Demography - the science of population. The population of the world is the totality of people living on Earth. At present, the world population exceeds 7 billion people.

The population is constantly growing. Over the past 1000 years, the population on Earth has increased 20 times. At the time of Columbus, the population was only 500 million people. Currently, about every 24 seconds, one child is born and every 56 seconds, one person dies.

The study of population is carried out by demography - the science of the patterns of population reproduction, as well as the dependence of its nature on socio-economic, natural conditions, migrations. Demography, along with the geography of the population, studies the size, territorial distribution and composition of the population, their changes, the causes and consequences of these changes, and gives recommendations for their improvement. Under the reproduction (natural movement) of the population is understood the continuous renewal of human generations as a result of the processes of fertility and mortality. The geographical features of the natural are manifested in unequal rates of population growth in different regions and countries.

Modern demographic trends are expressed in the rapid growth of the population as a whole. At the same time, the rate of population growth is now slowing down. Particularly rapid population growth was noted in the second half of the 20th century, when its number increased from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 6 billion by 2000 (Fig. 27). happened demographicexplosion- rapid accelerated population growth in a relatively short period of time, especially in the second half of the 20th century. This happened as a result of a decrease in mortality at a too high birth rate. So, over the past 1000 years, the population on Earth has increased 20 times. Scientists suggest that population growth is slowing down and by 2050 the population will increase to only 9.5 billion people.

Population growth rates vary widely across major regions of the world. In regions dominated by economically developed countries (Europe, North America, Australia), the population is growing slowly, and in some European countries it is even declining.

It is assumed that the population will decrease from 82 million people in 2010 to 70.1 million in 2090, and will decrease from 125 million to 91 million people, or by 27.2%, over 100 years. The reason for this decline is

In the regions of developing countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America), relatively rapid population growth is observed. High population growth rates in developing countries cause a number of problems: food shortages, low levels of medical care and literacy, land degradation due to their irrational use, etc.

The essence of demographic problems lies not so much in the high growth of the world's population as in the disproportion in the dynamics of growth in developed and developing countries.

Modern demographic processes are so acute that they require intervention in their development. Therefore, in a number of countries of the world, demographicwhat policy- a system of various measures taken by the state with the aim of influencing the natural movement of the population, and primarily on the birth rate, stimulating growth or reducing its numbers.

Demographic policy in China, India is aimed at reducing the birth rate and population growth. In Europe, on the contrary, they stimulate an increase in the birth rate of the population.

To solve the problem of population decline in the state, measures are being taken to increase the birth rate in the country (material support for families raising two or more children, construction of affordable housing, etc.).

The concept of " quality of life of the population» - the degree of satisfaction of the material, spiritual and social needs of a person. The quality of life of the population is characterized by such indicators as average life expectancy, health status, cash income, housing, etc. In developed countries, the average life expectancy of people is increasing (about 80 years). This leads to an increase in the number of pensioners and an aging population.

DEMOGRAPHY(from the Greek demos - people and ... graphics), the science of the patterns of population reproduction. As an independent science, it was formed in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The term "demography" was introduced by the French scientist A. Guillard in 1855. Based on statistics, demography studies the reproduction of the population as a whole and its components as mass social processes, their quantitative relationships with the age and sex structure of the population, dependence on social and economic phenomena, the nature of the interaction of growth population with social development. Using statistical and mathematical, as well as actual demographic methods (longitudinal and transverse analysis of generations, the method of life tables, fertility, marriage, mathematical model of the population), he develops the theory of population reproduction, demographic forecasts, and state demographic policy.

Demography has its own clearly defined object of study - the population. Demography studies the size, territorial distribution and composition of the population, the patterns of their changes based on social, economic, as well as biological and geographical factors.

The unit of population in demography is a person who has many characteristics - gender, age, marital status, education, occupation, nationality, etc. Many of these qualities change throughout life. Therefore, the population always has such characteristics as the size and age-sex structure, family status. Change in the life of each person leads to changes in the population. These changes together constitute a population movement.

[edit] population movement

Typically, the movement of the population is divided into three groups:

natural

Includes marriage, divorce, fertility, mortality, the study of which is the exclusive competence of demography.

mechanical (migration)

This is the totality of all territorial movements of the population, which ultimately determine the nature of settlement, density, seasonal and pendulum mobility of the population.

social

Transitions of people from one social group to another. This type of movement determines the reproduction of the social structures of the population. And it is precisely this relationship between population reproduction and changes in the social structure that is studied by demography.

The "natural" or "biological" essence of the population is manifested in its ability for constant self-renewal in the process of generational change as a result of births and deaths. And this continuous process is called population reproduction.

[edit] Analysis of demographic processes

The main demographic processes are fertility, mortality and migration.

The solution of many demographic problems requires the use of a system of methods, among which the main place is occupied by statistical(data analysis) and mathematical(mathematical models) methods of analysis, also recently increasingly used sociological methods(subjective attitudes). It is possible to study the patterns of change in the population only on the example of a multitude of individuals. Information can be collected in four ways:

population censuses;

Current vital records;

Current population registers (lists, file cabinets);

Selective and special surveys (for example, VCIOM)

To study demographic processes, statistical studies of dynamics, index, selective, balance and graphical methods are used. Mathematical modeling, abstract mathematical modeling, graphic, cartographic methods are also widely used. The main tool for demographic analysis is descriptive statistics of the population by sex, age, occupation, with the help of which it is possible to track indicators of the natural movement of the population.

Natural population growth- excess of birth rate over mortality, that is, the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths for a certain period of time. It serves as the most general characteristic of the intensity of population growth, usually measured by the rate of natural population growth per 1000 inhabitants per year. It can be either positive (for example, in Niger, the natural population growth in 2011 was 36.8 ‰) or negative (for example, in Montenegro it is −8.5 ‰). Negative natural population growth means that more people die in the country than are born (that is, natural population decline).

Natural increase as the difference between birth rate (the number of people born per 1000 inhabitants) and mortality (the number of deaths per 1000 inhabitants) is measured by a coefficient, in ppm (‰), which corresponds to one thousandth of a number or one tenth of a percent. That is, the coefficient of natural increase (loss) of -8.5 ‰ corresponds to -0.85%, and the coefficient of natural increase of 36.8 ‰ corresponds to +3.68%.

fertility

or population fertility- the ratio of the number of births to the number of inhabitants at a given time, in a given territory. Of the countries for which sufficient statistical information is available, Russia is the most fertile, with an average of 47 births per 1,000 inhabitants per year; France is the least fertile, with 22 births per 1,000 inhabitants. These figures do not yet express the extreme limits of R.: in 18 provinces of European Russia from 50 to 60 are born annually, in many departments of France - less than 20 children per 1,000 inhabitants. During the current century, the R. coefficient in Western Europe has decreased, but only very slightly; in Russia, as far as the available imperfect data allow us to judge, the fertility of the population is now rather higher than at the beginning of the century. Here is the latest data on the subject:

MORTALITY, the process of extinction of a generation, one of the two main sub-processes of population reproduction. S. is a mass process, consisting of many single deaths that occur at different ages and determine in their totality the order of extinction of a real or hypothetical. generations. His statistic a description based on establishing a relationship between quantities. characteristics of S. and the age of people, gives the table of mortality - a system of interrelated indicators of the extinction of a generation, considered as a function of age. Wed life expectancy for the part of the generation that has reached the age of x years, e (x) - synthetic. characteristic of the order of extinction. The most commonly used indicator is e (o) - cf. life expectancy at birth (the most generalized characteristic of the extinction process of a generation).

total fertility rate, fertility rate- is the most accurate measure of the birth rate, this coefficient characterizes the average number of births per woman in a hypothetical generation for her entire life while maintaining the existing birth rates at each age, regardless of mortality and changes in age composition. In conditions of low mortality, for simple replacement of generations, the total birth rate should not be lower than 2.15. A total fertility rate above 4.0 is considered high, and below 2.15 low. The total fertility rate declined globally from 4.95 births per woman in the first half of the 1960s to 2.5648 in 2005-2010. For more developed countries, this level of fertility was already characteristic in the early 1960s, and by the end of the century it had dropped to 1.57.

The highest total fertility rate in the world in Niger - 7.75, the lowest in Macau - 0.91 (as of January 1, 2009).

Population explosion- this is a sharp increase in the population as a result of a decrease in mortality at a too high birth rate.

Until the 17th century The population of the earth has increased slowly. It was about 150 million in the 1st century. n. e. and reached 500 million by the 17th century. Then the growth rate increased sharply. Thus, the population of the world increased daily in 1992 per 254 thousand people, less than 13 thousand of them were in industrialized countries, the remaining 241 - in developing countries. 60% - Asia, 20 % - Africa, 10 % - Latin America. Such striking differences are the cause of the modern population explosion, which is much more powerful than the one that took place in Europe. Its beginning is in 1950s years, it continues up to the present, although it is rapidly declining.

At present, the trend of declining fertility in accordance with the norm demographic transition has already affected all developing countries, which is due to socio-economic changes in the developing society as a whole and changes in the family, in the position of women, her involvement in production. The decline in overall mortality continues, against which the very young population structure in most developing countries is visible, which to some extent contributes to the continuation of the current population explosion. On the other hand, in some countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa, deaths have been on the rise in recent years due to the ongoing AIDS epidemic.

According to research by the German Population Fund Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevolkerung(DSW), the global population is currently approximately 7 billion, with a population growth of 82 million in 2007

The phenomenon of rapid population growth in countries of the second type of population reproduction (with high and very high birth rates and natural increase and relatively low mortality rates) has been called the "Population Explosion". This situation has persisted for several decades in most developing countries. They (together with China) now account for almost 4/5 of the entire population of the planet and 85 million of its absolute annual increase. The number of children per woman in the early 1990s averaged 3.7 for this group of countries, and even 5.1 for African countries. A table gives a general idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe growth of the world's population.

An analysis of the table allows us to conclude that the share of economically developed countries in the world population is decreasing and the share of developing countries is growing. The latter have a decisive influence on the size and reproduction of the population and determine the demographic situation throughout the world.

In 2000, by population:

I place was occupied by China - 1 billion 265 million people;

II place was occupied by India - 1 billion 2 million 22 people;

III place was occupied by the USA - 276 million people;

IV place was occupied by Indonesia - 212 million people;

The 5th place was occupied by Brazil - 170 million people;

VI place was occupied by Russia - 145 million people.

Population growth.

Regions of the world, the whole world.					2000 (forecast)
Russia, USSR, CIS
Foreign Europe
Overseas Asia
North America
Latin America
Australia and Oceania
The whole world

Demographic policy

It is obvious that a sharp slowdown in population growth rates (or even population decline), as in the developed capitalist countries, countries of Eastern Europe and Russia, or a sharp increase in population growth rates, as in Africa and most countries of Asia and Latin America, have a negative impact on the demographic and social and economic situation in the world. Therefore, in our time, most countries of the world seek to manage the reproduction of the population. To do this, a demographic policy is carried out - a system of administrative, economic, propaganda and other measures with the help of which the state influences the natural movement of the population (primarily the birth rate) in the desired direction.

Birth control began to be exercised for the first time in the 18th century in France, where, in connection with the threatening decline in the birth rate, attempts were made to stimulate it. Now about 130 economically developed countries of the world and about 80 developing countries are pursuing a demographic policy, the direction of which depends primarily on the demographic situation in a particular country.

In countries of the first type of population reproduction, a demographic policy aimed at increasing the birth rate and natural population growth prevails, and until the end of the 80s, the most active demographic policy was carried out by the countries of Eastern Europe. Demographic policy measures are: lump-sum loans to newlyweds, childbirth allowances (on a progressively increasing scale), long maternity leave, housing benefits, etc. Also in the former USSR, an effective demographic policy was carried out.

In the countries of Western Europe, demographic policy is carried out with unequal intensity in different countries. Most active in France, Sweden.

In the United States, there is virtually no population policy, with the exception of certain family benefits.

Most of the countries of the second type of reproduction in recent decades have been implementing a demographic policy aimed at reducing the birth rate and natural increase. In overseas Asia, family planning programs are implemented in East, Southeast and South Asia. India was the first to embark on this path, but China has achieved the most significant success in regulating the rate of population growth. The main measures to reduce the birth rate were the increase in the age of marriage (in India 21 years for men and 18 years for women, in China - 22 and 20 years respectively), stimulation of the creation of families with one or two children.

In the countries of the Arab-Muslim region, covering South-West Asia and North Africa, the activity of demographic policy is low due to national and regional traditions (Islamism encourages early and compulsory marriages, large families, polygamy and has a negative attitude towards demographic policy).

Africa as a whole (with the exception of Nigeria) is almost not included in family planning policy, which is caused by large families and other national and socio-economic reasons.

The issues of demographic policy are now the most important for the development of the whole world, but the different approach to it by different states makes it impossible to stabilize the growth rate of the planet's population in the near future.

Demographic crisis- a deep violation of the reproduction of the country's population threatening its existence.

Demographic crisis- low rates of births, deaths and, accordingly, natural increase. Under the demographic crisis can be understood as a decline in population and overpopulation.

In the first case, this is a situation that develops in a country or region when the birth rate falls below the level of simple reproduction of the population, and also below the level of mortality. This situation is currently developing in Russia.

In the case of overpopulation, a demographic crisis is understood as a discrepancy between the population of the territory and its ability to provide residents with vital resources.

Demographic crises in general (and in Russia in particular) have the property of inertia: when the birth rate remains below the level of simple reproduction for a long time, the population ages and the number of women of childbearing age decreases. As a result, a higher TFR (number of children per woman of childbearing age) is required to stabilize the population.

1. Demographic problems in the world.

In 1988, the US National Geographic Society published a map of the world called "Earth in Peril". The number one danger on this map is population pressure. The fact is that since the middle of the 20th century there has been an unprecedented increase in the world population in the history of mankind. Homo sapiens - a reasonable person as a species of living beings, the pinnacle of the creation of life forms on Earth - has existed on the planet for about 100 thousand years, but only about 8 thousand years ago there were about 10 million people on Earth. The number of earthlings increased very slowly, while they lived by hunting and gathering, led the way of life of nomads. But with the transition to settled agriculture, to new forms of production, especially industrial production, the number of people began to increase rapidly and by the middle of the 18th century amounted to about 800 million. Then came a period of increasing acceleration of population growth on Earth. Around 1820, the number of earthlings reached 1 billion. In 1927 this number doubled. The third billion was recorded in 1959, the fourth already 15 years later, in 1974, and just 13 years later, on July 11, 1987, the United Nations declared "the birthday of the 5 billionth person." The sixth billion entered the planet in 2000. If this growth continues for at least another couple of centuries, the entire earth's surface will be filled with inhabitants with the population density of today's Moscow. And after six centuries, for every inhabitant of the planet there will be only 1 square. m. of land. According to UN experts, by 2025 the world population will reach 8.3 billion people. At present, more than 130 million people are born annually on the globe, 50 million die; thus, the population growth is approximately 80 million people. The current demographic situation is a global problem, primarily because the rapid growth of the population occurs in the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Thus, the world population increased daily in 1992 by 254 thousand people. Less than 13,000 of this number were in industrialized countries, the remaining 241,000 in developing countries. 60% of this number was in Asia, 20% in Africa and 10% in Latin America. At the same time, these countries, due to their economic, social and cultural backwardness, are the least able to provide their population doubling every 20-30 years with food, as well as other material benefits, to give at least an elementary education to the younger generation and to provide employment to the population of working age. In addition, rapid population growth is accompanied by its own specific problems, one of which is a change in its age structure: the proportion of children under 15 years of age has increased in most developing countries to 40-50% of their population over the past three decades. As a result, the so-called economic burden of the disabled population on the able-bodied population has increased significantly, which now in these countries is almost 1.5 times higher than the corresponding indicator in industrialized countries. And given the lower overall employment of the working population in developing countries and the huge relative agrarian overpopulation in most of them, the working population is actually experiencing an even greater economic burden. As the experience of a number of countries shows, the decline in population growth depends on many factors. These factors include providing the entire population with housing of adequate quality, full employment, free access to education and health care. The latter is impossible without the development of the national economy on the basis of industrialization and modernization of agriculture, without the development of enlightenment and education, and the solution of social issues. Studies conducted in recent years in a number of countries in Asia and Latin America show that where the level of economic and social development is the lowest, where the majority of the population is illiterate, the birth rate is very high, although many of them have a policy of birth control, and on the contrary, its decline is evident with progressive economic transformations.
No less relevant is the direct connection between the growth of the world population and such global problems as the provision of mankind with natural resources and environmental pollution. The rapid growth of the rural population has already led in many of the developing countries to such a "pressure" on natural resources (soil, vegetation, wildlife, fresh water, etc.), which in a number of areas has undermined their ability to naturally renew themselves. Now the consumption of various natural resources for industrial production in developing countries per capita is 10-20 times less than in developed countries. Nevertheless, assuming that over time these countries will become economically developed and reach the same level of this indicator as in our time in Western Europe, their need for raw materials and energy turned out to be in absolute terms about 10 times greater than now for all countries of the European Community. If we take into account the population growth rates of developing countries, then their potential need for natural resources should have doubled by 2025, and, accordingly, pollution of the environment with industrial waste could also increase significantly. According to the UN, if the demands of modern Western society are met, there will be enough raw materials and energy for only 1 billion people, just for the population of the USA, Western Europe and Japan. Therefore, these countries began to be called the "golden billion". Together they consume more than half of energy, 70% of metals, create ¾ of the total mass of waste, of which: The United States consumes about 40% of the world's natural resources, releasing over 60% of all pollution. A significant proportion of waste remains in countries that produce raw materials for the "golden billion". The rest of the world's population is outside the "golden billion". But if it managed to reach the US level in the growth of mineral resources, then the known reserves of oil would be depleted in 7 years, natural gas in 5 years, coal in 18 years. There is hope for new technologies, but all of them are capable of effect with a stable, and not doubling, population size every few decades. Since 1984, the world grain harvest has increased by 1% per year, and the population has increased by almost 2%. Doubling food production is no longer possible. The number of hungry people in the world increased rapidly from 460 million in 1970 to 550 million in 1990. Now it is 650-660 million people. 35,000 people die of hunger every day in the world. For the year - 12 million people. But even more are being born: in the same year, 96 million are added, and the dead millions remain unnoticed. The earth is inhabited not only by its inhabitants, but also by cars, motorcycles, airplanes. The 250 million cars in the world require as much oxygen as the entire population of the Earth. And after 2 centuries, according to some scientists, oxygen will completely disappear from the atmosphere. There is not even enough underground space. Entire cities are formed underground: sewers, conductive systems, subways, shelters. The filling of space is going on very quickly, and the waste is also multiplying, which makes its shortage even more threatening. The problem of living space is not new. For the English nation, it was decided by the colonization of North America, for the Spanish - South, for the Russian - the development of Siberia and Central Asia. Germany failed to solve the problem of space, which caused two world wars. Over the past 50 years, there has been a movement of migrants from labor-surplus Third World countries to those rich countries where there are few children, many elderly pensioners, and fewer and fewer workers every year. The gap had to be filled by foreign labor, and peoples with high fertility began to spread rapidly among the declining European peoples. It is no longer possible to stop the flow of immigrants to Western Europe from the countries of South-Eastern Europe, North Africa and Turkey. The number of legal and illegal immigrants to the United States from Latin America is growing. People who came to rich countries are ready to take on any job without demanding high pay for it. Therefore, almost all industrialized countries of the West, under pressure from their trade unions, have taken legislative measures to restrict the entry of foreign workers. But the flow of immigrants continues to grow. Entry into the countries of the market economy begins to be guarded by the most powerful police forces. At first, migrants are content with low-paid places, then they begin to demand economic and cultural equality. On the inhabitants of the country, who accepted the newcomers, accusations of racism begin to pour in. There are riots of "colored" in the countries of Western Europe. People leave their places also for political, national or racial reasons. If in 1970 there were 2 million refugees in the world, then in 1992 there were 19 million. The entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan marked the beginning of a multimillion-dollar flow of refugees from the country. By the end of the 80s, their number was estimated at 6-8 million people, more than half of them concentrated in Pakistan, a smaller part scattered in Iran, Turkey and European countries. In the 1990s, the North Caucasus formed and received numerous flows of refugees. New waves of refugees were caused by the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and antiterrorist operations in Afghanistan. Most of these refugees are concentrated in special camps maintained by the UN

Migration of the population is currently associated mainly with economic and political reasons. "Economic" refugees migrate from poor countries to rich ones, from depressed areas to rapidly developing ones. The largest number of economic migrants is sent to the United States (illegal migration from Latin American countries), Western Europe, especially to Germany from Yugoslavia and Turkey, Hong Kong from Vietnam, oil exploration in the Persian Gulf from South Asia and North Africa. Indigenous populations in host countries have a very negative view of the growth of immigrants and refugees, who tend to be employed in the lowest paid jobs and have the highest crime rates. The problem of refugees (they, as a rule, cross the border of their state because of a well-founded fear of religious, racial and national persecution or political convictions) in the modern world has become one of the global problems of mankind. At the end of the 1990s, according to UN experts, the total number of refugees in the world reached 15 million people, with most of them (9/10) in developing countries. The rise in the number of refugees is accompanied by major interstate and intrastate conflicts. In connection with the aggravation of the political situation in the countries of the near abroad of Russia, the problem of refugees has become aggravated in it. Their number had already reached 400,000 by the end of 1992, and the total number of Russians leaving the former republics of the former USSR is expected to reach 700,000. The appearance of "environmental refugees" is facilitated by life-threatening environmental pollution in areas of former residence (for example, refugees from the area adjacent to the Chernobyl nuclear power plant) and natural disasters - volcanic eruptions, floods, desertification.

The world population is over 7.5 billion, about three times the population in the mid-twentieth century.

Table 1. Population in regions of the world (million people)

Regions	2016
North America
Latin America

Table 2. Top ten countries by population in 2005 and 2016

	The country	Population, million people, July 2005		The country	Population, million people, July 2016
	Indonesia			Indonesia
	Brazil			Brazil
	Pakistan			Pakistan
	Bangladesh
				Bangladesh

Absolute (general) population growth occurs due to natural and migration (mechanical growth) of the population. In different regions and countries, the population is growing differently. Population growth rates in countries with different levels of socio-economic development are different. The highest growth rates are characteristic of the population of less developed countries. In the most developed countries, the population in 2016 amounted to 1254 million people, in the less developed countries - 6164 million people.

Under reproduction (the natural movement of the population) is understood the totality of the processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase.

natural growth- the difference between the number of births and deaths for a certain period of time. For example, in 2016, the number of births in the world was 147,183,065 people, deaths - 57,387,752. The natural increase was: 89,795,313 people.

Natural population growth is determined both in absolute numbers and per 1000 inhabitants of the country. The rate of natural increase per 1000 inhabitants is called rate of natural increase(KEP), it is measured in ppm (‰). The rate of natural increase is the difference between births and deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. For example, in 2016, the birth rate (per thousand inhabitants) of the world population was 20 people, and the mortality rate was 8. The natural increase in the world population was 12 people.

The rate of natural population growth can be either positive or negative. In some regions (Eastern and Southern Europe), there is an excess of mortality over births, i.e. natural population decline (negative or zero natural population growth).

Table 3 Demographic indicators of world regions and individual countries in 2016

Region/country	Birth rate (per thousand people)	Mortality (per thousand people)	Natural population growth (per thousand people)
North America
Latin America
Australia and Oceania

There are two types of population reproduction: for more developed and less developed, developing countries. Developed countries are characterized by: average, low birth rates, natural increase, low population growth rates. For developing countries: high birth rate, decrease in mortality, high rates of natural population growth. In the group of developing countries, high birth rates and natural increase are characteristic of the population of most countries in Africa, West, Southwest, and South Asia. These indicators are somewhat lower in the countries of East Asia and Latin America.

At present, many countries are pursuing a state demographic policy - a set of measures aimed at regulating the birth rate in order to increase or reduce the natural increase in the population. Examples of countries where an active demographic policy is being pursued to reduce the birth rate are the countries of South Asia. In many European countries, including Russia, government measures are being taken to encourage families to have two or more children.

Geography, geology and geodesy

Demographic indicators of the regions of the world Population geography studies the size, structure and distribution of the population considered in the process of social reproduction and interaction with the natural environment. Under the reproduction of the population is understood the totality of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations. The first type is characterized by relatively low birth rates, mortality and natural increase for economically developed ...

G population geography. Demographic indicators of the regions of the world

Population geographystudies the size, structure and distribution of the population, considered in the process of social reproduction and interaction with the natural environment.

Under reproductionof the population understand the totality of the processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensure the uninterrupted renewal and change of human generations. Currently, there are two types of reproduction. The first type is characterized by relatively low birth rates, death rates and natural increase - for economically developed countries, where natural increase is either very low, or natural population decline prevails - depopulation ( demographic crisis). The second type of reproduction is characterized by high birth rates and natural population growth. This type is typical for developing countries, where the gain of independence led to a sharp reduction in mortality, while the birth rate remained at the same level.

D.P. - indicators characterizing the state of the population and its reproduction. These include indicators of the natural movement of the population - the birth rate, mortality (general, infant, by causes of death), the average life expectancy. D. items are also the size and structure of the population, population density, level of education, ethnic structure, family structure.

Fertility is the process of renewal of new generations, which is based on biological factors that affect a person's ability to reproduce offspring (conception, fertilization, gestation). The birth rate in human society is determined by socio-economic processes, living conditions, life, traditions, religious attitudes and other factors.

Birth rate per 1000 people

The fertility rate, which, in contrast to the birth rate, is calculated not by the total population, but by the number of women aged 15-49 years (the number of births before and after this age interval is insignificant and can be neglected).

Mortality rate due to the complex interaction of many factors, among which socio-economic factors (the level of well-being, education, nutrition, housing conditions, the sanitary and hygienic state of populated areas and the degree of development of public health services) have a dominant influence.

The first approximate estimate of mortality can be given on the basis of the general mortality rate (the ratio of the annual number of deaths to the average annual number of the entire population, multiplied by 1000).

Mortality rates calculated for individual age and sex groups of the population are much more accurate.

On the basis of age-specific mortality rates, an indicator of the average life expectancy is calculated (the hypothetical number of years that a given generation of births or the number of peers of a certain age will have to live, provided that throughout their life the mortality rate in each age group will be the same as it was in that age group). year for which the calculation was made). This indicator characterizes the viability of the population as a whole;

The average life expectancy for individual economically developed countries differs to a much lesser extent than the overall mortality rates. The increase in life expectancy in most countries has slowed down significantly, and in some countries has almost stopped. At the same time, the higher the achieved level of average life expectancy in the country, the less significant its further increase.

A significant demographic indicator that affects the change in the viability of the population and the value of general mortality rates and indicators of average life expectancy is the mortality of children under the age of 1 year - infant mortality, formerly called child mortality. The infant mortality rate is the ratio of the number of deaths under the age of 1 to the total number of live births in a given year, multiplied by 1000. Infant mortality is an important indicator of the health of the population, since it directly reflects the socio-economic conditions of life and the degree of development of health care.

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	Structure In spermatozoa. Animals are distinguished by head, neck, body and tail. Speed ​​and types of sperm movement. The energy of sperm.
1651.		Methods for determining the concentration of sperm in the ejaculate: counting in a counting chamber using FEC according to standards	20.59KB
	The concentration of spermatozoa is determined using photoelectrocolorimeters (FEC), the calibration curve for which is based on the results of counting spermatozoa in the Goryaev chamber.
1652.		Methods for artificial insemination of mares	20.49KB
	When mares are inseminated, sperm is injected into the uterus (uterine insemination method). In practice, two methods of introducing sperm are used: manual and visual.
1653.		Methods of artificial insemination of cows and heifers	20.59KB
	For insemination of cows and heifers, the cervical method of insemination is used, that is, in the cervix. There are three fundamentally different methods of introducing sperm into the cervical canal.

The archetype of reproduction is characteristic of the earliest stages of the existence of human society, when, thanks to collective labor, it stands out from the surrounding nature. The economic base of such a society was the appropriating economy - hunting, gathering. At the same time, man only used the food resources of the natural landscape, by no means contributing to their increase. Therefore, the population in a certain territory was strictly limited by these resources, and the population could exist for a long time only on the condition that the death rate was approximately equal to the birth rate. Population growth could occur only through the development of new territories.

The first demographic revolution occurs during the transition from an appropriated economy to a producing one (agriculture and cattle breeding). Archaeologists called it the "Neolithic Revolution", the first economic revolution in the history of mankind "There is a transition to a settled way of life (see the article" "), the formation of permanent settlements: as a result, living conditions improve, the nutrition of the population becomes more stable, mortality is somewhat reduced, and the population begins grow, albeit at a very slow pace.

The traditional type of reproduction is inextricably linked with the agrarian economy and its inherent social relations. These relations are "traditional", that is, people's behavior is oriented towards the repetition of unchanging patterns ("how our fathers and grandfathers lived"). The issue of birth control could not appear here - such thoughts were alien to a person of traditional society. The traditional type of reproduction is characterized by a high birth rate, high mortality (including very high infant mortality - up to 200-300%), low natural increase and low life expectancy (25-35 years).

The second demographic revolution (demographic transition) begins in the countries of Western Europe and gradually spreads to almost the entire world. Its deepest causes lie in the change in the nature of society itself as a result of industrialization and urbanization, and the increasing role of the human person. The main sign of the transition to the modern type of reproduction is the regulation of the number of children in the family - that is, the family consciously decides how many children it will have.

Chronological changes in reproduction most often begin with a decrease in mortality caused by the following reasons: 1) health care successes (vaccination, pasteurization, later - antibiotics, etc.); 2) a general improvement in living conditions, including the improvement of nutrition and housing and communal conditions (water supply, sewerage, garbage chute, etc.), with which the introduction of sanitary and hygienic skills is also associated (the habit of washing, washing hands before eating has entered the life of the broad masses population in Western Europe only since the 19th century); 3) a change in the psychology of the population in relation to diseases and the conditions of their lives: if in entirely religious medieval Europe earthly life, full of suffering, was considered only a prologue to an eternal blissful existence in heaven (and therefore there was little point in fighting diseases, death), then after the Renaissance and the Reformation a new psychology was established: a person is the master of his own destiny, and his task is to improve earthly life, including fighting diseases and prolonging his earthly life.

The decline in fertility usually occurs later than the decline in mortality, and in this first period of the demographic transition (with a sharp decrease in mortality and a high birth rate), there is often an increase in natural increase by several times - a "population explosion". In the second period, the death rate continues to decline (albeit slowly), while the birth rate declines much more, and the natural increase decreases. In the third period, with the continuation of the decline in the birth rate, mortality begins to increase (as a result of the aging of the population), and in the fourth - with an almost constant birth rate (stabilized at a low level) - the death rate continues to rise until it equals the birth rate (or even exceeds it), natural growth stops, and in some cases (Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Hungary) is replaced by a decline.

The reasons for the decline in the birth rate are more difficult to sort out, usually a set of interrelated reasons is listed: a decrease in infant mortality (as a result of which there is no need to have “reserve” children), the organization of social security (that is, the state takes care of the elderly, and children are no longer are the only breadwinners in old age), the collapse of the old patriarchal family (which was also a production unit) and the emergence of small families where raising a large number of children is difficult, the emancipation of women and the emergence of a new value system, the main of which for them now are outside the home; an increase in the level of education and an expansion of the circle of people's interests, an increase in the cost of raising and educating children (if in the agrarian economy children “pay for themselves” from an early age by working on the land, now you only need to “invest” money in them for up to 20 years), urbanization is a kind of integral indicator of changes in conditions and lifestyles: in urbanized areas (primarily in large cities), all of the above factors are stronger.

The current demographic transition is taking place differently in countries of different types (although all four of the above periods can be traced in all countries that have completed it). For example, Sweden passed it in 150 years, and the country's population during this time increased by 3.7 times; in developing countries, this happens over decades and the population grows much faster, for example, the population of Egypt will increase 4-5 times (depending on how quickly the transition is completed), Lexica - 7-10 times, and so on.

To make growth forecasts, a hypothesis developed by UN demographers is now accepted, according to which the stabilization of the number of inhabitants will begin when the average life expectancy reaches 74.8 years, the total fertility rate is 2.08 and the net reproduction rate is equal to one. At the same time, population growth will continue for some time to come, as more and more age groups will enter the fertile age. Only in a few decades, when the number and age structure of women of childbearing age will stop changing, will the overall birth and death rates equalize (at 13.4%) and population growth will stop. This will already be the so-called stationary population, all parameters of which (age and sex structure, birth and death rates, and ) remain unchanged.

The world population, according to this hypothesis, can stabilize at the level of 12-15 billion people in the middle or at the end of the 21st century. At the same time, the population of the countries of South Asia and Africa, in which the demographic transition will be completed later than in other regions, is growing the most. For example, the population of India will stabilize no earlier than it reaches 1.7 billion (India will overtake China and become the world's largest country in terms of population in the middle of the 21st century).

Differences in the natural movement and age and sex structure of the population of different countries and regions of the world are primarily due to the stage of the demographic transition in which this territory is located, and secondly, to external relations of the population: inflow or outflow of the population from outside. Since the migrations involve mainly relatively young ages, the population in outflow areas is usually older, while in inflow areas it is younger, most often with a larger proportion of men of working age.

Countries that have almost completed the demographic transition (in Western and Northern Europe) have already come close to the state of the "stationary" population, the main parameters of which were given above. The opposite pole of the demographic situation is in the countries of South Asia and Africa, which are still going through the “peak” of the population explosion. The rest of the world's countries are, as it were, between these poles, gradually approaching the "European" state.

On the territory of the former USSR, the demographic transition was almost completed (that is, the death rate caught up with the birth rate and the population did not change) in Estonia and Latvia; the birth rate continued to be slightly higher in Lithuania (which was later industrialized and urbanized, and where the Catholic religion, unlike the Protestant one, to some extent restrained the transition to birth control). The other pole is the states of Central Asia, especially Tajikistan, where the population explosion is almost in full swing (and now, due to the ongoing Islamization of society and a return to traditions, the emerging decline in the birth rate may well be replaced by its growth).

An intermediate position is occupied by Azerbaijan, where the decline in the birth rate (to a greater extent in the total coefficient, but also in the total) began in the 1960s; and Armenia and especially Georgia are already close to the “European type”. The overall indicators of Kazakhstan are influenced by a large (about half) share of the Slavic population; the same factor (but to a lesser extent) operates in Kyrgyzstan; in addition, among nomadic peoples, a woman has always been more emancipated than among settled peoples, and the degree of their Islamization was much less. Therefore, among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, the birth rate began to decline earlier than among the Uzbeks and Tajiks.

The Slavic countries of the CIS have, on average, a demographic situation very close to the "European" type, but inside they, especially Russia, are extremely heterogeneous. Within Russia, the regions of the "demographic explosion" (though already "on the decline" of it) are a number of regions of the North Caucasus (especially Dagestan) and Tuva. Regions with an almost completed demographic transition - the largest cities and their zones of influence, especially Moscow and St. Petersburg (although in this case it is impossible to talk about the population as a constant value, since all the largest cities in Russia, especially the capital ones, have attracted a lot of migrants until recent years , "rejuvenating" their population).