in Europe
"Armed neutrality" with respect to the newly formed USA	1780	Russia did not support either side in the Anglo-American conflict
Anti-French coalition	1790	The beginning of the formation by Catherine of the second Anti-French coalition; rupture of diplomatic relations with revolutionary France
Second division of the Commonwealth	1793	Empire ceded part of Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (eastern part of modern Ukraine)
Third Section of the Commonwealth	1795	Accession of Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French coalition was undertaken by the Empress, as they say, "to divert eyes." She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "North-Western Direction of Foreign Policy"

Table. "Balkan Direction of Foreign Policy"

The Balkans are becoming the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting precisely with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress planned the Greek project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He has not been implemented due to:

changes in Austria's plans;
independent conquest by the Russian Empire of a large part of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Catherine II"

The eastern direction of the foreign policy of Catherine 2 was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia on the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Russo-Turkish War (declared by Turkey to Russia)	1768-1774	A series of significant victories brought Russia into some of the strongest in the military plan of the European powers (Kozludzhi, Larga, Cahul, Ryabaya Grave, Chesmen). The Kuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty, signed in 1774, formalized the annexation of the Azov, Black Sea, Kuban and Kabarda regions to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became autonomous from Turkey. Russia received the right to keep the navy on the Black Sea.
Accession of the territory of modern Crimea	1783	The protege of the Empire, Shahin Giray, became the Crimean Khan, the territory of the modern Crimean peninsula became part of Russia.
"Patronage" over Georgia	1783	After the conclusion of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Georgia officially received the protection and patronage of the Russian Empire. She needed this to strengthen the defense (attacks from Turkey or Persia)
Russian-Turkish war (unleashed by Turkey)	1787-1791	After a series of significant victories (Fokshany, Rymnik, Kinburn, Ochakov, Izmail), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Jassy, according to which the latter recognized the transfer of Crimea to Russia, recognized the Treaty of St. George. Russia also crossed territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers.
Russo-Persian War	1795-1796	Russia has significantly strengthened its positions in the Transcaucasus. Gained control over Derbent, Baku, Shemakha and Ganja.
Persian campaign (continuation of the Greek project)	1796	Plans for a large-scale campaign against Persia and the Balkans was not destined to come true. In 1796 the empress Catherine II died. But, it should be noted that the beginning of the campaign was quite successful. Commander Valerian Zubov managed to capture a number of Persian territories.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated, first of all, with the activities of outstanding commanders and naval commanders, "Catherine's eagles": Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to an unattainable height.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine's contemporaries, including the illustrious commander Frederick of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were merely a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the decomposition of its army and navy. But, even if this is true, no other power, except Russia, could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

The results of Catherine II's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

All foreign policy goals and objectives Catherine were brilliantly executed:

The Russian Empire entrenched itself in the Black and Azov Seas;
confirmed and secured the northwestern border, fortified in the Baltic;
expanded territorial possessions in the West after the three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Russia;
expanded possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean peninsula;
weakened the Ottoman Empire;
gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
having created the Northern System, strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! When Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the reign of the empress

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy in different ways. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a "barbaric action" that ran counter to the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the Empress preached. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the prerequisites for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. In the future, the country had to fight with these large countries that directly bordered the Russian Empire.

Receivers of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Conclusion

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

FSEI HPE "Siberian Federal University"

Humanitarian Institute

Faculty of History and Philosophy

Department of Philosophy

History abstract:

External and domestic politics CatherineII

Completed:

1st year student, Department of Philosophy

Kirienko Pavel Andreevich

Checked:

M.G. Tarasov

Krasnoyarsk 2010

1. Introduction

2.1 South direction

2.2 Western direction

2.3 Other destinations

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

3.2 Protective absolutism

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Introduction

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists and musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine II was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone.

During the entire reign of Catherine II, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world.

The way of her government can be described in one expression: Catherine ruled with "carrot and stick".

For myself, in my work, I set the following tasks:

ü To study and demonstrate the foreign policy of Catherine II;

ü To study and demonstrate the domestic policy of Catherine II.

2. Foreign policy of Catherine II

Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position on the world stage and pursue an offensive policy.

Catherine II began her foreign policy activities by returning home Russian troops who were abroad, confirmed peace with Prussia, but rejected the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III.

Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire begun by Peter I as a great world power. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of the status of a great power for Russia.

The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, which made it possible to influence in its own interests on the solution of almost any international issue.

2.1 South direction

In the southern direction, for a long time the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea.

For such a dream, the first war was the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.

In 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia; the campaign of 1769 did not bring success to Russia. However, in 1770 Rumyantsev launched an offensive towards the Danube. In the battle on the Largi River, the Russian army put the Turkish troops to flight. On the Katu River - Rumyantsev, with only 27 thousand soldiers - defeated the 150 thousandth Turkish army. And the Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Sviridov defeated the superior forces of the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea, the right to have a Black Sea fleet. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Russia also received land between the Dnieper and the Bug, and from the North Caucasus to the Kuban. However, in 1783 the Crimea was included in Russia, and fortress towns began to be built there. In the same year, the Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Georgia came under the protectorate (protection) of Russia. Therefore, the second Russian-Turkish war begins.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The Russian Empire, which needed access to the Black Sea, solved this problem through two Russian-Turkish wars.

2.2 Western direction

Here there is a desire of Russia to unite, into the Empire, all the lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the second half of the XVIII century. Poland is a weak state, with many internal problems, which was going through about the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. Catherine II wanted to have in Poland - a weak state with her protege. However, Russia's allies, Austria and Prussia, were in favor of the division of Poland. As a result, there are three divisions of Poland:

1) 1772 - Russia received eastern Belarus and Latvian lands.

2) 1793 - Russia receives the center of Belarus, with Minsk and right-bank Ukraine.

3) 1795 - Russia receives western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.

On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers was held on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.

2.3 Other destinations

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, as a result of which a union treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the "Northern System" - the union of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - the joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine's grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as emperor. According to the plans, the buffer state of Dacia is created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the reconquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.

In the third quarter of the XVIII century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right to armed protection when attacked by the fleet of a belligerent country).

3. Domestic policy of Catherine II

Catherine II ascended the throne, having a well-defined political program based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities historical development Russia. The most important principles for the implementation of this program were gradualness, consistency, and consideration of public sentiments.

Under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucracy was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government.

In the domestic policy of Catherine II, the following three periods can be distinguished: enlightened absolutism, protective absolutism, enlightened despotism.

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

Enlightened absolutism - the period of Catherine II's passion for the ideas of enlightenment (all people are free and equal by nature). This is a period of reforms driven by concern for the "public good" and attempts to improve legislation. At this time, in order to improve central administration, in 1763 the Senate was divided into 6 departments. Each of which had a strictly defined range of duties and powers. In 1764, Catherine II appointed a governor-general (Rumyantsev) to Ukraine instead of a hetman, finally destroying Ukrainian autonomy. 1763-1764 - Secularization was carried out. Catherine II considered herself a student of European enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) and was in correspondence with them. Catherine II dreamed of a state capable of ensuring the well-being of her subjects. In Russia, the "Cathedral Code" adopted in 1649 continues to operate.

Then Catherine II decided to call elections, representatives from each estate and instruct them to work out a new provision, taking into account the interests of the population. For the deputies, the empress issued an order (to condemn the cruelty of punishments; to proclaim responsibility to subjects and non-subjects; to condemn excessive exactions from peasants, etc.). In 1767, the "Laid Commission" was convened. The Legislative Commission included more than 500 deputies. However, the Legislative Commission did not justify the hopes of Catherine, because. each estate thought only of its own interests, and as a result the commission was dissolved.

3.2 Protective absolutism

Protective absolutism is a period of prolonged internal reforms, but in a different vein. At this time, state control over order, “keeping silence” in the state (from Pugachev to the French Revolution) is being strengthened.

After the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II came to the conclusion that it was necessary to strengthen local government. In 1775 - the provincial reform, according to which the number of provinces increased from 8 to 50. The provinces were divided into counties. Under the governor, there was a provincial administration that supervised activities and officials.

And the Treasury was engaged in finance and economic affairs. Judicial institutions were separated from administrative ones.

Thus, there is an official separation of the judicial and financial areas.

In 1785, the "Charter of the Nobility" appeared - it finally secured the rights of the nobility (exemption from compulsory service; exemption from corporal punishment; exemption from poll tax; the right to property over peasants; the right to own land; engage in business and trade). In 1785, the “Letter of Letters to Cities” also appeared (it divided all citizens into 6 categories, their rights and privileges depended on belonging to the category and on their property status).

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Enlightened despotism is a period of strict censorship. Punitive measures against freethinking. Confiscation of French literature (after the French Revolution). The decree of 1783 on free printing houses was undoubtedly a progressive document for those times. In Russia there were other conditions in comparison with England, and with France, and the American states. The decree provided the society with new opportunities that were immediately used: big number new printing houses and publications. Events in France significantly influenced Catherine II. She was frightened by the possible spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in the Russian state. May 20, 1792 Prince A.A. Prozorovsky wrote to her about the need to “put limits on foreign booksellers and take away the ability to import books like this at the borders and ports, and even more so from France, which is now upset, serving only to deceive and debauch people who are not based on the rules of honesty.”

To restrict the import of foreign literature from abroad, Catherine II issues a decree on the creation of "censorship ... in each place of three persons: spiritual, civil and scientific." We can say that from that time the official "formulation" of censorship began.

Conclusion

In my opinion, the reign of Catherine II in the XVIII century is the brightest for the Russian Empire. Even before accession to the throne, being the wife of Emperor Peter III, Catherine was already carried away by the writings of the French philosopher-enlightener, Voltaire, which, in my opinion, later greatly influenced her way of government. Her reign cannot be underestimated. The expansion of borders begun by Peter I and the consolidation of the title of "Great Power" for Russia, Catherine II brilliantly completed. It was during her reign that a much-needed outlet to the Black Sea was obtained, as a result of two Russian-Turkish wars. As a result of the division of Poland, Russia regains the territories of Ukraine and Belarus. With such a foreign policy, as it would seem at first glance, lawlessness and devastation should have reigned in the state. But even here the merits of Catherine II do not end there. In the state, she carried out many reforms, such as a charter to nobles and cities, a decree on free printing houses and on the introduction of censorship, etc. She managed to systematize the authorities, dividing the Senate into 6 departments, and perfectly differentiate the territory of the Russian Empire, as a result of the provincial reform. In my opinion, Catherine II is the most outstanding empress in the history of our state. At least history does not know the name of the woman who did just as much and necessary during the reign.

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