Russian Turkish war 1877 1878 progress results. Russo-Turkish War

Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)

The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 is a war between the Russian Empire and its allied Balkan states on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It was caused by the rise of national consciousness in the Balkans. The brutality with which the April Uprising was crushed in Bulgaria aroused sympathy for the position of the Christians of the Ottoman Empire in Europe and especially in Russia. Attempts to improve the position of Christians by peaceful means were frustrated by the stubborn unwillingness of the Turks to make concessions to Europe, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force Osman Pasha's best Turkish army to surrender at Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which fixed the return of the southern part of Bessarabia to Russia and the annexation of Kars, Ardagan and Batumi. The statehood of Bulgaria was restored (it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) as a vassal Principality of Bulgaria; the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and the Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

Oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

Article 9 of the Paris Peace Treaty, concluded as a result of the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. The matter did not progress further than the publication of the corresponding firman (decree) of the Sultan. In particular, in the courts the evidence of non-Muslims (“dhimmi”) against Muslims was not accepted, which effectively deprived Christians of the right to judicial protection from religious persecution.

1860 - in Lebanon, the Druze, with the connivance of the Ottoman authorities, slaughtered over 10 thousand Christians (mainly Maronites, but also Greek Catholics and Orthodox). The threat of French military intervention forced Porto to restore order. Under pressure from the European powers, Porta agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was nominated by the Ottoman sultan after agreement with the European powers.

1866-1869 - an uprising in Crete under the slogan of uniting the island with Greece. The rebels took control of the entire island except for the five cities in which the Muslims fortified. By the beginning of 1869, the uprising was crushed, but the Porte made concessions, introducing self-government on the island, which strengthened the rights of Christians. During the suppression of the uprising, the events in the monastery of Moni Arkadiou (English) became widely known in Europe, when over 700 women and children who had taken refuge behind the walls of the monastery chose to blow up the powder magazine, but not surrender to the besieging Turks.

The consequence of the uprising in Crete, especially as a result of the brutality with which the Turkish authorities suppressed it, was to draw attention in Europe (in Great Britain in particular) to the issue of the oppressed position of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

However little attention the British paid to the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, and however imperfect their knowledge of all the details, enough information leaked from time to time to produce a vague but firm belief that the sultans did not fulfill their "firm promises" made to Europe; that the vices of the Ottoman government were incurable; and that when the time comes for another crisis affecting the "independence" of the Ottoman Empire, it will be absolutely impossible for us to give back to the Ottomans the support we gave earlier during the Crimean War.

Changing the balance of power in Europe

Russia emerged from the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to abandon the maintenance of the fleet on the Black Sea and tear down the fortifications of Sevastopol.

Revising the results of the Crimean War has become the main goal of Russian foreign policy. However, it was not so simple - the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 provided for guarantees of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire from Great Britain and France. The openly hostile position taken by Austria during the war complicated the situation. Of the great powers, only Prussia maintained friendly relations with Russia.

It was on the alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck that Prince A. M. Gorchakov, appointed by Alexander II in April 1856 as chancellor, staked. Russia took a neutral position in the unification of Germany, which ultimately led to the creation of the German Empire after a series of wars. In March 1871, taking advantage of the crushing defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war, Russia, with the support of Bismarck, achieved international agreement to repeal the provisions of the Paris Treaty, which forbade it to have a fleet on the Black Sea.

The remaining provisions of the Paris Treaty, however, continued to operate. In particular, Article 8 gave the right to Great Britain and Austria in the event of a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire to intervene on the side of the latter. This forced Russia to exercise extreme caution in its relations with the Ottomans and coordinate all its actions with other great powers. A one-on-one war with Turkey, therefore, was possible only if carte blanche was received from the rest of the European powers for such actions, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for the right moment.

Immediate causes of the war

The suppression of the uprising in Bulgaria and the reaction of Europe

In the summer of 1875, an anti-Turkish uprising began in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main reason for which was the exorbitant taxes imposed by the financially bankrupt Ottoman government. Despite some tax cuts, the uprising continued throughout 1875 and eventually sparked the April Uprising in Bulgaria in the spring of 1876.

During the suppression of the Bulgarian uprising, Turkish troops committed massacres of civilians, more than 30 thousand people died; in particular, irregular units, the bashi-bazouks, raged. A propaganda campaign was launched against the pro-Turkish line of the British government, Disraeli, by a number of journalists and publications, accusing the latter of ignoring the cruelties of Turkish irregulars; a special role was played by the materials of the American journalist, married to a Russian citizen, Yanuariy McGahan (English), published in the opposition Daily News (English). In July - August 1876, Disraeli was forced to repeatedly defend the government's policy on the Eastern Question in the House of Commons, as well as to justify the false reports of the British ambassador in Constantinople, Henry Elliot (Sir Henry George Elliot). On August 11 of the same year, during his last debate in the lower house (the next day he was elevated to the peerage), he found himself in complete isolation, being subjected to severe criticism from representatives of both parties.

Publications in the Daily News caused a wave of public indignation in Europe: Charles Darwin, Oscar Wilde, Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi spoke out in support of the Bulgarians.

Victor Hugo, in particular, wrote in August 1876 in a French parliamentary newspaper.

It is necessary to draw the attention of European governments to one fact, one very small fact that the governments do not even notice ... An entire people will be exterminated. Where? in Europe... Will there be an end to the torment of this little heroic people?

Public opinion in England was finally turned against the "Turkophile" policy of supporting the Ottoman Empire by the publication in early September 1876 of the pamphlet The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East by the leader of the opposition Gladstone, which was the main factor in the non-intervention of England on the side of Turkey with the ensuing next year declaration of war by Russia. Gladstone's pamphlet, in its positive part, outlined a program for granting autonomy to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

In Russia, from the autumn of 1875, a mass movement of support for the Slavic struggle unfolded, embracing all social strata. A sharp discussion unfolded in society: progressive circles justified the liberating goals of the war, conservatives talked about its possible political dividends, such as the capture of Constantinople and the creation of a Slavic federation headed by monarchical Russia.

This discussion was superimposed on the traditional Russian dispute between the Slavophiles and Westerners, and the former, represented by the writer Dostoevsky, saw in the war the fulfillment of a special historical mission of the Russian people, which consisted in rallying the Slavic peoples around Russia on the basis of Orthodoxy, and the latter, represented by Turgenev, denied the significance religious aspect and believed that the purpose of the war was not the defense of Orthodoxy, but the liberation of the Bulgarians.

The events in the Balkans and in Russia during the initial period of the crisis are the subject of a number of works of Russian fiction.

In Turgenev's poem "Croquet at Windsor" (1876), Queen Victoria was openly accused of condoning the actions of Turkish fanatics;

Polonsky's poem "Bulgarian Woman" (1876) tells of the humiliation of a Bulgarian woman sent to a Muslim harem and living with a thirst for revenge.

The Bulgarian poet Ivan Vazov has a poem "Memories of Batak", which was written from the words of a teenager he met - thin, in rags, he stood with outstretched hand. "Where are you from, little boy?" - “I am from Batak. Do you know Batak? Ivan Vazov sheltered the boy in his house and subsequently wrote beautiful poems in the form of a story by the boy Ivancho about the heroic episode of the struggle of the Bulgarian people against the Ottoman yoke.

Serbia's defeat and diplomatic maneuvering

In June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on Turkey (see: Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War). Representatives of Russia and Austria officially warned against this, but the Serbs did not attach much importance to this, since they were sure that Russia would not allow them to be defeated by the Turks.

June 26 (July 8), 1876 Alexander II and Gorchakov met with Franz Joseph and Andrassy at the Reichstadt Castle in Bohemia. During the meeting, the so-called Reichstadt Agreement was concluded, which provided that in exchange for supporting the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia would receive Austria's consent to the return of southwestern Bessarabia, seized from Russia in 1856, and to annex the port of Batumi on the Black sea. In the Balkans, Bulgaria received autonomy (according to the Russian version - independence). During the meeting, the results of which were classified, an agreement was also reached that the Balkan Slavs "in no case can form one large state on the Balkan Peninsula."

In July-August, the Serbian army suffered several crushing defeats from the Turks, and on August 26, Serbia turned to the European powers with a request for mediation to end the war. The joint ultimatum of the powers compelled the Porte to grant Serbia an armistice for a period of one month and start peace negotiations. Turkey, however, put forward very harsh conditions for a future peace treaty, which were rejected by the powers.

On August 31, 1876, Sultan Murad V, declared incompetent due to illness, was deposed and Abdul-Hamid II took the throne.

During September, Russia tried to negotiate with Austria and England on an acceptable variant of a peaceful settlement in the Balkans, which could be presented to Turkey on behalf of all European powers. Things did not work out - Russia proposed the occupation of Bulgaria by Russian troops and the introduction of a united squadron of great powers into the Sea of ​​​​Marmara, and the first did not suit Austria, and the second did not suit Great Britain.

In early October, the truce with Serbia expired, after which the Turkish troops resumed the offensive. Serbia's situation became critical. On October 18 (30), 1876, the Russian ambassador in Constantinople, Count Ignatiev, presented the Porte with an ultimatum to conclude a truce for 2 months, demanding a response within 48 hours; On October 20, in the Kremlin, Alexander II delivered a speech containing similar requirements (the so-called Moscow speech of the emperor), and ordered a partial mobilization - 20 divisions. Porta accepted the Russian ultimatum.

On December 11, the Constantinople Conference, convened at the initiative of Russia, began. A compromise draft solution was worked out granting autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under the united control of the great powers. On December 23, the Porte announced the adoption of a constitution proclaiming the equality of religious minorities in the empire, on the basis of which Turkey announced its refusal to recognize the decisions of the conference.

On January 15, 1877, Russia entered into a written agreement with Austria-Hungary guaranteeing the latter's neutrality in exchange for the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other conditions of the previously concluded Reichstadt agreement were confirmed. Like the Reichstadt Agreement, this written agreement was kept in the strictest confidence. For example, even major Russian diplomats, including the Russian ambassador to Turkey, did not know about him.

On January 20, 1877, the Constantinople Conference ended without results; Count Ignatiev declared the responsibility of the Porte if she launched an offensive against Serbia and Montenegro. The Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper described the outcome of the conference as a "complete fiasco" that "could have been expected from the very beginning."

In February 1877, Russia reached an agreement with Great Britain. The London Protocol recommended that the Porte accept reforms that were truncated even compared to the latest (reduced) proposals of the Constantinople Conference. On March 31, the protocol was signed by representatives of all six powers. However, on April 12, the Porte rejected it, saying that it considered it as interference in the internal affairs of Turkey, "contrary to the dignity of the Turkish state."

Ignoring the united will of the European powers by the Turks gave Russia the opportunity to ensure the neutrality of the European powers in the war with Turkey. Invaluable assistance in this was provided by the Turks themselves, who, by their actions, helped to dismantle the provisions of the Paris Treaty, which protected them from a one-on-one war with Russia.

Russia's entry into the war

On April 12 (24), 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop Pavel (Lebedev) of Chisinau and Khotinsky read the Manifesto of Alexander II declaring war on Turkey.

Only a one-campaign war enabled Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, to train an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people. London needed 13-14 weeks, and the preparation of the Constantinople position - another 8-10 weeks. In addition, the army had to be transferred by sea, skirting Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars did the time factor play such a significant role. Turkey pinned its hopes on a successful defense.

The plan for the war against Turkey was drawn up as early as October 1876 by General N. N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project was corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich Sr., his assistant of headquarters, General A. A. Nepokoichitsky, assistant chief of staff, Major General K. V. Levitsky.

In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.

The troops of Romania, speaking on the side of Russia, began to act actively only in August.

The balance of forces of opponents was developing in favor of Russia, military reforms began to give their positive results. In the Balkans, in early June, Russian troops (about 185 thousand people) under the command of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (the Elder) concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, with their main forces in the Zimnitsa region. The forces of the Turkish army under the command of Abdul-Kerim-Nadir Pasha were about 200 thousand people, of which about half were garrisons of fortresses, which left 100 thousand for the operational army.

In the Caucasus, the Russian Caucasian army under the command of Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich had about 150 thousand people with 372 guns, the Turkish army of Mukhtar Pasha - about 70 thousand people with 200 guns.

In terms of combat training, the Russian army was superior to the enemy, but inferior to him in terms of weapons (Turkish troops were armed with the latest British and American rifles).

Active Support Russian army the peoples of the Balkans and Transcaucasia strengthened the morale of the Russian troops, which included the Bulgarian, Armenian and Georgian militia.

The Turkish fleet completely dominated the Black Sea. Russia, having achieved the right to the Black Sea Fleet only in 1871, did not have time to restore it by the beginning of the war.

General situation and plans of the parties

There were two possible theaters of military operations: the Balkans and the Transcaucasus. The Balkans were the key, since it was here that one could count on the support of the local population (for the sake of whose liberation the war was fought). In addition, the successful exit of the Russian army to Constantinople led the Ottoman Empire out of the war.

Two natural barriers stood in the way of the Russian army to Constantinople:

The Danube, the Turkish coast of which was thoroughly fortified by the Ottomans. The fortresses in the famous "quadrangle" of fortresses - Ruschuk - Shumla - Varna - Silistra - were the most protected in Europe, if not in the whole world. The Danube was a full-flowing river, the Turkish coast of which was thoroughly swampy, which greatly complicated the landing on it. In addition, the Turks on the Danube had 17 armored monitors that could withstand an artillery duel with coastal artillery, which further complicated the crossing of the river. With competent protection, one could hope to inflict very significant losses on the Russian army.

The Balkan ridge, through which there were several convenient crossings, the main of which was Shipka. The defending side could meet the attackers in well-fortified positions both on the pass itself and at the exit from it. It was possible to bypass the Balkan Range along the sea, but then one would have to take the well-fortified Varna by storm.

The Turkish fleet completely dominated the Black Sea, which made it necessary to organize the supply of the Russian army in the Balkans by land.

The war plan was based on the idea of ​​a lightning victory: the army was supposed to cross the Danube in the middle reaches of the river, in the Nikopol - Svishtov section, where the Turks did not have fortresses, in an area inhabited by Bulgarians friendly to Russia. After the crossing, the army should have been divided into three equal groups: the first - blocks the Turkish fortresses in the lower reaches of the river; the second - acts against Turkish forces in the direction of Viddin; the third - crosses the Balkans and goes to Constantinople.

The Turkish plan provided for an active defensive course of action: by concentrating the main forces (about 100 thousand people) in the “quadrangle” of fortresses - Ruschuk - Shumla - Bazardzhik - Silistria, lure the Russians who had crossed to the Balkans, deep into Bulgaria, and then defeat them, attacking them left flank of the message. At the same time, quite significant forces of Osman Pasha, about 30 thousand people, were concentrated in Western Bulgaria, near Sofia and Vidin, with the task of monitoring Serbia and Romania and preventing the Russian army from joining the Serbs. In addition, small detachments occupied the Balkan passages and fortifications along the Middle Danube.

Operations in the European theater of war

Forcing the Danube

The Russian army, by prior agreement with Romania, passed through its territory and in June crossed the Danube in several places. To ensure the crossing of the Danube, it was necessary to neutralize the Turkish Danube flotilla in the place of possible crossings. This task was accomplished by the installation of minefields on the river, covered by coastal batteries. Light mine boats deployed by rail were also involved.

On April 29 (May 11), Russian heavy artillery blew up the flagship Turkish corvette Lutfi Djelil near Brail, who died with the entire crew;

On May 14 (26), mine boats of lieutenants Shestakov and Dubasov sank the Khivzi Rahman monitor.

The Turkish river flotilla was upset by the actions of the Russian sailors and could not prevent the crossing of the Russian troops.

On June 10 (22), the Lower Danube detachment crossed the Danube at Galati and Braila and soon occupied Northern Dobruja.

On the night of June 15 (27), Russian troops under the command of General M. I. Dragomirov crossed the Danube in the Zimnitsa area. The troops were dressed in winter black uniforms to remain unnoticed in the dark, but, starting from the second echelon, the crossing took place under fierce fire. Losses amounted to 1100 people killed and wounded.

On June 21 (July 3), sappers prepared a bridge across the Danube near Zimnitsa. The transfer of the main forces of the Russian army across the Danube began.

The Turkish command did not take active steps to prevent the Russian army from forcing the Danube. The first line on the way to Constantinople was surrendered without serious battles.

Plevna and Shipka

The main forces of the army that crossed the Danube were not enough for a decisive offensive across the Balkan Range. For this, only the advanced detachment of General I.V. Gurko (12 thousand people) was allocated. To secure the flanks, a 45,000-strong Eastern and 35,000-strong Western detachments were created. The rest of the forces were in Dobruja, on the left bank of the Danube or on the way. The forward detachment on June 25 (July 7) occupied Tarnovo, and on July 2 (14) crossed the Balkans through the Khainkoisky pass. Soon the Shipka Pass was occupied, where the created Southern Detachment (20 thousand people, in August - 45 thousand) was advanced. The way to Constantinople was open, but there were no sufficient forces for an offensive in the Trans-Balkan region. The advance detachment occupied Eski Zagra (Stara Zagora), but soon the Turkish 20,000-strong corps of Suleiman Pasha, transferred from Albania, approached here. After a fierce battle at Eski-Zagra, in which the Bulgarian militias distinguished themselves, the advance detachment withdrew to Shipka.

Successes were followed by failures. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich actually lost command of the troops from the moment he crossed the Danube. The Western detachment captured Nikopol, but did not have time to take Plevna (Pleven), where the 15,000th corps of Osman Pasha approached from Vidin. The assaults on Plevna, undertaken on July 8 (20) and July 18 (30), ended in complete failure and fettered the actions of the Russian troops.

Russian troops in the Balkans went on the defensive. The insufficient number of the Russian expeditionary corps had an effect - the command did not have reserves to strengthen the Russian units near Plevna. Reinforcements were urgently requested from Russia, and the Romanian allies were called to help. It was possible to pull up the necessary reserves from Russia only by mid-late September, which delayed the course of hostilities by 1.5-2 months.

Lovcha (on the southern flank of Plevna) was occupied on August 22 (the losses of Russian troops amounted to about 1500 people), but the new assault on Plevna on August 30-31 (September 11-12) also ended in failure, after which it was decided to take Plevna by blockade. On September 15 (27), E. Totleben arrived near Plevna, who was instructed to organize the siege of the city. To do this, it was necessary to take the heavily fortified redoubts of Telish, Gorny and Dolny Dubnyaki, which were supposed to serve as strongholds for Osman in the event of his exit from Plevna.

On October 12 (24), Gurko stormed Gorny Dubnyak, which was occupied after a stubborn battle; Russian losses amounted to 3539 people killed and wounded, Turks - 1500 killed and 2300 captured.

On October 16 (28), Telish was forced to surrender under artillery fire (4,700 people were taken prisoner). The losses of the Russian troops (during the unsuccessful assault) amounted to 1327 people.

Trying to lift the siege from Plevna, the Turkish command decided in November to organize an offensive along the entire front.

On November 10 (22) and November 11 (23) the 35,000-strong Sofia (western) Turkish army was repulsed by Gurko at Novachin, Pravets and Etropol;

On November 13 (25), the Eastern Turkish Army was repulsed by units of the 12th Russian Corps at Trestenik and Kosabina;

On November 22 (December 4), the Eastern Turkish Army defeated the Yeleninsky detachment of the 11th Russian Corps. There were 25 thousand Turks with 40 guns, Russians - 5 thousand with 26 guns. The eastern front of the Russian location in Bulgaria was broken through, the very next day the Turks could be in Tarnovo, capturing huge carts, warehouses and parks of the 8th and 11th Russian corps. However, the Turks did not develop their success and all day on November 23 (December 5) were inactive and dug in. On November 24 (December 6), the hastily moved Russian 26th Infantry Division restored the situation, knocking down the Turks near Zlataritsa.

On November 30 (December 12), the Eastern Turkish army, not yet aware of the surrender of Plevna, tried to attack at Mechka, but was repulsed.

The Russian command forbade counterattacking until the denouement near Plevna.

From mid-November, the army of Osman Pasha, squeezed in Plevna by a ring of Russian troops four times superior to it, began to experience a lack of food. At the military council, it was decided to break through the line of taxation, and on November 28 (December 10), in the morning fog, the Turkish army attacked the Grenadier Corps, but after a stubborn battle it was repelled along the entire line and retreated to Plevna, where it laid down its arms. The losses of the Russians amounted to 1,696 people, the Turks, who attacked in dense masses, up to 6,000. 43.4 thousand people were taken prisoner. The wounded Osman Pasha handed over his saber to the commander of the grenadiers - General Ganetsky; he was given field marshal honors for his valiant defense.

Raid through the Balkans

The Russian army, numbering 314 thousand people against over 183 thousand people from the enemy, went on the offensive. The Serbian army resumed hostilities against Turkey. The western detachment of General Gurko (71 thousand people) crossed the Balkans under extremely difficult conditions and occupied Sofia on December 23, 1877 (January 4, 1878). On the same day, the troops of the Southern Detachment of General F.F. Radetsky (detachments of Generals M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky) launched an offensive and in the battle of Sheinovo on December 27-28 (January 8-9) they surrounded and took captured the 30,000th army of Wessel Pasha. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, in the battle near Philippopolis (Plovdiv), the army of Suleiman Pasha was defeated, and on January 8 (20), Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance.

Meanwhile, the former Ruschuk detachment also launched an offensive, encountering almost no resistance from the Turks, who were retreating to their fortresses; On January 14 (26) Razgrad was occupied, and on January 15 (27) Osman Bazaar was occupied. The troops of the 14th Corps, operating in Dobruja, on January 15 (27) occupied Hadji-Oglu-Bazardzhik, heavily fortified, but also cleared by the Turks.

On this fighting in the Balkans were completed.

Operations in the Asian theater of war

Military operations in the Caucasus, according to Obruchev's plan, were undertaken "to protect our own security and divert enemy forces." The same opinion was shared by Milyutin, who wrote to the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich: “The main military operations are planned in European Turkey; on the part of Asiatic Turkey, our actions should be aimed at: 1) to cover the security of our own borders with an offensive - for which it would seem necessary to capture Batum and Kars (or Erzurum) and 2) if possible, divert Turkish forces from the European theater and prevent their organization.

The command of the active Caucasian Corps was entrusted to General of Infantry M.T. Loris-Melikov. The corps was divided into separate detachments according to operational directions. The Akhaltsikhe detachment under the command of Lieutenant-General F.D. Devel (13.5 thousand people and 36 guns) concentrated on the right flank, in the center, near Alexandropol (Gyumri), the main forces were located under the personal command of M.T. Loris-Melikov ( 27.5 thousand people and 92 guns) and, finally, on the left was the Erivan detachment led by Lieutenant General A. A. Tergukasov (11.5 thousand people and 32 guns), the Primorsky (Kobuleti) detachment of General I. D Oklobzhio (24 thousand people and 96 guns) was intended for an offensive along the Black Sea coast to Batum and, if possible, further towards Trebizond. A general reserve was concentrated in Sukhum (18.8 thousand people and 20 guns)

Rebellion in Abkhazia

In May, the highlanders, with the support of Turkish emissaries, raised a rebellion in Abkhazia. After a two-day bombardment by the Turkish squadron and an amphibious landing, Sukhum was abandoned; by June, the entire Black Sea coast from Ochemchira to Adler was occupied by the Turks. June indecisive attempts by the head of the Sukhum department, General P.P. Kravchenko, to recapture the city were not crowned with success. Turkish troops left the city only on August 19, after reinforcements from Russia and units withdrawn from the Primorsky direction approached the Russian troops in Abkhazia.

The temporary occupation of the Black Sea coast by the Turks affected Chechnya and Dagestan, where uprisings also broke out. As a result, 2 Russian infantry divisions were forced to linger there.

Actions in the Caucasus

On June 6, the Bayazet citadel, occupied by a Russian garrison of 1,600 people, was besieged by Faik Pasha's troops (25 thousand people). The siege (called the Bayazet seat) continued until June 28, when it was lifted by the returning detachment of Tergukasov. During the siege, the garrison lost 10 officers and 276 lower ranks killed and wounded. After that, Bayazet was abandoned by the Russian troops.

The offensive of the Primorsky detachment developed extremely slowly, and after the landing of the Turks near Sukhum, General Oklobzhio was forced to send part of the forces under the command of General Alkhazov to help General Kravchenko, because of this, military operations in the Batumi direction until the end of the war took a protracted positional character.

In July-August, there was a long period of inactivity in Transcaucasia, caused by the fact that both sides were waiting for the arrival of reinforcements.

On September 20, upon the arrival of the 1st Grenadier Division, Russian troops went on the offensive near Kars; by October 3, the army of Mukhtar opposing them (25-30 thousand people) was defeated in the battle of Avliyar-Aladzhin and retreated to Kars.

On October 23, Mukhtar's army was again defeated near Erzurum, which next day was also besieged by Russian troops.

Thereafter important event Erzerum appeared to be the main goal of the actions, where the remnants of the enemy army were hiding. But here the allies of the Turks were the onset of cold and the extreme difficulty of delivering all kinds of supplies along mountain roads. In the troops standing in front of the fortress, disease and mortality reached terrifying proportions. As a result, by January 21, 1878, when a truce was signed, Erzerum could not be taken.

Conclusion of a peace treaty

Peace negotiations began after the victory at Sheinov, but were greatly delayed due to the intervention of England. Finally, on January 19, 1878, preliminary peace conditions were signed in Adrianople, and an armistice was concluded with the definition of demarcation lines for both warring parties. However, the basic terms of peace turned out to be inconsistent with the claims of the Romanians and Serbs, and most importantly, they aroused strong fears in England and Austria. The British government demanded new loans from Parliament to mobilize the army. In addition, on February 1, Admiral Gornby's squadron entered the Dardanelles. In response to this, the Russian commander-in-chief moved troops to the demarcation line the very next day.

The statement of the Russian government that, in view of the actions of England, it was planned to occupy Constantinople, prompted the British to be compliant, and on February 4 an agreement followed, according to which Hornby's squadron was to withdraw 100 km from Constantinople, and the Russians were obliged to return to their demarcation line.

On February 19 (O.S.), 1878, after another 2 weeks of diplomatic maneuvering, the provisional San Stefano Peace Treaty with Turkey was finally signed.

From San Stefano to Berlin

The terms of the Treaty of San Stefano not only alarmed England and Austria, but aroused strong displeasure among the Romanians and Serbs, who felt left out in the division. Austria demanded that a European Congress be convened to discuss the Treaty of San Stefano, and England supported this demand.

Both states began military preparations, which also prompted new measures on the Russian side to counter the threatening danger: new land and sea units were formed, the Baltic coast was prepared for defense, and an observational army was formed near Kiev and Lutsk. To influence Romania, which had become openly hostile to Russia, the 11th Corps was transferred there, which occupied Bucharest, after which the Romanian troops withdrew to Lesser Wallachia.

All these political complications encouraged the Turks, and they began to prepare for the resumption of the war: the fortifications near Constantinople were strengthened, and all the remaining free troops were drawn there; Turkish and British emissaries tried to stir up an uprising of Muslims in the Rhodope Mountains, hoping to divert part of the Russian troops there.

Such aggravated relations continued until the end of April, until Alexander II accepted the German offer of mediation.

On June 1, meetings of the Berlin Congress chaired by Prince Bismarck opened, and on July 1, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which radically changed the San Stefano Treaty, mainly in favor of Austria-Hungary and to the detriment of the interests of the Balkan Slavs: the size of the Bulgarian state, which gained independence from Turkey, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to Austria.

A contemporary of these events, historian M.N. Congress, - the historian wrote, - and 30 years after the events he asked in bewilderment: “If Russia wanted to remain faithful to the convention with Austria, why forget about it when concluding the San Stefano Treaty?” All that Britain and Austria wanted at the Berlin Congress, Pokrovsky pointed out, was the fulfillment by Russia of the Russian-Austrian convention of January 1877. But the Russian public, which was indignant at the “flawed” Berlin Treaty and the “betrayal” by Austria and Germany, did not know this , because The agreement was kept in the strictest confidence.

The results of the war

Russia returned the southern part of Bessarabia, lost after the Crimean War, and annexed the Kars region, inhabited by Armenians and Georgians.

Great Britain occupied Cyprus; according to an agreement with the Ottoman Empire dated June 4, 1878, in exchange for this, she undertook to protect Turkey from further Russian advances in the Transcaucasus. The occupation of Cyprus was to last as long as Kars and Batumi remained in Russian hands.

The borders established at the end of the war remained in force until the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, with some changes:

Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia merged into a single principality in 1885;

In 1908, Bulgaria declared itself a kingdom independent of Turkey, and Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had previously occupied.

The war marked the gradual withdrawal of Great Britain from confrontation in relations with Russia. After the fall of the Suez Canal to British control in 1875, the British desire to prevent further weakening of Turkey at all costs began to wane. British policy shifted to protecting British interests in Egypt, which was occupied by Britain in 1882 and remained a British protectorate until 1922. The British advance in Egypt did not directly affect the interests of Russia, and, accordingly, the tension in relations between the two countries gradually weakened.

The transition to a military alliance became possible after the conclusion in 1907 of a compromise on Central Asia, formalized by the Anglo-Russian Treaty of August 31, 1907. From this date, the emergence of the Entente is counted - the Anglo-French-Russian coalition opposing the German-led alliance of the Central Powers. The opposition of these blocs led to the First World War of 1914-1918.

Memory

This war entered Bulgarian history as the "Russian-Turkish War of Liberation". On the territory of modern Bulgaria, where the main battles of this war took place, there are over 400 monuments to Russians who fought for the freedom of the Bulgarian people.

In the capital of the Russian Empire - St. Petersburg - in 1886, in honor of the exploits of the Russian troops who took part and won the war, the Monument of Glory was erected. The monument was a 28-meter column, composed of six rows of cannons recaptured from the Turks during the war. At the top of the column was a genius with a laurel wreath in his outstretched hand, crowning the winners. The pedestal of the monument had a height of about 6½ meters, on all four sides of which bronze plaques were embedded with descriptions of the main events of the war and the names of the military units that took part in it. In 1930, the monument was dismantled and melted down. In 2005, it was restored to its original location.

In 1878, in honor of the victory in the Russian-Turkish war, the Yaroslavl Tobacco Factory became known as the Balkan Star. The name was returned in 1992, at the same time the production of the eponymous brand of cigarettes was launched.

In Moscow (November 28), on December 11, 1887, on the day of the tenth anniversary of the Battle of Plevna, on Ilyinsky Gate Square (now Ilyinsky Square), a monument to the heroes of Plevna was unveiled, erected with voluntary donations from the surviving grenadiers - participants in the Plevna battle.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

During the Russian-Turkish war of 1878, two types of weapons were used: cold - bladed and firearms - rifles. According to the technical characteristics, rifles were divided into two groups: single-shot for a unitary cartridge and multi-shot (magazine). Single-shot rifles were in service with the warring parties, multi-shot rifles only with irregular formations and volunteers (Bashi-Bazouks). RIFLE BERDAN No. 2 arr. 1870 It was this gun with a caliber of 10.67 mm that became the very famous "Berdanka", which lasted twenty years in service with the army until 1891, when it was replaced by the no less famous "three-ruler" caliber 7.62 mm (Berdan Rifle), developed by Colonel American service Hiram Berdan, together with Russian officers sent to America, Colonel Gorlov and Captain Gunius, was adopted in Russia for arming rifle battalions; and the sample of 1869 - for arming all parts of the Russian troops in general.

Rifles and carbine of the Berdan-2 system of the 1870 model: 1 - infantry rifle, 2 - dragoon rifle, 3 - Cossack rifle, 4 - carbine.

bayonet for rifle berdan №2

The best rifle in Europe

Berdan-2 arr. 1870

M1868 Russian Berdan I: The Turkish army used Austrian rifles of the Wenzel (Wenzl) systems mod. 1867 and Verdl arr. 1877.

Austrian rifle of the Wenzel (Wenzl) system arr. 1867

Austrian Werdl 1877 rifle

Also, the Turkish army was equipped with Snyder rifles and Martini rifles.

Snyder breech-loading rifle model 1865 with a folding bolt, England
Breech-loading
rifle
system Martini - Henry sample 1871 with a swinging shutter (detail). England

Source: http://firearmstalk.ru/forum/showthread.php?t=107 Bashi-bazouks and Turkish regular cavalry used American rifles and carbines of the Henry and Winchester systems with an underbarrel tubular magazine. The American Winchester rifle was one of the first weapon systems chambered for a metal cartridge . It was designed, however, not by Winchester at all, but by the American gunsmith and engineer B. T. Henry for a special metal side-fire cartridge of 44 caliber (11.2 mm). In 1860, he assigned the patent and all rights to this gun to the New Haven Arms Company, owned by O. F. Winchester. Henry himself became the director of the Winchester factory, and these weapons began to be named after the owner of the company; since 1867 and the factory became known as the Winchester Repiting Arme Company. In 1866, the magazine began to be filled with cartridges through the charging hole in the receiver, and not from the front of the magazine, as was the case with Henry at first. The Winchester magazine proved to be excellent during the American Civil War (1861-1865), and later as a hunting rifle. http://corsair.teamforum.ru/viewtopic.php?f=280&t=1638

hard drives

During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, combat bladed weapons were widely used - scimitars, broadswords and sabers. In literature, scimitars and sabers are sometimes called scimitars, and sometimes this name is assigned exclusively to Janissary daggers. It is not right. Scimitar can only be called a weapon with a slight double bend. The length of the blade could be different. Janissary scimitars were really short, but cavalry samples could have blades up to 90 cm long. The weight of scimitars, regardless of their size, was at least 0.8 kg. With less weight, the weapon became difficult to cut.

scimitar

Scimitar. Balkans, early 19th century.

Scimitar in scabbard. Turkey. 19th century.


Scimitar could stab, chop and cut. Moreover, chopping blows were applied by the upper part of the blade, and cutting by the lower - concave - part. That is, they cut with a scimitar, like a saber or katana, so he did not have a guard. But there was a difference. It was not necessary to lean on the scimitar with both hands, as on japanese sword, it did not have to be slowly driven like a checker. It was enough for a foot soldier to sharply pull the scimitar back. The rider had to just hold him. The rest, as they say, was a matter of technique. The concave blade “bited” into the enemy itself. And so that the scimitar does not escape from the hand, its handle was equipped with ears tightly covering the fighter’s hand from behind. For the heaviest samples, under the usual handle there was an emphasis for the second hand.
Suffice it to say about the penetrating power of scimitars that even 50-centimeter daggers of the Janissaries pierced knightly armor. dagger), chopping and stabbing edged weapons with a straight and long blade.

Broadsword_Osman Pasha

It can have double-sided (early samples), one-sided and one-and-a-half sharpening. The length of the blade is up to 85 cm. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian army was armed with several models of broadswords: guards cuirassier broadswords, army cuirassier broadswords, dragoon broadswords, with the exception of dragoons in the Caucasus, which were armed with sabers. Horse artillery also had special horse artillery broadswords.

Broadsword naval officer sample 1855/1914. Russia. 19th century.
Blade length - 83.3 cm;
Blade width - 3 cm;
Total length - 98 cm.
The blades of Russian broadswords from the first decade of the 19th century were only single-edged. In the first third of the 19th century, they were unified different types broadswords: dragoon model 1806, cuirassier model 1810 and the cuirassier model 1826 that replaced it. Broadswords were in service with cuirassiers until they were reorganized into dragoons in 1882, after which broadswords remained only in some military units as ceremonial weapons. sides of obliquely set ribs, which are a continuation of the butt and reaching the point.

Cuirassier officers' broadswords, model 1826. Made in 1855 and 1856. Chrysostom.

The naval broadsword has been used since the 16th century as a boarding weapon. In Russia, naval broadswords were introduced in the navy under Peter I. Russian naval broadswords of the 19th century differ from cavalry ones in their smaller size, shape of blades and hilts. A large number of sea broadswords were made in Zlatoust in 1852-1856 and later.
http://www.megabook.ru

Russian cavalry saber model 1827, treasurer

"Infantry sabers and cleavers. Zlatoust arms factory, mid-19th century
The Russian navy made its contribution to the defeat of the Turkish troops. Vice-Admiral of the Russian Navy Stepan Osipovich Makarov (1848-1904) played a huge role in the formation of naval underwater weapons in the Russian navy. His merits in this matter include, first of all, the idea of ​​​​creating mine boats (the prototype of destroyers) and arming them with pole mines, and later with torpedoes; modernization of pole mines using stern mounts; the creation of towed mines "lionfish". In the tactics of warfare, Stepan Osipovich first used mines as an offensive weapon off the coast of the enemy during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, and carried out the first combat attack on an enemy ship with Whitehead torpedoes. Makarov provided invaluable assistance to his flagship miner K. F. Schultz in creating the world's first trawl. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. boats with pole mines, improved by S. O. Makarov, were widely used in the Russian fleet. They sunk the Turkish Selfi monitor. At the same time, S. O. Makarov developed and successfully applied a winged mine towed by a boat. Such a mine was blown up by the Turkish battleship Assari. torpedo boats and destroyers were created.
The idea of ​​creating torpedo boats belongs to the talented Russian admiral S. O. Makarov, who was the first to use torpedoes in a combat situation from boats specially equipped for torpedo firing. Russia, the first to appreciate the significance of this new weapon, built several destroyers with a displacement of 12 tons of torpedoes and the successful use of mines by the Russian fleet in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. made a strong impression on the maritime circles of other states, which possessed a large number of large ships, apparently defenseless against this new weapon, since it seemed that strong artillery and thick armor were nothing in front of a small vessel that brought death to a large ship. (MILITARY LITERATURE --[Equipment and armament]-- Shershov A)

The war that broke out between the Russian Empire and Turkey in 1877 became a logical continuation of another armed conflict between the countries - the Crimean War. Distinctive features of hostilities were the short duration of confrontations, a significant preponderance of Russia from the first days of the war on the battle fronts, and global consequences that affected many countries and peoples. The confrontation ended in 1878, after which events began to take place that laid the foundation for contradictions on a global scale.

The Ottoman Empire, which was constantly “feverish” from uprisings in the Balkans, did not prepare for another war with Russia. But I did not want to lose my own possessions, which is why another military confrontation between the two empires began. After the end of the country for several decades, until World War I, they did not openly fight.

Warring parties

• Ottoman Empire.
• Russia.
• Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, the Principality of Wallachia and Moldavia became Russia's allies.
• Porto (European diplomats so called the government of the Ottoman Empire) was supported by the rebellious peoples of Chechnya, Dagestan, Abkhazia, as well as the Polish Legion.

Causes of the conflict

Another conflict between countries has provoked a complex of factors, interconnected and constantly deepening. Both the Turkish sultan and Emperor Alexander II understood that it was impossible to avoid war. The main reasons for the opposition are:

• Russia lost in the Crimean War, so it wanted revenge. Ten years - from 1860 to 1870. - the emperor and his ministers pursued an active foreign policy in an eastern direction, trying to resolve the Turkish issue.
• The political and socio-economic crisis deepened in the Russian Empire;
• Russia's desire to enter the international arena. For this purpose, the strengthening and development of the diplomatic service of the empire took place. Gradually, rapprochement with Germany and Austria-Hungary began, with which Russia signed the "Union of Three Emperors".
• While the authority and position of the Russian Empire in the international arena increased, Turkey was losing its allies. The country began to be called the "sick man" of Europe.
• In the Ottoman Empire, the economic crisis caused by the feudal way of life worsened significantly.
• In the political sphere, the situation was also critical. In 1876, three sultans were replaced, who could not cope with the discontent of the population and pacify the Balkan peoples.
• Movements have intensified national independence Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. The latter saw Russia as a guarantor of their freedom from the Turks and Islam.

The immediate reason for the start of the war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke out there in 1875. At the same time, Turkey was conducting military operations against Serbia, and the Sultan refused to stop fighting there, citing his refusal by the fact that these were internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia turned to Austria-Hungary, France, England and Germany with a request to influence Turkey. But the attempts of Emperor Alexander II were unsuccessful. England refused to intervene at all, while Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire began to correct the proposals received from Russia.

The main task of the Western allies was to preserve the integrity of Turkey in order to prevent the strengthening of Russia. England also pursued its own interests. The government of this country invested a lot of financial resources in the Turkish economy, so it was necessary to preserve the Ottoman Empire, completely subordinating it to British influence.

Austria-Hungary maneuvered between Russia and Turkey, but was not going to support either state. As part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a huge number of Slavic peoples lived, who demanded independence, like the Slavs in Turkey.

Finding itself in a rather difficult foreign policy situation, Russia decided to support Slavic peoples in the Balkans. If the emperor appeared, then the prestige of the state would fall.

On the eve of the war, various Slavic societies and committees began to arise in Russia, which called on the emperor to free the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke. The revolutionary forces in the empire hoped that Russia would start its own national liberation uprising, the result of which would be the overthrow of tsarism.

The course of the war

The conflict began with a manifesto signed in April 1877 by Alexander II. It was a de facto declaration of war. After that, a parade and a prayer service were held in Chisinau, which blessed the actions of the Russian army against Turkey in the struggle for the liberation of the Slavic peoples.

Already in May, the Russian army was introduced into Romania, which made it possible to launch offensives against Porta's possessions on the European continent. The Romanian army became an ally of the Russian Empire only by the autumn of 1877.

Simultaneously with the attack on Turkey, Alexander II began to carry out a military reform aimed at reorganizing the army. Almost 700 thousand soldiers fought against the Ottoman Empire. The number of the Turkish army was about 281 thousand soldiers. But the tactical advantage was on the side of the Porte, which could fight in the Black Sea. Russia got access to it only in the early 1870s, so the Black Sea Fleet was not ready by that time.

Military operations were carried out on two fronts:

• Asian;
• European.

The troops of the Russian Empire on the Balkan Peninsula were led by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, the Turkish army was led by Abdul Kerim Nadir Pasha. The offensive in Romania made it possible to eliminate the Turkish river fleet on the Danube. This made it possible to begin at the end of July 1877 the siege of the city of Plevna. During this time, the Turks fortified Istanbul and other strategically important points, hoping to stop the advance of the Russian troops.

Plevna was taken only by the end of December 1877, and the emperor immediately gave the order to move on, to cross the Balkan Mountains. At the beginning of January 1878, the Churyak Pass was overcome, and the Russian army entered the territory of Bulgaria. Taken in turn big cities, the last to surrender was Adrianople, in which a temporary truce was signed on January 31.

In the Caucasian theater of operations, the leadership belonged to the Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich and General Mikhail Loris-Melikov. In mid-October 1877, Turkish troops, led by Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha, surrendered at Aladzhi. Until November 18, the last fortress of Kare held out, in which soon there was no garrison left. When the last soldiers were withdrawn, the fortress surrendered.

The Russian-Turkish war actually ended, but all the victories still had to be legally consolidated.

Results and results

The final line in the conflict between the Porte and Russia was the signing of the San Stefano peace treaty. This happened on March 3 (February 19, according to the old style), 1878. The terms of the agreement secured the following conquests for Russia:

• Vast territories in Transcaucasia, including fortresses, Kare, Bayazet, Batum, Ardagan.
• Russian troops continued to stay in Bulgaria for two years for two years.
• The Empire received back Southern Bessarabia.

The winners were Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, which received autonomy. Bulgaria became a principality, which became a vassal of Turkey. But this was a formality, since the country's leadership pursued its own foreign policy, formed a government, created an army.

Montenegro, Serbia and Romania became completely independent from the Porte, which was obliged to pay a large indemnity to Russia. Emperor Alexander II celebrated the victory very noisily, distributing awards, estates, statuses and positions in the government to his closest relatives.

Negotiations in Berlin

The peace treaty in San Stefano could not resolve many issues, and therefore a special meeting of the great powers was organized in Berlin. His work began on June 1 (June 13), 1878, and lasted exactly one month.

The "ideological inspirers" of the congress were the Austro-Hungarian and British empires, which suited the fact that Turkey was rather weakened. But the governments of these states did not like the appearance of the Bulgarian principality in the Balkans and the strengthening of Serbia. It was them that England and Austria-Hungary considered as outposts for Russia to move further to the Balkan Peninsula.

Alexander II could not fight against two strong states of Europe at once. There were no resources or money for this, and the internal situation inside the country did not allow getting involved in hostilities again. The emperor tried to find support in Germany from Otto von Bismarck, but received a diplomatic refusal. The Chancellor suggested that an international conference be held to finally resolve the "Eastern Question". Berlin was the venue for the congress.

The main actors who assigned roles and made agendas were delegates from Germany, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, and Britain. There were also representatives from other countries - Italy, Turkey, Greece, Iran, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia. The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck assumed leadership of the congress. The final document - the act - was signed by all the participants of the congress on July 1 (13), 1878. Its conditions reflected all the contradictory points of view on the solution of the "Eastern question". Germany, in particular, did not want Russia's position in Europe to strengthen. France, on the contrary, tried to ensure that the requirements of the Russian emperor were met as much as possible. But the French delegation was afraid of the strengthening of Germany, so they provided their support secretly and timidly. Taking advantage of the situation, Austria-Hungary and England imposed their conditions on Russia. Thus, the final results of the work of the Berlin Congress were as follows:

• Bulgaria was divided into two parts - North and South. Northern Bulgaria continued to be a principality, while Southern Bulgaria received the name Eastern Rumelia, as an autonomous province within Porta.
• The independence of the Balkan states - Serbia, Romania, Montenegro, whose territory was significantly reduced, was confirmed. Serbia received part of the territories claimed by Bulgaria.
• Russia was forced to return the Bayazet fortress to the Ottoman Empire.
• The military contribution of Turkey to the Russian Empire amounted to 300 million rubles.
• Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia.
• The Danube River was declared free for navigation.

England, as one of the initiators of the congress, did not receive any territorial "bonuses". But the leadership of Britain did not need this, since all the changes to the San Stefano peace were developed and made by the British delegates. Protecting Turkey's interests at the conference was not a free act. Exactly one week before the opening of the Berlin Congress, the Porte transferred the island of Cyprus to England.

Thus, the Congress of Berlin significantly redrawn the map of Europe, weakening the position of the Russian Empire and prolonging the agony of Turkey. Many territorial problems have not been resolved, there has been a deepening of the contradictions between nation states.

The results of the congress determined the balance of power in the international arena, which led to the First World War a few decades later.

The Slavic peoples of the Balkans benefited the most from the war. In particular, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro became independent, and the Bulgarian statehood began to take shape. The creation of independent countries intensified national movements in Austria-Hungary and Russia, exacerbated social contradictions in society. The international conference solved the problems of the European states and planted a time bomb in the Balkans. It was from this region that the First World War began. The development of such a situation was foreseen by Otto von Bismarck, who called the Balkans the "powder magazine" of Europe.

Reasons for the war:

1. Russia's desire to strengthen the position of a world power.

2.Strengthening their positions in the Balkans.

3. Protection of the interests of the South Slavic peoples.

4. Assistance to Serbia.

Occasion:

• Unrest in the Turkish provinces - Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were brutally suppressed by the Turks.
• uprising against the Ottoman yoke in Bulgaria. The Turkish authorities dealt ruthlessly with the rebels. In response, in June 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, seeking not only to help the Bulgarians, but also to solve their national and territorial problems. But their small and poorly trained armies were crushed.

The massacres of the Turkish authorities aroused the indignation of the Russian society. The movement in defense of the South Slavic peoples was expanding. Thousands of volunteers were sent to the Serbian army, mostly officers. A retired Russian general, a participant in the defense of Sevastopol, a former military governor of the Turkestan region, became the commander-in-chief of the Serbian army M. G. Chernyaev.

At the suggestion of A. M. Gorchakov, Russia, Germany and Austria demanded equal rights for Christians with Muslims. Russia organized several conferences of European powers, at which proposals were worked out for settling the situation in the Balkans. But Turkey, encouraged by the support of England, answered all proposals either with a refusal or with arrogant silence.

In order to save Serbia from final defeat, in October 1876, Russia presented Turkey with a demand to stop hostilities in Serbia and conclude a truce. The concentration of Russian troops on the southern borders began.

April 12, 1877 having exhausted all diplomatic possibilities for a peaceful settlement of the Balkan problems, Alexander II declared war on Turkey.

Alexander could not allow the role of Russia as a great power to be questioned again, and her demands ignored.

balance of power :

The Russian army, in comparison with the period of the Crimean War, was better trained and armed, became more combat-ready.

However, the disadvantages were - lack of proper material support, lack of latest types weapons, but most importantly - the lack of command personnel capable of waging a modern war. The emperor's brother, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, deprived of military talents, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the Balkans.

The course of the war.

Summer 1877 the Russian army, by prior agreement with Romania (in 1859, the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia united into this state, which remained dependent on Turkey) passed through its territory and in June 1877 crossed the Danube in several places. The Bulgarians greeted their liberators enthusiastically. With great enthusiasm, the creation of the Bulgarian people's militia was going on, the commander of which was the Russian general N. G. Stoletov. The advance detachment of General I.V. Gurko liberated the ancient capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo. Encountering little resistance along the way to the south, On July 5, Gurko captured the Shipka Pass in the mountains, through which was the most convenient road to Istanbul.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburg "Shipka"

However, after the first successes followed failures. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich actually lost command of the troops from the moment the Danube was crossed. The commanders of individual detachments began to act independently. The detachment of General N. P. Kridener, instead of capturing the most important fortress of Plevna, as envisaged by the war plan, took Nikopol, located 40 km from Plevna.

V. Vereshchagin "Before the attack. Under Plevna"

Turkish troops occupied Plevna, which turned out to be in the rear of our troops, and endangered the encirclement of the detachment of General Gurko. Significant forces were sent by the enemy to recapture the Shipka Pass. But all attempts by the Turkish troops, who had a fivefold superiority, to take Shipka ran into the heroic resistance of Russian soldiers and Bulgarian militias. Three assaults on Plevna turned out to be very bloody, but ended in failure.

At the insistence of the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, the emperor decided go to the systematic siege of Plevna, the leadership of which was entrusted to the hero of the defense of Sevastopol, engineer-general E. I. Totleben. Turkish troops, not prepared for a long defense in the conditions of the coming winter, were forced to surrender at the end of November 1877.

With the fall of Plevna, a turning point occurred in the course of the war. In order to prevent Turkey, with the help of England and Austria-Hungary, from gathering new forces by spring, the Russian command decided to continue the offensive in winter conditions. Gurko squad, having overcome mountain passes impassable at this time of the year, in mid-December he occupied Sofia and continued the offensive towards Adrianople. Skobelev detachment, bypassing the positions of the Turkish troops at Shipka along the mountain steeps, and then defeating them, he swiftly launched an attack on Istanbul. In January 1878, Gurko's detachment captured Adrianople, and Skobelev's detachment went to the Sea of ​​Marmara and On January 18, 1878, he occupied the suburb of Istanbul - the town of San Stefano. Only the categorical prohibition of the emperor, who was afraid of European powers interfering in the war, kept Skobelev from taking the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress.

The European powers were concerned about the success of the Russian troops. England sent a military squadron into the Sea of ​​Marmara. Austria-Hungary began to put together an anti-Russian coalition. Under these conditions, Alexander II stopped further offensive and offered the Turkish Sultan truce, which was accepted immediately.

On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Turkey in San Stefano.

Conditions:

• The southern part of Bessarabia was returned to Russia, and the fortresses of Batum, Ardagan, Kare and the territories adjacent to them joined in Transcaucasia.
• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, which were dependent on Turkey before the war, became independent states.
• Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within Turkey. The terms of this agreement aroused sharp dissatisfaction with the European powers, who demanded the convening of a pan-European congress to revise the San Stefano Treaty. Russia, under the threat of creating a new anti-Russian coalition, was forced to agree to the idea convocation of congress. This congress took place in Berlin under the chairmanship of the German Chancellor Bismarck.

Gorchakov was forced to agree with new conditions of the world.

• Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the northern one was declared a principality dependent on Turkey, the southern one was declared an autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia.
• The territories of Serbia and Montenegro were significantly curtailed, and Russia's acquisitions in the Transcaucasus were reduced.

And the countries that did not fight with Turkey received an award for their services in defending Turkish interests: Austria - Bosnia and Herzegovina, England - the island of Cyprus.

The meaning and reasons for Russia's victory in the war.

1. The war in the Balkans was the most important step in the national liberation struggle of the South Slavic peoples against the 400-year-old Ottoman yoke.
2. The authority of Russian military glory was fully restored.
3. Significant assistance to the Russian soldiers was provided by the local population, for whom the Russian soldier became a symbol of national liberation.
4. The victory was also facilitated by the atmosphere of unanimous support that prevailed in Russian society, an inexhaustible stream of volunteers who, at the cost of their own lives, were ready to defend the freedom of the Slavs.

Victory in the war of 1877-1878 was the largest military success of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. It demonstrated the effectiveness of the military reform and contributed to the growth of Russia's prestige in the Slavic world.

Goals:

Educational:

• to study the causes, course and consequences of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878;
• find out the goals of the parties and the mechanism for unleashing a war, the balance of forces and the course of hostilities;
• to get acquainted with the significance of the technical and economic potential in war.

Developing:

• develop map skills
• develop the ability to highlight the main thing in the text of the textbook, tell the material read, pose and solve problems.

Educators: using the example of the valor and courage of the Russian army to instill a sense of love and pride for the Motherland.

Lesson type: combined.

Basic concepts:

• Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878
• Treaty of San Stefano February 19, 1878
• Congress of Berlin - June 1878
• Plevna
• Nikopol
• Shipka pass

Lesson equipment:

• wall map "Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878";
• wall map "The Balkan states after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878";
• projector;
• screen;
• computer;
• presentation.

Methods: teacher's story with elements of conversation.

Lesson plan:

1. Causes and cause of war.
2. Forces and plans of the parties.
3. The course of hostilities.
4. San Stefano Peace Treaty.
5. Berlin Congress.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

Greetings.

II. Checking homework.

What are the directions of foreign policy of Alexander II.

What event in Russian foreign policy at that time can be called a "triumph of Russian diplomacy"?

What actions did Russia take to strengthen its borders?

III. Learning new material. Annex 1

1. Causes and reason for the war

Do you remember what the "Eastern question" is? (Circle of problems associated with the Ottoman Empire).

The purpose of the lesson: to study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.

We work according to the following plan: Appendix 1.

Transfer it to your notebook

Lesson plan:

1. Causes of the war
2. Occasion
3. The course of the war
4. Heroes
5. Treaty of San Stefano

At the end of the lesson, we will complete this chart.

Causes of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.: Annex 1

1. Liberation movement in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria against the Ottoman yoke.
2. The struggle of European countries for influence on the Balkan politics.

1. Free the Slavic peoples from the Turkish yoke.
2. The rise of Russia's prestige as a great power.

On the initiative of A.M. Gorchakov Russia, Germany and Austria demanded from Turkey to equalize the rights of Christians with Muslims, but Turkey, encouraged by the support of England, refused.

Which Slavic peoples were ruled by the Ottoman Empire? (Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina).

Teacher's story: In the spring of 1875, unrest broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which soon covered all the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans brutally cracked down on the rebels: they staged pogroms, destroyed entire villages, killed children, women, and the elderly.

Such cruelty aroused indignation among the entire European public. A large number of volunteers from Russia went to the Balkans, joining the ranks of the rebels.

In the summer of 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and the Russian general M.G. Chernov, who voluntarily went to the Balkans.

Russia was not ready for war. Military reforms have not yet been completed.

What should the tsarist government have foreseen in case of war with Turkey? (Russia must agree with Austria-Hungary on its neutrality and thus secure itself from the anti-Russian coalition of European states).

Therefore, Alexander II agreed to the occupation of the Turkish province of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austrian troops.

Work with the wall map.

2. Forces and plans of the parties Annex 1

Exercise: the war unfolded on 2 fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasian.

Compare the strengths of the parties. Make a conclusion about the readiness of Russia and the Ottoman Empire for war. Guess the outcome.

Side forces

Balkan front		Caucasian front
250,000 soldiers	338,000 soldiers	55,000 soldiers	70,000 soldiers
Berdan's gun (1300 steps)	gun martini (1800 paces)	Snyder gun (1300 paces)	Henry shotgun (1500 paces)
cavalry 8,000	cavalry 6,000	cavalry 4,000	cavalry 2000
steel rifled guns		steel rifled guns	cast iron smoothbore guns

3. The course of hostilities

Working with the wall map:

Strategically important points of the theater of operations: The Balkans divided the territory of Bulgaria into North and South. The Shipka Pass connected the northern part of Bulgaria with the southern one. It was a convenient way for the passage of troops with artillery through the mountains. Through Shipka was the shortest route to the city of Adrianople, that is, to the rear of the Turkish army.

1. The Russian army passed (by agreement) through Romania.
2. Crossed the Danube.
3. General Gurko liberated the ancient capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo.
4. Gurko on July 5 captured the Shipka Pass. (convenient road to Istanbul).
5. General Kridener instead of the Plevna fortress took Nikopol (40 km from Plevna).
6. The Turks occupied Plevna and ended up in the rear of the Russian troops.
7. Three assaults on Plevna in July-August ended in failure.
8. Under the leadership of Engineer General Totleben, Turkish troops were driven out of Plevna in November 1877.
9. Gurko occupied Sofia in mid-December.
10. Skobelev's detachment was rapidly advancing on Istanbul.
11. In January 1878 Gurko's detachment captured Adrianople.
12. Skobelev's detachment went to the Sea of ​​Marmara and on January 18, 1878 occupied the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.

General Loris-Melikov defeated the superior enemy forces and occupied the fortresses:

• bayazet
• Ardagan
• went to Erzerum.

4. Treaty of San Stefano (February 19, 1878): Annex 1

1. Serbia, Montenegro, Romania gained independence.
2. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire (that is, it received the right to its own government, army, connection with Turkey - payment of tribute).
3. Russia received Southern Bessarabia, the Caucasian cities of Ardagan, Kars, Bayazet, Batum.

5. Congress of Berlin (June 1878): Annex 1

1. Bulgaria was divided into two parts:
2. Northern was declared a principality dependent on Turkey,
3. South - the autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia.
4. The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been significantly curtailed.
5. Russia returned Bayazet fortress to Turkey.
6. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7. England received the island of Cyprus.

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: Annex 1

Balkan front:

• General Stoletov N.G. - Defense of Shipka.
• general Kridener N.P. - Instead of the fortress of Plevna, he took Nikopol.
• General Skobelev M.D. - took the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.
• General Gurko N.V. - liberated Tarnovo, captured the Shipka Pass, occupied Sofia, Adrianople.
• General Totleben E.I. - freed Plevna from the Turks.

Caucasian front:

• Loris-Melikov M.T. - occupied the fortresses of Bayazet, Ardagan, Kars.

November 28, 1887 in Moscow, in the park on the square near the Ilyinsky Gate, on the day of the 10th anniversary of the liberation of Plevna, a monument-chapel was opened. A modest inscription on it reads: “Grenadiers to their comrades who fell in the glorious battle near Plevna. In memory of the war with Turkey in 1877-1878"

IV. Summing up the lesson Annex 1

Let's remember the plan of our lesson and fill in the diagram in the notebook:

• Causes of the war
• Occasion
• The course of hostilities
• Treaty of San Stefano

Express your opinion about the Berlin Congress.