Demographic policy in the world - abstract. Types of population policy

12.10.2019

Population policy is nothing more than a special system of propaganda, economic, social, as well as other measures and activities that can in one way or another affect the natural movement of the population.

It is a purposeful activity of various state bodies, as well as social institutions carried out in the sphere of regulation of population reproduction processes. We can say that the demographic policy of the state is a policy that is aimed at the area of population. Its main goal is to achieve a certain demographic optimum.

The objects in this case can be the population of a country, a separate region, a city, a village, and so on.

Of course, demographic policy has its own goals and objectives. Usually they are formed in various political programs, directive plans and so on. In general, the main directions of this policy are as follows:

Decreased mortality as well as morbidity;

Assistance to families with children from the state;

Urbanization;

These areas are closely intertwined with the following areas:

Revenue regulation;

Development of service sectors;

Housing construction;

Providing citizens in need;

Health care;

We can say that demographic policy is aimed at creating the maximum comfortable conditions for fertility.

In some cases, its goals are set in the target requirements, but can be presented in the form of targets or some kind of scorecard. In the latter case, the achievement of specifically indicated indicators will be understood as the achievement of the goals of the demographic policy itself.

Of course, in each country, the demographic policy has its own indicators and goals. It would be foolish to compare this policy of China and, for example, Sweden. As everyone knows, China has long been overpopulated. It would be strange if the government of this country tried to increase it. Their main task is to normalize population growth in order to make living conditions in the country more comfortable.

Demographic policy has many features. An important feature is its indirect rather than mediated impact on the dynamics of demographic processes. This influence is produced through the spheres of marriage, work, and so on. Demographic policy forms demographic needs, changes their specifics at its own discretion, creates the conditions that are necessary for their implementation.

Demographic policy measures are different. These include economic measures:

Payment of loans, credits, provision of benefits that can affect the birth rate in the country;

The assessment of the condition and age of families is carried out on a progressive scale;

Women receive benefits for the care of a small child, they are provided with certain paid holidays;

In some countries, small families have an advantage, and in some - large families.

There are also administrative and legal measures:

The age at which one can marry is determined by law;

Laws usually have provisions on abortion, divorce, and so on.

Propaganda and educational measures:

Compulsory sexual education;

Family planning;

Creation of certain social ideals and values;

Publicity of issues related to sexual relations and so on.

Demographic policy measures can be not only incentives, but also a kind of limiters.

The policy that affects the processes of fertility, marriage, divorce, the age structure of the population and its mortality is population policy the state. In a broad sense, population policy is sometimes identified with population policy, and in a narrower, more accepted sense, it is considered as one of its components. It is closely related to social and economic policy, but, nevertheless, has its own characteristics. The object of such a policy can be countries, their individual regions, as well as individual groups (cohorts) of the population.

Demographic policy is usually based on a complex of various measures: economic, administrative, legal, educational and propaganda. Among the economic measures aimed primarily at stimulating the birth rate include:

Paid holidays and various benefits for the birth of children,

allowances for children depending on their number, age and family composition - on a progressive scale,

various loans, credits,

tax and housing benefits, etc.

Administrative and legal measures include:

Legislative acts regulating the age of marriage,

divorce,

attitude towards abortion and the use of contraceptives,

property status of mother and children in case of family breakup,

the mode of work of working women, etc.

Educational and propaganda measures are aimed at shaping public opinion, norms and standards of demographic behavior, determining attitudes towards religious and other traditions and customs of population reproduction and family planning policy (intra-family regulation of childbearing), to sex education and education of young people, etc. Maksakovskiy V.P. . Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: general characteristics the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.121

The history of population policy dates back to the times of ancient times. It was reflected in many legal and legislative acts of antiquity, especially in cases of overpopulation of countries or, on the contrary, large human losses (although religious and ethical doctrines almost always had greater value than similar acts). In the Middle Ages, in conditions of increased mortality due to wars and epidemics, some demographic measures, mostly spontaneous, were aimed at maintaining a high birth rate. In modern times, the first country where the demographic policy that stimulated the birth rate received a quite distinct design was France. Then some other European countries began to pursue such a policy. Subsequently, it was partly replaced by a policy aimed at curbing the rate of population growth. The same change of priorities - depending on the phase of the demographic transition - was also characteristic of modern times. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.123

But with all this, one cannot but agree with the well-known demographer A. Ya. Kvasha, according to whom, in general, the history of demographic policy indicates that it was a rather weak tool and could not significantly affect the reproduction of the population.

As the experience of carrying out demographic policy in the countries of the world in the 20th century shows, among the targets, the population itself is rarely found. The exceptions were China, which sought by 2000 not to exceed its population of more than 1,200 million people (in fact, by the middle of 1999 - 1,254 million people) and Romania, which set the task of bringing its population to 30 million people (in fact, by the middle of 1999). city - 22.5 million). Kharchenko L. P. Demography: study guide / L. P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. -- M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.305

Economically less developed countries with rapidly growing populations most often choose a reduction in the rate of population growth or a decrease in the total fertility rate (total fertility rate) as a target.

Countries with high mortality rates consider achieving certain levels of life expectancy or reducing infant mortality as goals for population policy.

In more economically developed countries, the goals of demographic policy are the regulation of migration policy, the introduction of immigration quotas that restrict the entry and naturalization of foreigners.

Demographic policy received the greatest development and distribution in the second half of the 20th century, which is explained, on the one hand, by the onset of a population explosion, and on the other, by a demographic crisis. Many politicians and scientists saw in it perhaps the main means of curbing population growth in the first case and accelerating it in the second case.

It is not surprising that the United Nations has also paid much attention to these issues. World population conferences were held under its auspices: in 1954 (Rome), in 1965 (Belgrade), in 1974 (Bucharest), in 1984 (Mexico City), in 1994 (Cairo). In 1967, the United Nations Fund for the Encouragement of Population Activities (UNFPA) was formed. Since the 1960s The UN conducts systematic surveys of governments on population policy issues. They are also discussed at sessions of the UN General Assembly. In 1992, they entered the agenda of the World Conference on environment and development. Of the individual documents, the "World Population Action Plan" adopted in Bucharest in 1974, which contains many specific recommendations for the implementation of population policy, is of particular importance. Then, at conferences in Mexico City and especially in Cairo, he received further development with a number of fundamental changes. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.124

However, in order to make the population policy truly effective and efficient, all these decisions were not enough. New means of its implementation were also needed, which were invented. The first big breakthrough in this area occurred at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s. XX century., When it was possible to obtain combined contraceptives for internal use - hormonal pills, pills and other means that have gradually improved more and more. All this led to the fact that in the 1960s. a real sexual revolution took place in the world. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of the American writer Upton Sinclair that "birth control is the highest achievement of the human mind, equivalent to the discovery of fire and the invention of printing." Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.124

Like any other revolution, the sexual revolution gave rise to the sharpest contradictions in views and, accordingly, polemics and a struggle of opinions. First of all, perhaps, they touched on the attitude towards abortion. In the Christian world, the artificial termination of pregnancy was categorically opposed Catholic Church. Back in 1987, the Vatican issued a special “Instruction” on this matter, and at the Cairo Conference in 1994, it again spoke just as sharply. Most Muslim countries also oppose abortion and family planning in general. in Protestant and Orthodox countries attitude towards them is much more tolerant. In total, about 60 million abortions occur annually in the world. Among the record-breaking countries, where there are more than 50 abortions for every 1,000 women aged 15 to 44, are Vietnam, Romania, Cuba, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Estonia, Bulgaria. At the other extreme (less than 10 abortions) are Zambia, India, South Africa, Bangladesh, Spain, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.125

Information about the spread of population policy in the modern world is not always comparable. So, according to some data, in developed countries, about 70% of women of reproductive age resort to various forms of birth control, in developing countries - 50%. According to other data, a more or less active demographic policy is carried out in about half of all countries of the world. According to the third, only from 1970 to 1993 the number of married couples in developing countries who used various forms family planning increased 10 times (from 40 million to 400 million), and the number of these countries themselves increased to 130. Asia - 100 million, in Latin America - 75 million families. Despite some inconsistency of such information, on the whole, they indicate that the spread of demographic policy is gaining more and more scope. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.125

Depending on the demographic situation, population policy usually pursues one of two main goals.

In developing countries that are still at the stage of a population explosion, the main goal of population policy is to reduce fertility rates and natural population growth. Fertility is declining as a result of the promotion and dissemination of contraceptives, health education, family planning counseling, promoting the benefits of having a small family, and encouraging small families through different kinds economic and administrative measures. Some countries not only allow, but strongly encourage the voluntary sterilization of men and women as one of these measures. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Drofa, 2009.- p.126

The most striking example of the implementation of demographic policy is the developing countries of Asia. There it covers the vast majority of residents. First of all, this applies to countries with the largest population in the world - China, India, as well as Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. A fairly active demographic policy is also being pursued in Latin America and some North African countries. However, in the rest of the developing world, especially in Muslim countries, it has so far received little attention. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Drofa, 2009.- p.126

This can be judged, in particular, by the use of contraceptives. According to UN statistics, the average rate of contraceptive use for all developing countries is slightly more than 1/2 (we are talking about the number of families using contraceptives), and for the least developed - 1/5. China is ahead in this indicator (almost 85%). In Thailand, Vietnam and Sri Lanka it reaches 65-75%, in Malaysia and India - 50-60%, in most Latin American countries - 50-75%. At the other extreme are the countries of West and Central Africa and some countries of Southwest Asia, where the proportion of such families usually does not exceed 10%; in Afghanistan it is only 2%, and in Yemen it is 7%. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Drofa, 2009.- p.126

As one of the effective measures of population policy, many developing countries are implementing legislative increases in the age of marriage. For example, in China it was raised to 22 years for men and 20 years for women, in India - to 21 and 18 years, respectively. In reality, there is an even greater “aging” of marriage, which is explained by the fact that a significant part of young people seek to get an education first and then undergo vocational training, often combining it with labor activity. As a result, while 15-20 years ago average age brides in developing countries was 16-18 years old, by the beginning of the XXI century. even in Africa it began to exceed 20 years, and in Asia and especially in Latin America it “aged” even more. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Drofa, 2009.- p.126

At the same time, however, it must be borne in mind that among the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America there are dozens of very small in number of inhabitants, and often simply dwarf states, the demographic policy in which (if carried out) is primarily aimed not at reducing but to increase natural population growth.

In most economically developed countries that have entered a period of demographic crisis, they are implementing a demographic policy aimed at increasing birth rates and natural increase. First of all, this applies to the countries of Europe.

France has become an example of solving demographic problems. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. depopulation began in the country. Thanks to outreach measures, society, government agencies, scientists and entrepreneurs have understood the need to increase the birth rate and population growth in the country. In 1896, the National Council for the Support of Population Growth was created, in 1920 - Supreme Council on fertility problems, in 1921 - the Federation of Unions of Large Families, in 1939 - the Higher Committee on Population Problems, in 1945 (at the initiative of President de Gaulle) - the Higher Advisory Committee on Population and Family Problems. Kharchenko L.P. Demography: textbook / L.P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. -- M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.308

France skillfully combined advocacy with economic and regulatory measures. For example, in 1920, a law was passed prohibiting abortion, allowing the sale and distribution of contraceptives, public information about methods of birth control, and so on. In 1939, the "Family Code" was adopted, providing for the introduction of cash benefits. The amount of monthly benefits for having many children was determined as a share of the base salary (monthly wage unskilled metal worker in Paris). The amount of benefits varied by territorial zones. The gap between the maximum and minimum levels set in 1945-1946. 49%, in 1968 - up to 4%. Types of benefits:

* family benefits in the amount of 22% of the base salary for a second child under the age of 10; 31% - aged 10 to 15 years; 38% - 15 years and more; 33% - for the third and each subsequent child under the age of 10; 42% - from 10 to 15 years; 49% - 15 years or more. The allowance was not paid for the firstborn, but if there are three children in the family, then it amounted to 9% of the base salary under the age of 10 years, 16% - from 15 years and more;

* allowance for a family with one breadwinner: 20% of the basic salary for the first child up to five years, 40% for the second,

50% - for the third and each subsequent child. Payments were carried out on a par with family benefits (the age limit is 16 years plus six months of grace);

* antenatal benefit from the moment of official confirmation of pregnancy until childbirth in the amount of 22% of the base salary;

* lump-sum allowance at the birth of a child in the amount of double the base salary, provided: a) if it is the first-born, and the mother is not older than 25 years or has been married for less than two years; b) if this is not the first child, but at least three years have passed since the previous birth. Kharchenko L.P. Demography: textbook / L.P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. -- M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.308

In 1975, a law was passed allowing abortion during the first 10 weeks of pregnancy.

Following France, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and other countries have taken various measures to carry out demographic policy.

Depopulation is underway in Russia, now more than ever, information and propaganda measures, especially through modern media, should be used to understand the need to solve demographic problems, population growth should become a nationwide idea of the country.

It will not be erroneous to say that a particularly active demographic policy until the end of the 1980s. carried out by the socialist countries of Eastern Europe.

In the countries of Western Europe, the system of demographic policy measures is generally similar, although, of course, it differs in the amount of various payments and other benefits. Demographers believe that France and Sweden are most actively pursuing the policy of encouraging fertility and natural increase.

The current average age of marriage in Europe is 26.4 for men and 23.4 for women. In Italy, Switzerland, Sweden for men, it exceeds 27, and in Germany - even 28 years. For women in the UK, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain, it exceeds 27, and in Denmark and Sweden - 29 years. Maksakovskiy V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book. I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.- p.127

In the United States, the state population policy in its usual interpretation is virtually absent. Citizens in this area are given complete freedom of choice. Assistance to the family is provided, as a rule, indirectly, in the form of various tax incentives. In the United States, the birthplace of the sexual revolution of the 1960s, different kinds contraceptives. However, the “rehabilitation” of sex led to such heated discussions that literally split society into warring factions. First of all, this refers to the dispute about the ban or legalization of abortion, which in the United States was either banned or allowed depending on the balance of power between “liberals” and “conservatives”.

11. DEMOGRAPHIC PROGRAMS ON THE EXAMPLE OF INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

Demographic politics - purposeful activity of state bodies and other social institutions in the field of regulating the processes of reproduction of the population, designed to maintain or change the trends in the dynamics of its number and gender.

China

The transition from a large to a one-child (two-child) family. “1 child in a family”, “1 married couple - 1 child”, “People without brothers and sisters”.

increased marriage age - 22♂ and 20♀;
incentive benefits for 1 child - salary supplements, payment of monthly benefits, b / n honey. service, benefits when placing a child in a kindergarten, when entering a school, university;
punishments for 2 children - deprivation of benefits, a fine, demotion of parents;
punishments for 3 or more children - the same + progressively growing deductions from the salary;
permission to have a child from the local family planning committee (for a certain period).

India

The transition from a large family to a 2 (3-child) family. “Have only 2 children - the first and last”, “2 children is enough.”

birth control - sterilization / prevention of pregnancy;
since 1976, forced sterilization of men;
increased marriage age - 23♂ and 18♀.

France

Standard of demographic policy; the first of European countries, faced with depopulation and developed a system of measures to overcome it and increase the number.

until 1967, the sale of contraceptives was prohibited;
before 1975, abortion was prohibited;
since 1946, cash payments and tax benefits to families - encouraging the birth of 1, 2 and especially 3 children;
basic child allowance for all persons living in France and having at least 2 children (regardless of citizenship, children under 20 years old live in the country). The amount of the allowance is differentiated depending on the number of children: for 2 - € 107 / month, 3 - 244, 4 - 382, 5 - 519, 6 - 656 (for each subsequent - an allowance of € 137, family income does not affect the amount of the allowance) ;
a number of other benefits.

Sweden

family allowances for all citizens, including immigrants;

economic independence of a woman in marriage (the possibility of earning);
great attention to the problems of family planning and sexual education of young people, the prevention of domestic violence;
since the 60s issues of contraception, conscientious parenting, family planning, boys' responsibility for abortions and same-sex relationships are discussed in schools.

European Union

family allowances + tax credits for small size allowances;

the amount of the allowance increases with the age of the child (except in Denmark it decreases);
add. payments for young children;
immigration is the main way to solve the problem.

USA

open immigration policy;

tax support for families with children;
regional family policy programs;
family support programs at enterprises - leave from / about, flexible work schedules, part-time work, payment for children preschool institutions and etc.

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Demographic policy is a purposeful activity of state bodies and other social institutions in the field of regulation of population issues, designed to maintain or change trends in the dynamics of its numbers and structure. In a broad sense, population policy is population policy. The object can be the population of the country, its individual regions, cohorts of the population, families of certain types. The historical goal of the state's demographic policy is to achieve a demographic optimum.

The global demographic problem in the modern world has two aspects. First, rapid population growth in a number of countries and regions of the developing world, by "devaluing" accumulation, hinders economic growth and perpetuates the economic, social, and cultural backwardness of these countries. Secondly, the narrowed reproduction of the population in developed countries and the natural decline in many countries with economies in transition lead to the demographic aging of their populations and in the future may slow down the economic growth of these countries. Let us dwell on the last problem and consider the concepts of demographic policies of developed countries

France

A certain standard of demographic policy is France, the first of the European countries that faced population depopulation and developed a system of measures to overcome it and increase the population.

The dynamics of the population of France is as follows: 1801 - 28.3 million people, 1901 - 40.7 million people, 2002 - 59.8 million people. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, a sharp decline in natural population growth and fertility in France began, which was explained by the desire of numerous petty-bourgeois strata (France - a rentier state) to limit the number of children in a family. Despite the constant decrease in mortality, the rate of decline in the birth rate was higher. Participation in the 20th century in two world wars, the global crisis of the 30s led to depopulation: in 1914-1919, the country's population decreased by 3 million people, in 1939-1945 - by another 1.2 million.

An active demographic policy aimed at increasing the birth rate has been carried out in France since the early 20s of the last century. Moreover, until 1967, the sale of contraceptives was prohibited, until 1975, abortions were prohibited.

In 1946, a broad system of cash payments and tax benefits to families was introduced in France, aimed at encouraging the birth of the first, second and especially third child (pronatalist policy). As a result, among the countries of Western Europe in the mid-80s, France had one of the highest total fertility rates (average number of children per 1 woman) - 1.8 - 1.9. The population increased annually by 0.3 - 0.4%. The narrowed regime of population reproduction prompted the government to stimulate the migration of foreign workers and take measures to increase the birth rate. From the 60s of the 19th century to the 30s of the 20th century, the migration increase in the population of France amounted to 3.2 million people, which provided 3/4 of the total increase in the number of inhabitants. In 1931, there were 2.7 million foreigners in France and 0.4 million naturalized. In 1931, foreign workers accounted for over 40% of miners, 1/3 of metallurgists, 1/4 of builders and 1/3 of agricultural workers.

In the second half of the 20th century, in 1946-1974, the population of France increased by 12.1 million people, including 8.5 million people due to natural population growth, 2.4 million people due to immigration and 1.2 million people - due to the repatriation of the French from the former colonies.

Modern measures of France's pro-natalist demographic policy have a significant impact on the financial situation of families with children. The basic child benefit is awarded to all persons residing in France with at least two children, regardless of nationality, for their children under the age of 20 residing in the country. The amount of the allowance is differentiated depending on the number of children: for two children - 107 euros per month, for three - 244, for four - 382, for five - 519, for six - 656 euros. For each subsequent child, a supplement of 137 euros is paid. There are surcharges for children over 11 years old - 30 euros and over 16 years old - 54 euros. This allowance is not paid for the first child to families with two children. Family income does not affect the amount of this benefit.

Depending on the family income, the following additional benefits are paid:

allowance for each child under the age of three, depending on income from the four months of pregnancy, in the amount of 154 euros;

allowance for single parents 502 euros per month plus an allowance for each child 167 euros per month;

allowance for the new school year for children from 6 to 18 years old who study in the amount of 67 euros;

family supplement for low-income families or single parents with 3 or more children aged 3-3 to 21 in the amount of 139 euros per month.

In addition, study allowances for disabled children (107 euros per month) and housing allowances for families with children have been established.

Benefits are also paid for caring for a child under 6 years of age living at home. The amount of the allowance depends on the income of the family. The maximum allowance is 1,500 euros per quarter for families whose annual income does not exceed 33,658 euros and whose children are 3 years old. Allowances for children from 3 to 6 years old do not exceed 500 euros per quarter. Benefits are also paid to families employing nannies for children under 6 years of age.

Parental attendance benefits are paid to parents who are forced to stop or reduce their presence at work due to a serious illness of the child. The amount of the benefit depends on the remaining income. There are allowances for single parents. Orphans are assigned a monthly allowance of 100 euros.

V last years lump-sum childbirth benefits were also introduced in the amount of 260% of the base salary for the first and 717% for each subsequent child, and maternity leave was paid at a rate of 90% of earnings.

Sweden

Population growth in recent years, the country owes a generous demographic policy; family allowances are paid to everyone, including immigrants.

By international standards, Sweden is the most equal country. The gender policy model of the Nordic countries is equality, equal rights, equal rights and opportunities, equal access to power. These principles are also implemented in the demographic policy of Sweden.

The policy of the Swedish Government is aimed at creating the economic independence of women in marriage - every woman has real earning opportunities. According to Swedish experts, the protection of women's labor rights in the field of employment is the most problematic area of the policy of ensuring equal rights and opportunities. Most of the requests to the legal service of the Ombudsman for Equality in the Labor Market relate to the protection of the rights of pregnant women in employment and dismissal under a contract. Almost all conflicts are resolved in the interests of women.

The necessary number of places in preschool institutions for working parents is provided. Working parents have the right to parental leave until the child reaches the age of one year (since January 1, 2002 - for 13 months, including 2 months only the father of the child can use, which is provided for in order to involve the father in raising children with early age). For each child under 18, an allowance of 800 SEK per month (80 dollars) is paid, for students in universities - a scholarship of 2,000 SEK and a preferential loan of 5,000 SEK per month with installments for 20 years. Much attention is paid in Sweden to the problems of family planning and sexual education of young people, and the prevention of domestic violence.

There are 250 youth sex education centers in Sweden. They are financed from local budgets. The centers provide adolescents with free consultations on the psychology of interpersonal relationships, contraception, and family formation. Provide those in need with contraceptives (free of charge and on a preferential basis). They help to deal with sexual orientation without imposing their point of view. There are telephones that also provide advice on sexual and interpersonal issues and conflicts with parents and peers. The staff of the centers includes doctors, psychologists, social workers, and teachers.

The development of sex education in Sweden has a long history. For the first time, the question of the need to provide it at school was discussed in 1905 at the congress of the Union of Swedish Teachers. Since 1942, sex education has been introduced in schools. At the same time, premarital affairs, single mothers were condemned and nothing was said about sexual relations.

Starting in the 60s, with the beginning of the sexual revolution, issues of contraception, conscientious parenthood, family planning, and a little later, the responsibility of boys for abortions and same-sex relationships began to be discussed in schools.

In Sweden, the terms “sexual minorities” and “non-traditional sexual orientation” are condemned as discriminatory, same-sex marriages are legally allowed, and in 2002 a law was passed allowing the adoption of children by same-sex families (this is not the case in any country in the world).

Belgium

In Belgium, the state implements a wide range of measures within the framework of population policy: the payment of benefits, tax cuts, subsidies for housing and the education of children, etc. Benefits increase depending on the age of the child - at 14 years old it is three times more than for a child under four years old. If the child is studying, the allowance is paid until the age of 25.

Austria

In Austria, when determining the amount of benefits and benefits, the number of children in the family is taken into account, and not the income of the family. Assistance to families is issued from public funds. The Family Compensation Fund, which has been delegated all the powers to issue family benefits, is financed from funds received from entrepreneurs. Other sources are the government and provincial governments, which allocate funds from tax revenues. The provinces contribute to the Family Compensation Fund in proportion to the number of inhabitants. The fund is administered by the Ministry of Family, Youth and Consumer Protection. Allowances for children are issued if they study, up to 27 years.

Italy

In Italy, one of the goals of population policy is to improve the status of women and take care of the family. Family benefits are paid based on income. The amount of the allowance is inversely proportional to family income and a is directly proportional to the number of family members. In total, there are three thresholds for annual family income in absolute terms. With income exceeding 41,721 euros, the allowance is not paid. Students receive an allowance up to the age of 25.

European Union

A certain consensus has been reached between the EU member states in principled approaches to state support for families with children. In the “Conclusion of the Council of Ministers Responsible for Family Policy”, adopted in 1989, the European Commission defined the situation at that time as follows: “Member countries take a variety of approaches to the institution of the family. The perception of the state in relation to the family also differs. At the same time, through various measures implemented in various areas - social security, tax policy, family law and others - public authorities in all member countries deal with the living conditions of families. Family policy means the totality of these measures.” In this interpretation, family policy is interpreted as broadly as possible and, in fact, includes demographic policy and population policy.

It should be noted that family allowances are one of the forms of family policy implemented in the EU countries. Tax incentives are very widely used in countries where benefits are less applied. For example, in Iceland, the basic child benefit is provided in the form of tax deduction and administered by the tax office. The amount of the deduction is fixed and does not depend on income for children under 7 years of age.

In most EU countries, benefits for families with children are paid from the budget and are not linked to social insurance. The condition for granting child support is the fact that the child and parents live in the country. However, in Germany, for example, in order to receive child benefit, it is enough that one of the parents pays taxes in this country.

The amount of the allowance in most EU countries depends on the age of the child. However, only in Denmark the amount of the allowance decreases with increasing age of the child. In other countries, it is increasing. Along with this, in many countries there are additional payments for young children.

The amount of the allowance is also differentiated depending on the order in which the child is born. At the same time, only in the UK for the first child the allowance is higher (103 euros) than for subsequent ones (69 euros). In other cases, the amount of the benefit increases with the increase in the order of birth. France is a special case, where there is no basic first child allowance. The right to child benefit in most countries is not linked to family income.

At present, in the European Union, due to the virtual cessation of population growth and the aging of the population and labor resources increased interest in developing new approaches to demographic policy.

A recently released report by the European Commission has intensified the debate on the population policy of a united Europe and has proposed immigration as the main solution to the problem.

The report states that the total fertility rate in Europe in 2003 was 1.48 children per woman, while to maintain the population it must be at least 2.1. The number of pensioners is steadily growing. According to the forecast, by 2030 the EU countries will probably have 35 million people over 80 years old, which is twice as many as today, and there will be 18 million fewer children. In general, from 2025 to 2030 the EU population will decrease from 469 million to 468 million people (excluding migrants). (For comparison: the population of the United States, on the contrary, will increase over the same period by 25.6%, and the population explosion in the United States is caused precisely by the influx of migrants from Latin America.).

The report points out that the demographic decline could have serious consequences for living standards and intergenerational relations. It will affect all aspects of life, such as how businesses operate, how cities are planned, how housing is built, how public transport operates, what trade in cities emphasizes. All age groups will be affected by the processes of increasing life expectancy and improving health, falling birth rates and shrinking labor force.

The Commission believes that the main reasons forcing parents to abandon their second child are material. This, in particular, is about the possibility of finding a job and its stability, as well as the cost of housing. Increasing child benefits and parental leave, improving children's health care and equal pay for adults - all this, according to the European Commission, can have a positive impact on the birth rate and employment growth among women.

Although, according to some demographers, the decrease in the need for children is caused precisely by the high standard of living: people want and have the opportunity to develop their own personality, make a career, and buy expensive things. No time to give birth.

At the same time, the problem cannot be solved only by stimulating the birth rate and increasing the employment of women, it is necessary to attract migrants. Some of the members of the European Commission do not share the opinion that immigration will completely solve the demographic problem. At best, it will satisfy the demand for labor.

USA

The demographic policy in the United States is expressed the least clearly, at the same time, conditions are actually created for a significant immigration increase in the population, as well as tax support measures for families with children and various regional and corporate family policy programs are being applied.

Perhaps this is due to the fact that demographic situation in the US today looks more favorable than in the rest of the developed world. This is due to the dominant position of the country in the world, attractiveness for migrants and the possibility of their selective selection in the interests of the country.

The current favorable demographic situation in the United States is a significant advantage that will be realized by American society not only now, but also in the coming decades.

The 90s of the last century were record-breaking in terms of migration population growth, which amounted to 10 million people. The bulk of immigrants are people of working and childbearing age. 2/3 of migrants come from Asia and Latin America with large families.

As a result of migration inflows in the last 20 years, the birth rate in the United States has been growing and the United States is the leader in this indicator among industrialized countries, providing an expanded reproduction of the population. Here, the problem of population aging is less acute than in Europe.

The entry of young families into the country from abroad made it possible to partially neutralize the negative impact on the birth rate of the crisis of the American family, which is manifested in a reduction in the proportion and number of complete families, the growth of single-parent families and non-family households. Thus, from the beginning of the 70s to the beginning of the 80s, the number of non-family households increased 1.5 times, and single people - by 69%. Since the 1980s, these processes have been running more smoothly.

Under the current conditions, the United States can afford not to force the adoption of new legislation on the family and not to take special measures to increase the birth rate.

The absence of an official doctrine of population and family policy in the United States cannot be understood without considering the broader context of social policy. The ideology of US social policy that has been formed over the past decades consists of the following principles:

liberal individualism as the highest value;

work ethics as a basic element of the value system;

confidence in market mechanisms, which alone can lead society to growth and prosperity;

freedom of the family as a private institution, renunciation of state interference in family affairs;

the prevalence of Puritanism and Protestant movements and the predominance of a voluntary approach in social security, rather than state obligations;

the influence of social Darwinism, which proclaims that the survival of the fittest is the natural order of things and public interference in this process is counterproductive;

a certain justification for racism;

lack of provisions for social responsibility at the federal level (as opposed to state governments).

And most importantly, this is that an open immigration policy nullifies the need for a pro-natalist demographic policy.

As a result, social policy in the United States comes down, to a large extent, to social support the most needy.

Until the 1930s, social support was provided at the level of communities and volunteers. In 1935, the Social Security Act was passed, guaranteeing the right to social protection to the most needy. It mainly consisted in the provision of services and payments in kind.

Currently, material support is provided through a system of tax credits and credits: standard tax deductions, tax credits for a child, tax credits for paying for childcare services and other disabled people, loans for adoption.

It is believed that the provision of tax credits increases incentives to work, because. wages become an additional source of income. At the same time, obtaining loans requires a deep understanding of the tax system and is therefore not easily accessible to those most in need. In addition, tax credits can be received once a year - at the end of the tax period, and not when they are needed.

In the United States, only in 1993, mandatory unpaid maternity leave of up to 12 weeks was introduced at enterprises with more than 50 employees and with at least 1,250 hours of work experience in the previous year. At this time, only the workplace is saved.

Currently, US Social Security is heavily dependent on benefits provided by businesses. As a rule, large firms have family support programs that include family leave, flexible work schedules and part-time work, and childcare payments.

The global demographic problem in its most general form consists in population dynamics and shifts in its age structure that are unfavorable for socio-economic development. This problem has two aspects: a population explosion in a number of regions of the developing world and an aging population in developed countries.

In developed countries and many states with economies in transition, the demographic problem lies in the stable simple reproduction of the population, and in some cases in depopulation due to the excess of deaths over births.

The impact of the results of the demographic policy on the world economy is great. The demographic crisis in a number of developed countries has already led to a disruption in the reproduction of the population, its aging and reduction in its numbers. Demographic aging - an increase in the proportion of the population over 60 years of age over 12% of the total population or over 65 years of age over 7%.

The rapid aging of the population in developed countries will lead in the next 30 years to a significant drop in the growth rate of the world economy (OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).

According to the OECD experts, over the next three decades, the global economic growth rate will fall annually by 1.7% due to the aging of the population. European countries will record the greatest damage. Growing demographic difficulties will lead to higher inflation, an increase in the deficit of public spending, and the creation of new social problems. Calculations show that in the developed industrial countries by 2050 there will be only 10 active workers for seven pensioners. In 2000, the ratio was four to ten. Society is faced with the task of not only providing material support for older population groups (improving and reforming pension provision), but also providing them with medical and consumer services. At the same time, as the experience of a number of countries shows, it is quite effective to involve the older generation in active labor activity. In developed countries, pensions and medical benefits for the older generation account for an increasing share of GDP, which in turn leads to a reduction in budget allocations for education, infrastructure and research. In connection with the reduction in the proportion of the working-age population in developed countries, the demographic burden on the employed is increasing. The way out of this situation lies in the transition to a funded pension system.

Until the "population bomb is neutralized," the global economy is in for severe crises. This bomb can be neutralized through the implementation of a quality and competent demographic policy, which should increase the retirement age, give serious tax breaks to working pensioners, and also reduce government spending on unemployment benefits.

Literature:

1. Modern demographic policy: Russia and foreign experience / Analytical Bulletin of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. -2005. -No. 25 (277)

2. Economic dictionary: E.G. Bagudin - M .: TK Velby, Prospect Publishing House, 2004. - 624

3. Internet resource: OECD forecast: the rapid aging of the population in developed countries will lead to a drop in the growth rate of the world economy by 1.7% per year in the next 30 years: www.primetass.ru/news/show.asp?id=538393&ct=news

Population policy is a system of administrative, economic and propaganda and other measures by which the state influences the natural movement of the population.

In a broad sense, population policy is population policy. The historical goal of the state's demographic policy reaching the demographic optimum. In English and Spanish scientific literature, in international documents, recommendations and analytical reports of the UN, the term is mainly used population policy. Objects demographic policy may be the population of the country as a whole or individual regions, socio-demographic groups, population cohorts, families of certain types or stages of the life cycle.

Structure of population policy, like any other political activity, includes two most important and interrelated components: the definition and presentation of a system of goals and the development and implementation of means to achieve them.

Goals and objectives of demographic policy are formulated, as a rule, in political programs and declarations, indicative and directive plans, in strategic target programs and operational plans of governments and other executive bodies, in legislative and other legal acts, in resolutions that determine the introduction of new or development of existing policies.

The main directions of demographic policy include:

state assistance to families with children;

creation of conditions for combining active professional activity with the fulfillment of family responsibilities;

reduction of morbidity and mortality;

increase in life expectancy;

Improving the qualitative characteristics of the population;

regulation of migration processes;

· urbanization and settlement, etc.

These directions should be coordinated with such important areas of social policy as employment, income regulation, education and health care, vocational training, housing construction, development of the service sector, social security for the disabled, the elderly and the disabled. In general terms, the goals of demographic policy are usually reduced to the formation of a desirable regime for the reproduction of the population, the preservation or change in trends in the dynamics of the number and structure of the population.

Goals can be set in the form of a target requirement (a verbal description of the goals), or a target indicator, a system of indicators, the achievement of which is interpreted as the implementation of the demographic policy goals. Among the indicators tested in the demographic policy different countries, as a rule, do not use the population itself (exceptions: the PRC, where the policy goal of the last decades of the 20th century was "not to exceed the number of 1200 million people in 2000", as well as Ceausescu's Romania - to reach the number of 30 million people). Developing countries most often choose as a target a decrease in population growth rates over a certain period, a decrease in the total or total fertility rate. The World Population Action Plan [Bucharest, 1974] and the Recommendations for its Further Implementation [Mexico City, 1984] suggested that countries with high mortality rates should use the achievement of certain levels of average duration life or reduce child mortality. In developed countries, to regulate the influx of foreigners, immigration quotas are practiced - restrictions on the entry and naturalization of foreigners.

Demographic policy measures:

economic measures:

paid holidays; various benefits at the birth of a child, often depending on their number

The age and condition of the family are assessed on a progressive scale

loans, credits, tax and housing benefits - to increase the birth rate

Benefits for small families - to reduce the birth rate

administrative and legal measures:

Legislative acts regulating the age of marriage, divorce, attitudes towards abortion and contraception, property status

mothers and children in the event of a marriage breakup, the working regime of working women

educational and promotional measures:

formation of public opinion, norms and standards of demographic behavior

definition of attitude to religious norms, traditions and customs

family planning policy

sex education for young people

publicity about sexual relations

Demographic policy measures, in terms of their influence on behavior, can act as incentives or as restrictions. The task of incentives and restrictions is to change behavior by creating advantages for those whose behavior will be more in line with social needs, the declared goals of the policy, or obstacles for those whose actions conflict with the goals of the policy. Incentives and restrictions, as a rule, influence behavior for a very limited time, over time the population adapts to them and does not perceive them as such.

Man is the main productive force of society and at the same time the main consumer of manufactured products. Therefore, the analysis of the size, composition and distribution of the population, the conditions and nature of its economic activity is the most important part of any economic and geographical research. The study of the population usually begins with an analysis of its size.

Population data are obtained from general population censuses, which are conducted in most countries of the world at least once a decade (usually once every 10 or 5 years), as well as on the the basis of the current registration of the movement of the population, which is maintained by the relevant authorities (in our country - the registry office, the police) during the civil registration of births, deaths, marriages and divorces, population movements, etc. However, it is impossible to accurately determine the population, since in some countries the census either were not carried out at all, or they did not exist for a long time, and the current population count is poorly organized. Therefore, the total population of the world, its individual regions, countries and areas is approximate.

Throughout human history, the population has increased very slowly. This was due to the great dependence of man on nature, low level production, frequent wars, epidemics, famine. Only in the 19th century The world's population began to grow faster. Its growth was especially rapid in the 20th century. If in 1850 the world population was 1 billion people, then in 1987 it overcame the five billion milestone, and in 2000 it already exceeded 6 billion people. Thus, over the past 150 years, humanity has increased its population by 6 times. According to forecasts, up to 2015 the absolute annual growth population will remain at the same, very high level (about 90 million people), and the total population of the Earth at this turn will be 7.5 billion people, by 2025 it will reach 8 billion people. Such a sharp increase in the population, such a high rate of growth has been called the "population explosion".

The population is distributed on our planet extremely unevenly: more than 85% of the world's population is concentrated in the Eastern Hemisphere, 90% in the Northern Hemisphere, more than half of the people live in the lowlands (up to 200 m above sea level) and in coastal areas (at a distance not exceeding 200 km from the sea). An example of uneven distribution can be the nature of the distribution of people in parts of the world: 60% of the population is concentrated in Asia, about 12% in Europe, 14% in Africa, 13.5% in America (North and South), 0.5% - in Australia.

Even more significant are the differences in the nature of the distribution of the population across the countries of the world. A special group is formed by countries with a population exceeding 100 million people: China (1 billion 237 million people), India (970 million people), USA (268 million people), Indonesia (205), Brazil (160), Russia (147 ), Pakistan (138), Japan (126), Bangladesh (122), Nigeria (107). On the threshold of 100 million people are the Philippines, Ethiopia, Iran, Congo (Zaire).

The average population density of inhabited land is 45 people per 1 sq. km. km, but about half of it has a population density of less than 5 people per 1 sq. km. km, and 15% of its territory is completely undeveloped by people (areas with extreme natural conditions - subpolar zones, deserts, high mountains).

The most populated areas (200 people per 1 sq. km and above) of the world are:

East and Southeast Asia (includes East China, North Korea, the Republic of Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines), where about 2 billion people live, and the population density in some places ( Yangtze River Valley, Japanese islands, the island of Java, etc.) exceeds 300 people per 1 sq. km. km;

South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) with a population of more than 1.2 billion people and a population concentration in certain places (the Ganges and Brahmaputra valleys) of up to 500 people per 1 sq. km. km;

Western Europe (Great Britain, northern France, Germany, Benelux countries);

· East America (the southeast of Canada and the northeast of the USA, islands of West Indies, seaside areas of Brazil and Argentina);

Northeast Africa (Lower Nile Valley).

Among the countries of the world, Monaco has the highest population density (15.5 thousand people per 1 sq. km), Singapore (4.5 thousand people per 1 sq. km), Bangladesh (more than 800 people per 1 sq. km). km), the Netherlands and Belgium (320-350 people per 1 sq. km), India (300), China (125). For comparison: the average population density in the United States is 27 people. per 1 sq. km, Russia - 8.7 people, Canada and Australia - 2 people. per 1 sq. km. In most countries of the world, the population does not reach even 10 million people. More than 80% of the population lives in developing countries, they also account for the bulk of the world's labor force.

The noted features of the distribution of the population are the result of the combined influence of many factors: natural, historical, demographic, socio-economic. However, the influence of most of these factors is not decisive, and weakens more and more as productive forces. Countries and regions with a high level of development of productive forces are centers of attraction and population concentration. Yes, thanks high level development of industry, large clumps of population formed in Western Europe and in the northeastern part of the USA (the Ruhr region in Germany and Lorraine in France, the Appalachian and Great Lakes region in the USA). In these industrial regions of the world, the population density reaches 1000-1500 people per 1 sq. km. km. Areas of high labor concentration are also countries with developed labor-intensive dispersion - in South and Southeast Asia, oil-producing countries in the Near and Middle East, etc.