Grammatical category and meaning. Types and forms

2.1. Morphological HA

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic GK

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

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General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is built either based on the form, or based on the grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammar category(gr. katē Goria‘judgment, definition’) is a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, p. 227; Alefirenko, p. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of the Civil Code are GCs. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific one.

Members (components) of the GC, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1, 2, 3 persons) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialexpressiveness grammatical meaning (GS). Wed definition of GC: grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to speak of a GC.

The second necessary sign of HA, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposed forms, united by some value:

Russians nouns are GK kind, but the English do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns - it is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered a case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (the direct and indirect cases are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no opposing grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single GC that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the CP and the way it is expressed [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let us compare examples in which the same CG is expressed different ways:

dog-dogs foo t-fee t

finish - finished wri te-wro te

long - longer good-better interesting -more interesting

In language nass(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) plural formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) in plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'people';

some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'arms';

wai‘paddle’ - lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal flexion:

gwu la 'cloak' - gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. - 1993). Cit. Quoted from: Reformed, p. 263].

write -on the -write,

resh-a -t - resh-and -th,

soband army - gather,

incisioná t - razré zat,

talk -to tell .

Types of grammar categories

There are several classifications of GC.

1. Depending on the number of opposing members the same GC different languages may be organized in different ways.

binomial GC:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. kind in Romance (male ↔ female) and Iranian languages ​​(according to soul / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in Slovene, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the forms of units, dv. and plural. For example, hunter:

hot'House', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  T ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'tree', yuh-ng  n ‘two trees’, yuh- T ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

Papuan languages ​​also have triple number;

2. GCs are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The issue of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological HA characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories, there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; kind,numbers and case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are inherent in the word and do not depend on its use in the sentence (cf. Russian categories kind nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal group of companies: GK of gender, case, animation-inanimateness;

CC verb type: GK of time, type, pledge, inclination.

The GCs of the language are in close cooperation and show a tendency to interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. inclinations, as well as kind: temporary forms, as a rule, are opposed within indicative mood representing real events; if there are many "tenses" in the language, then this temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the past, present continious etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects a noun and a verb.

Grammar category- this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive, for example. the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which combines the system of meanings of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc., and the system of corresponding forms.

Necessary sign of gram. category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units. Gram. categories are subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposed members within such categories may be different: for example, the category of gender is represented in Russian. language by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.

Case category. In Russian, the category of case is represented by 6 cases - nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional. Considering the meaning of each individual case as a special grammatical category, we see that it has a complex character and consists of a number of smaller meanings. For example, objectivity can be named as one of such meanings, since the category of case is characteristic of nouns denoting objects and phenomena. Another connotation can be called the belonging of a noun to a certain grammatical gender, etc. Professor E. I. Shendels calls these connotations semes. The concept of seme is understood as a minimal, further indivisible element of grammatical meaning. In Russian, the category of case is characterized by the presence of the following semes: objectivity, gender, number, animation/inanimateness.

Number category. Both in English and in Russian there is a grammatical category of number. This category expresses the quantitative relations that exist in reality, reflected in the minds of the carriers. given language and having a morphological expression in the corresponding forms of the language.

Genus category. In Russian, the category of grammatical gender is widespread. Every noun, whether animate or inanimate, as part of its semes that determine its grammatical essence, necessarily has a seme gender - masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender category of nouns in the Russian language is formal, except for nouns denoting people and animals.

The category of grammatical gender - masculine, feminine, neuter - was once inherent in the nouns of the Old English period. However, the historical development of the morphological structure of the English language has led to the fact that the category of grammatical gender, devoid of morphological means of expression, has ceased to exist. But at the same time, as a consequence of the Old English language system, in modern English, ships, yachts and other vessels are feminine. Moreover, in colloquial English, an informal style, animals also acquire the category of gender. Discrepancies in grammatical gender lead to the need for translation transformations.

Category of Certainty – Uncertainty. The content of the category of certainty - uncertainty indicates whether the object denoted by the noun is thought of as related to this class objects (the indefinite article), or as a known object, separated from the class of similar objects (the definite article).

In contrast to English, in Russian the category of certainty-uncertainty does not have a morphological expression and is expressed lexically. To express certainty, the following are used: particle - that, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these or that, that, those, that. According to their function, they correspond definite article. To express uncertainty, the pronouns are used some, some, some, some; numeral one. When translated into English language they are replaced indefinite article a or an. But it must be kept in mind that substitutions of this kind are not regular, but depend on the context.

Category of quality degree. The main means of expressing the category of quality degree are adjectives. In terms of their typological features, adjectives in both languages ​​differ significantly from each other. According to their composition, adjectives in Russian are divided into 3 categories:

1) adjectives of quality, denoting the attribute of an object directly: large - small, thick - thin, cold - warm, etc.;

2) relative adjectives denoting the attribute of an object through its relation to another object or action. Relative adjectives in Russian they are derived from the bases of nouns: stone - stone, truth - truthful, winter - winter;

3) possessive adjectives denoting that an object belongs to a person or animal: paternal, sister, etc.

Category of type and time. These two grammatical categories in different languages ​​have far from the same development and the most diverse morphological composition. The aspect category is usually defined as such a lexical and grammatical category that conveys a characteristic of the course of an action or a process indicated by a verb - repetition, duration, repetition, instantaneous action, or effectiveness, completeness, or limit, i.e., the relation of an action to its internal limit . The listed characteristics of the course of an action or process receive the most diverse morphological or morphological-syntactic expression in various languages. Thus, when translating, the translator resorts to different kind grammatical transformations. In Russian, two types are distinguished: imperfect (to write, speak, etc.), expressing an action in its course, and perfect (to do, write, etc.), expressing an action limited by the limit of performance in any the moment of its implementation or reporting the result of this action or process. The system of species in the Russian language, according to V. D. Arakin, has its own hallmark- the presence of correlative pairs of verbs that form a correlative series of forms that permeate the entire system of verb forms with the identity of their lexical meaning.

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, form), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and the noun female only a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Verbs perfect look they answer only the semantic question "What to do?", and imperfective verbs, in addition to the question "What to do?", in some speech situations also answer the question "What to do?": What was this boy guilty of? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Some masculine and feminine personal nouns form an equivalent opposition: mother-father, brother-sister, girl-boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case, it is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexicogrammatic) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories unite different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives, the category of case of nouns, the category of person, mood, tense of the verb, etc. are inflectional. Some categories turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such, for example, is the category of number in nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

Note. E. V. Klobukov suggested distinguishing interpretative morphological categories as a special type, “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense< >as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E. V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, the opposition of full and short forms adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to indirect cases.

Kamynina A. A. Modern Russian language. Morphology. M., 1999

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, aspect), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equipotent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do7, and imperfective verbs, in addition to the question What to do7, in some speech situations also answer the question What to do7: - What did this boy do wrong7 What did he do7- He tore apples in someone else's garden.

Some masculine and feminine personal nouns form an equipotent opposition: mother - father, brother - sister, girl boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone , to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives are inflectional, the category of case of nouns, the category of person,

declension, tense of the verb, etc. It is customary to classify the category of gender in nouns, aspect in the verb Some kate! Orias turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such is, for example, the category of number in nouns.

AV Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories 8.

Note. E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out as a special type interpretative morphological categories “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is distinguished by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense as an additional, accompanying , comitative information part9. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, the opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative forms is organized. nogo cases oblique cases

More on the topic § 10. Types of grammatical categories:

1. § 19. Hybrid grammatical types that are introduced into the category of adverbs
2. § 19. Hybrid grammatical types that are introduced into the category of adverbs
3. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GK), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).
4. MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR. GRAMMATIC MEANINGS, GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES, GRAMMATIC FORMS
5. 13. Grammatical form, grammatical meaning of the word, gramme, morphological category. Principles of classification of morphological categories

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages ​​with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animate-inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in Russian - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

The languages ​​of the world are different:

1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages ​​- Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages ​​with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages ​​(in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;

2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;

3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change during historical development one language; compare the three forms of a number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two - in modern Russian.

Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in general theory grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak V. G. Theoretical grammar French. M., 2004.