Dialectic - philosophical theory development of nature, society, thinking and based on this theory, the method of knowledge and transformation of the world. The content of dialectics was formed over a long period spiritual development humanity. Three main historical forms of dialectics can be distinguished: the spontaneous dialectics of the ancients (the ideological foundations of dialectics are laid), Hegel's dialectics (the theoretical basis for subsequent development is created) and Marxist dialectics (materialist dialectics). The change in the historical forms of dialectics took place in such a way that each subsequent form absorbed everything valuable that the previous one contained.
The theory of materialistic dialectics has two complementary levels of explanation of development: ideological and theoretical. The ideological level consists of the principles of dialectics - these are extremely general ideas expressing the conceptual foundations of dialectics. The theoretical level is formed by the laws of materialistic dialectics: The first group of laws reveals the structure of development at the level of describing the very mechanism of development (the law of unity and struggle of opposites, revealing the source of development; the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes, which allows showing how development occurs; the law of negation of negation, on the basis of which it becomes possible to explain the direction of development). The second group includes laws that explain that part of the structure of development that determines the presence of universal opposite sides in it. These laws explain the essence of the interaction of opposite sides of the developing world.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
According to this law contradiction is the source and driving force of all development. Contradiction is the interaction of opposites. In materialist dialectics, contradiction is a dynamic process that goes through three stages in its development: emergence, proper development, and resolution.
1. The emergence of contradictions. The process of the emergence of a contradiction is described using the following categories:
- Identity is a coincidence, equality (different objects) or its identity to itself (one object). Identity is always relative. This means that there is always a difference between objects.
- Difference is a category that reflects the difference of objects. It is characterized not so much by the non-coincidence of objects as by the tendency of their difference to increase in the process of development, which as a result leads to their opposite.
- Contrast - these are the differences between objects that have grown to the limit in the sense that they have taken shape in a certain substratum (element of the system), which forces by its activity (its existence) objects that are in unity (that is, in the system) to develop in opposite directions . With the appearance of opposites, the structure of the contradiction is formed and the stage of its occurrence is completed.
2. Development of contradictions. To characterize this stage, two series of concepts are usually used:
- Unity and struggle of opposites. These concepts are used to reveal the mechanism of contradiction development. Unity and struggle are two sides of the process of interaction of opposites. The unity of opposites can be understood in three ways: a) two opposites are in a single system; b) complementarity and interpenetration in the functioning of the system; c) the result of withdrawing their struggle. The struggle of opposites is their constant opposition.
- Harmony, disharmony, conflict. Concepts denoting the form in which the development of the contradiction takes place, as well as the state of this development. The development of a contradiction can be carried out both in one of these states, and with their successive alternation. Harmony is a certain order of interaction of opposites, based on their connection and allowing the system to develop. Disharmony - there are deformations in the development of contradictions, which lead to some disturbances in the functioning of the system. Conflict - the collision of opposites reaches the limit, beyond which the destruction of essential connections and the collapse of the system occurs.
3. Resolution of contradictions. It occurs by negating: a) the state in which it was before; b) one of the opposites; c) both opposites.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
According to this law, development occurs through quantitative changes, which, passing the measure of the subject, cause qualitative changes that occur in the form of jumps. The content of the law is revealed using the following categories:
- Quality is the internal certainty of an object (specificity), as well as a set of essential properties of an object, reflecting its fundamental difference from other objects.
- Property - reflects the manifestation of individual aspects of the quality of the object in the external environment.
- Quantity is the degree of development of the properties and space-time boundaries of an object, and its same external characteristic quality.
- A measure is a characteristic of an object in its qualitative and quantitative form; it determines those quantitative boundaries in which the quality of the object is preserved.
- Quantitative changes in an object, that is, the addition or subtraction of matter, energy, information from it, are continuous until they exceed the measure of the object.
- Qualitative changes represent a fundamental transformation of the essential properties of an object.
- A leap is a break in the continuity of quantitative changes, giving rise to a new quality.
The law of negation of negation.
The law of negation of negation explains the direction of development from a succession of successive dialectical negations. The main category of law is negation. Negation is understood as the transition of an object to a new quality, due to the development of its inherent internal and / or external contradictions. With the dialectical negation of an object, four processes, as a rule, are carried out in it: something is destroyed; something is being transformed; something is saved; something new is being created.
The direction of development established on the basis of this law turns out to be dependent on cyclicity as a way of regular connection in the chain of negations. Each cycle of denials consists of three stages: a) the initial state of the object; b) its transformation into its opposite; c) the transformation of this opposite into its opposite.
The condition for the operation of this law is the consideration of progressive development in the aspect of negation, and the sign of its operation is the completion of the cycle of negation, when continuity is found between the initial state of the object and its existence after the second negation.
The development of all processes in the world is subject to certain laws. A law is a stable, repetitive relationship common to many phenomena. The law expresses the objective need for change.
The main difference between the laws of dialectics is their universality. Dialectical laws have no boundaries. They operate both in nature and in society. They are subject to human activity - both practical and spiritual. They do not have the laws of dialectics and time limits.
The laws of dialectics play a crucial role in characterizing development. The three basic laws of dialectics reveal precisely these parameters of development. The law of unity and struggle of opposites explains why everything moves, changes. The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative Changes answers the question of how things change. The law of negation of negation shows what is the direction of change, to which everything is moving.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
Among the basic dialectical laws, this law is rightfully considered the main one. He establishes the nature of the most fundamental relationships in the world - causal, arguing that the cause and driving force of all changes are in the interdependence and interaction, unity and struggle of dialectical opposites.
The study of the law of unity and struggle of opposites involves consideration of the categories "unity", "struggle", "opposites", "identity", "difference", "contradiction".
The category "struggle" reflects the active interaction of opposites. The unity of opposites does not mean the abolition of their alternativeness. It rather determines the form of their coexistence. The struggle of opposites is absolute, while their unity is relative. For example, the introduction of a single European currency does not indicate that the contradictions in the economic interests of the countries that are members of the EEC have been overcome. The opposition of national interests is obvious, only the real threat of falling under dollar pressure forces us to pacify national ambitions and seek a compromise.
The category of "opposites" indicates the mutual exclusion of phenomena. Production and consumption are mutually exclusive processes, but from the point of view of the economy, their opposite is relative: they are two sides of the same phenomenon.
The category "identity" of opposites expresses such a level of correlation of opposites as their partial coincidence, correspondence. The identity of opposites is a temporary, relative state. Thus, the interests of the employer and employee in a market, liberal economy are opposite. The employer seeks to reduce the cost of production by reducing wage costs in order to increase its competitiveness and get additional profit.
The worker, demanding higher wages, at the same time opposes the policy of reducing employment. The struggle includes trade unions and the state, which is interested in the implementation of social programs. As a result of the work of tripartite commissions, parity of interests is achieved. For a while, peace is established. The term of the contract expires - and everything starts all over again.
The category "difference" of opposites characterizes the relations of opposites that appear after the violation of identity. Strictly speaking, differences also exist at the stage of identity of opposites. Essentially, the differences of opposites are universal. Differences may be minor or significant. Growing, differences turn into contradictions.
The development and resolution of contradictions goes through a number of stages. The first of them is dominated by the identity of opposites. The differences are insignificant and do not violate the stability of the existence of the phenomenon. Contradictions are hidden, but they exist and develop.
The second stage reveals inconsistencies in the being of the phenomenon. Balance and harmony are replaced by tension, conflicts arise. If the growth of contradictions continues, then development enters the final third stage for this phenomenon, culminating in the resolution of contradictions through its transition (transformation) into another state or into another phenomenon. With the transformation of a phenomenon, old contradictions are replaced by new ones, since a new phenomenon must also have a new source of development.
The resolution of contradictions is accompanied by the birth of a new quality.
The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative.
Metaphysical thinking recognizes changes either quantitative or qualitative. The relationship of quantitative and qualitative changes is the discovery of dialectical philosophy. This relationship is represented by the corresponding law, which establishes that changes in the quality, essence of an object occur as a result of changes in its quantitative characteristics, growing in a certain direction. The new quality of an object is born from the old one due to quantitative changes.
Understanding the mechanism of action and the meaning of the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones requires an analysis of the philosophical categories "property", "quantity", "quality", "measure", "jump".
The category "property" occupies a special place in the philosophical worldview. One world is diverse. The diversity of the world is revealed through the differences of phenomena that form it as an infinite multitude. At the same time, each phenomenon also represents a certain variety: it changes its state, it is multifaceted. Philosophy uses the category "property" to express one of the sides, facets of the phenomenon. The property, strictly speaking, is equal not to this side itself, but to what it is in the process of interaction with other sides and other phenomena.
The category "quality" reflects the totality of the basic, that is, necessary, stable, recurring, general properties of phenomena. They are usually called essential, since they determine the essence and dynamics of the development of phenomena. The category "quality" largely coincides with the category "essence".
G. Hegel noted that quality is that, if it is lost, the phenomenon ceases to be itself. Indeed, quality characterizes not only the essence of the phenomenon, but also its integrity. Quality is not reduced to the sum of the essential properties of a phenomenon. It defines the way they interact. To know quality means to highlight the essential properties and present them in the form of a system.
The category "quantity" determines the subject, the process in terms of its size, duration, intensity and involves numerical methods of evaluation. Unlike quality, which remains invariant (unchanged) in the development of a phenomenon up to a certain point, quantity can change without changing the essence of the phenomenon.
The relationship between quantity and quality illustrates the dialectic of the unity of opposites. Quality expresses the sustainable side of development. The number confirms the variability in development. Their unity is due to the existence of the phenomenon that they characterize.
The category "jump" reflects the process of transition from one quality to another. A jump is a form of such a transition. The new quality is the result of resolving contradictions. At a certain point, quantitative changes are interrupted. The continuous movement is replaced by a stepwise (discrete) one.
The forms of the jump are manifold. They differ in scale, content and mode of expression. The concrete form of the jump depends on the nature of the developing phenomenon, on the nature of the contradictions and the conditions under which the evolutionary process is interrupted. Knowing the conditions, we are able to control some forms of the jump. illustrative example to this - the creation of nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, skillful anti-crisis management in the economy.
The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones reflects the order of interconnection of continuous and spasmodic changes in the world, in the development of knowledge about it. It is essential that not only quantitative changes cause qualitative ones, but also qualitative - quantitative ones. Thus, the transition of transport to electric traction inevitably leads to an increase in the speed and volume of transportation, to a new organization of the traffic system, a new regulatory framework.
The law of negation of negation.
This law characterizes the most important aspect of development - its direction. The peculiarity of the law lies in the fact that it reveals itself in time, and we are talking about significant time intervals.
It is not difficult to explain this feature of the law of negation of negation. The double negation contained in the law testifies to the cyclical nature of the development reflected in the law. The need for repeated denial implies a length of time, and no small one.
Outside of a philosophical interpretation, negation is presented in a simplified way - as a refusal to accept something, to agree with something, or as the opposite of an affirmation. Someone expresses some consideration, the other, disagreeing, rejects (denies) it. Negative attitude is identified with a negative attitude towards something.
In a philosophical sense, negation was originally understood as a change in phenomena. "Change" - a concept that reflects any deviation from the existing state - has acquired a new meaning over time. Further, "negation" became a concept expressing a fundamental change in the phenomenon as a whole, and not in its individual features. It is associated with destruction, abolition, loss of an object, a process as such, the cessation of its existence. The internal combustion engine left steam locomotives out of work, sending them into the past. The electric motor replaces diesel locomotives.
Metaphysical philosophy defines negation as the cessation of being. Death denies life. The default buries the economy's hopes for investment. Grain, once in the mill, becomes flour. Metaphysics reflects the external, visible side denial.
Dialectics sees negation as essential element development of the world. Therefore, in the dialectical understanding, negation is not the cessation of being, but a change in a specific form of being. Development does not end with negation. It continues in two directions, depending on the nature of the negation. If denial destroys the source of development, for example, there is a closure of an enterprise due to bankruptcy, then the movement temporarily takes the form of entropic changes. The property remaining after the payment of debts is being sold, employees are dismissed. However, this does not mean the end. The proceeds will be involved in the turnover, there will be another production.
When the negation is not connected with the source of development (for example, the restructuring of an enterprise), then development continues as a progressive movement.
Dialectical negation is a natural process of renewal, replacement of an old quality by a new one, the result of self-development of phenomena. It keeps the connection between the old and the new.
In the process of dialectical negation, the obsolete, which hinders development, is abolished in the old. At the same time, the sprouts of the new, the rational, are preserved and strengthened. Negation cannot be absolute. It is always relative (not in form, but in essence). The phenomenon does not disappear without a trace, does not turn into nothing. It changes the forms of its movement, its specific form.
The law of negation of negation indicates that development is carried out through continuity. Through double negation, the progressive nature of development is revealed: a new, more perfect one appears naturally (first negation) and just as naturally, having developed, it will give way to something that is more reasonable, perfect (second negation).
Visually, the manifestation of the law of "negation of negation" is usually compared with the movement in a spiral, demonstrating the ascending moment of development. Movement in a spiral, partly repeats the form of the phenomenon, but the content changes. It is improved, based on the experience of previous development.
Dialectics and its basic laws.
Concepts of dialectics: objective and subjective dialectics. Communication and development are the basic principles of dialectics. The concept of law.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites.
The law of negation.
Dialectic in translation from ancient Greek means to conduct a conversation, dispute, reasoning. With the development of philosophy, science and practice, the content and subject of philosophy has changed. The concept of dialectic was introduced by Socrates, who designated them the art of discovering the truth by clashing opposing opinions. Plato understood dialectics as the logical method by which knowledge of the world of ideas is carried out. Heraclitus (the ancient philosopher) considered the development of the object-sensible world of nature according to objective laws, on the basis of the unity and struggle of opposites, as dialectics. The school of the sophists gave dialectics a bad connotation. They sought to present non-essential attributes of an object as essential ones and vice versa. Hegel understood dialectics as the doctrine of the development of the spirit. Modern philosophy understands dialectics as the doctrine of the universal connection and development of objects of nature, society and man. Modern philosophy recognizes the existence of objective and subjective dialectics. Objective dialectics is the connection and development that reigns in society and nature (it is not connected with human consciousness). Subjective dialectics is the doctrine of the development of connections between objects and phenomena of the material world, i.e. it exists in the human mind. Therefore, subjective dialectics is a reflection of objective dialectics in human consciousness. Basic principles of dialectics:
The principle of universal communication.
development principle.
In the world there is not a single phenomenon isolated from others. Any object is a link in an endless chain connected by relationships. An endless chain unites all the phenomena and objects of the world into a single whole - the connection is universal. In inorganic nature, there are mechanical, physical and chemical connections between phenomena, as well as field connections. In nature, there are interspecies biological links. There are infinitely diverse connections between people, states, peoples, nations, families. Communication is the dependence of one phenomenon on another in some respect. Any connection has its basis - it is matter, an objective reality. Thanks to this, any connection is possible. But philosophy does not study all the infinite variety of connections in the world, it is interested in such connections as the individual and the general, the possible and the real, the necessary and the accidental, between form and content, between essence and phenomenon. Knowledge of the principles of communication is of great practical importance. Ignoring communication and interaction has a detrimental effect on natural processes: deforestation, shallowing of rivers, deterioration of human health. Objects are not only in unity, but also in development. Development is a definitely directed change of an object to a new quality:
Development is an irreversible process: everything goes through the same state once.
development is a contradictory process, in which old qualities are destroyed and new ones are recognized at the same time.
development is a process in which qualitative changes accumulate, which lead to the death of an old object and the birth of a new one.
development is a natural process, which is based on a change in the internal essence of the object, which is irreversible.
Development includes 2 directions: progress and regression. Progress is a change in a phenomenon to a new quality that surpasses the old.
regress c is a change in the phenomenon leading to degradation. An alternative to dialectics is adialectics, which exists in the form of relativism, dogmatism, sophistry and eclipticism.Relativism - this is an adialectical way of thinking that exaggerates the variability of our knowledge and denies the moment of stability in them. Relativism is dangerous for practice, it leads to the rupture of ties in society.
Dogmatism is an adialectical way of thinking that exaggerates the stability of our knowledge and denies its volatility. It is also dangerous for practice, because it stands for the preservation of everything old, hinders progress.
Sophistry- this is an adialectical way of thinking based on the substitution of concepts: it gives out non-existent signs of a phenomenon as existing ones, leading a person away from the truth.
Ecliptic- an adialectical way of thinking based on an unprincipled combination of elements of dialectics and adialectics, materialism and idealism.
Practice and science convince us that there is order in the world. The universe has a code of its own laws, phenomena in the world develop naturally. There is no consensus in philosophy about the source of laws:
objective idealists (Plato, Hegel) see the source of law in the world mind and the world of ideas. The world mind brings order to nature and society.
subjective idealists (Berkeley, Kant, Mach) consider the source of laws in the mind of man, which introduces a regular order into nature and society.
from the point of view of religious philosophy (patristics, scholasticism, neo-Thomism), the source of laws is in God, who brings order to the world of nature and society - this is providentialism.
from the point of view of the dialectical materialism of philosophy, the source of laws is in the materialistic world itself, namely, in the interaction of phenomena with each other, which, according to the assembly effect, form a kind of independent tendency-law.
The laws - these are objective, necessary, essential, recurring connections between phenomena that express the direction of their development.
Signs:
law is an objective relationship that a person cannot cancel at will.
law is an existing internal connection.
law is a necessary connection, without which the phenomenon cannot exist.
law is a recurring general connection, visible in a multitude of phenomena.
Modern philosophy and science divide the law into dynamic and statistical.
dynamic law - this is such a form of causal-effect relationship, where the initial state uniquely determines its final state (in nature).
statistical law - this is a form of communication that reveals a trend in the mass of random phenomena and characterizes them as a whole.
These laws govern society. Laws are classified according to their scope. Based on this criterion, 3 types are distinguished:
universal laws are those to which all phenomena of the material and spiritual world are subject. These are the laws of dialectics.
private laws are those to which, in their development, large groups phenomena. Laws of motion of matter (mechanical, physical, chemical).
specific laws are those that are subject to individual phenomena.
The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes shows how development occurs and hides its general mechanism. The content of this law is revealed with the help of such philosophical categories as: quality, quantity, properties, measure, races. In the material world, there are an infinite number of phenomena that differ in their quality.
Quality - this is the internal certainty of objects that distinguishes them.
Signs:
it is objective, changeable, relative.
quality is determined by the internal structure of phenomena
the quality is related to the finality of the thing. It is identical with it, because beyond it lies another quality.
The quality of any phenomenon is found in the unity of its properties.
Property - this is the ability to manifest a certain side of the quality of an object in its interaction with other bodies.
Properties largely depend on the object with which it interacts. The property of objects not only manifests itself, but also changes depending on the nature of the relationship of phenomena in the process of interconnections with other objects, revealing the diversity of their properties. Phenomena are also noted by collective signs.
Quantity - this is the external side of the object, characterizing its spatio-temporal features and the degree of intensity of development.
Quantity is less than quality due to the existence of the phenomenon: you can raise the temperature of metals by hundreds of degrees, but they do not change their quality, but change the quantity.
Measure - this is a ratio of quantity and quality, in which a quantitative change does not cause a qualitative one.
Measure is a barrier. Everything in the world has its own measure, i.e. harmony between quantity and quality. This law shows that quantity and quality in a phenomenon exist in unity and development. Quantitative changes, crossing the border of measure, lead to qualitative changes in phenomena, at this moment the old quality is replaced by a new one and development and renewal of the existing takes place. This law shows that qualitative changes give rise to new quantitative parameters. The transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones is accomplished by means of a jump.
horse racing - this is a fundamental qualitative change in the phenomenon, as a result of qualitative changes that have crossed the border of the measure.
There are an infinite number of jumps in the world, but philosophy divides them into 2 types:
instantaneous jump - in which the whole quality of a thing changes sharply and completely (boiling of water).
slow jump - in which the essential signs of phenomena change slowly, gradually (the appearance of a voice).
The jump also differs in the depth of the changes it produces in the phenomenon:
race - a revolution in which the structure of a thing or phenomenon changes.
leaps - evolution, in which only the state of a thing changes, but within the framework of the former essence (change in the aggregate state of matter).
Methodological significance of the law.
he shows that the essence of any phenomenon can be known only by studying its qualitative and quantitative characteristics in their unity.
this law shows that quantitative accumulation in society contradicts, causes its crisis state and leads to social revolution.
knowledge of this law obliges each person to remember that he must remember the measure in his behavior.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites. This law reveals the cause, the driving force of development, its source and answers the question: why does it occur? This law is revealed with the help of such categories as: identity, difference of contradictions and adialectic contradictions. As a result of the development of movement, each phenomenon is not equal to itself, but acts as an internal contradiction. This is what constitutes the source of the development of phenomena.
Identity - this is the equality of the object to itself, and also equally opposite to itself, because phenomena are constantly evolving, then there is no absolute identity, identity is always relative.
Identity in phenomena can be traced and exists because the contradictory aspects in phenomena have a whole series of identical properties, forming a single quality.
Difference - this is the relationship between the contradictory sides in the phenomena, the direction in the development of which coincides.
Difference is a contradiction in itself is not disclosed.
Opposites - these are the sides of these contradictions, which mutually presuppose and at the same time negate each other. All things and phenomena are opposite.
Opposites in dialogic contradiction exist in unity and struggle.
Fight - this is a clash of opposites in the subject, in which one of the parties seeks to win in the development process.
Dialectical contradictions are relations between opposite sides in an object that exist in unity and struggle.
The essence of the law lies in the fact that the understanding of development as the division of the one into mutually exclusive opposites, the struggle of which leaves internal source self-development of phenomena. The source of development of any subject is dialectical contradictions. Dialectical contradictions in the subject are in development, not one phenomenon does not appear ready-made, it is prepared by all previous processes of development, and therefore dialectical contradictions go through several stages of development.
Stages. Dialectical contradictions begin their development with identity (the moment the microbe attacks).
identity, objectivity (microbe attack) - 2) insignificant difference (some kind of malaise) - 3) significant difference (distinct signs of illness) - 4) conflict, balance of opposites (disease crisis) - 5) identity of opposites, their transition into each other (recovery ).
The unity and struggle of opposites, as sides of dialectical contradictions, does not occupy the same position in it. So the unity of opposites is relative, while their struggle is absolute. The relativity of the unity of opposites is manifested in the fact that the unity of time of specific objects has a beginning and an end. Relativity is also manifested in the temporary nature of the balance of opposites. The absoluteness of the struggle is manifested in the fact that it destroys the balance of the opposite, and also in the fact that the struggle, like movement, exists at all stages of the existence of the phenomenon. This law classifies the entire infinite set of dialectical contradictions not of the following types:
internal and external.
basic and non-basic
main and non-main
agonistic and non-agonistic
internal contradictions - this is the relationship between the contradictions of the parties within the system, expressing its state as a whole. It is the internal contradictions that are the source of the development of phenomena. With an internal contradiction, one side cannot exist without the other. Each system is part of another. External contradictions are formed between them - these are relations between different systems. With external contradictions, a certain side can exist without a defined one.
the main contradictions are the relations between internal contradictions that make up the structure of the phenomena. They define the essence of the object, its existence. Major contradictions give rise to a whole aspect of non-core contradictions.
in every material system there are major and minor contradictions. The main contradiction is that which determines the essence of a particular stage in the development of phenomena. The main contradiction, as a rule, gives rise to a whole series of non-main contradictions.
in society there are antagonistic and non-antagonistic contradictions. Antagonistic relations are called relations between social forces in society, the fundamental interests of which do not coincide. Not antagonistic - these are relations between social forces in a society whose fundamental interests coincide. There is no absolute development between antagonists and non-antagonists. With the wrong subjective policy of the government, non-antagonists (antagonists) can acquire features of hostility. Knowledge of this law has great methodological meaning:
orientation to the study of internal contradictions in the phenomenon, in order to reveal the source of self-partitions.
he teaches to distinguish the main and not the main contradictions in the system, especially in society.
he warns politicians against subjectivism in their activities and does not allow them to allow non-antagonistic contradictions to grow into antagonistic ones, to take a system of measures that neutralize hostile forces in society.
The law of negation shows the direction of development and answers the question: "Where is it going?". This law is revealed with the help of categories. Any phenomenon in the process of its development reaches the stage of its own negation, i.e. becomes qualitatively different. Without the denial of the old, the birth of the new is not possible, therefore. Negation is a natural moment in development. Dialectical negation (signs):
it is objective, but acts as a necessary stage in the development of the object itself.
dialectical negation is the negation itself, which is generated by the development of the object itself. This means that the phenomenon itself contains its own negation.
dialectical negation is always concrete:
A. This means the concreteness of the way of negating each phenomenon.
B. Concrete negatives denote the unity of destruction and preservation of the quality of all positive, viable moments that form the basis of further development.
Incomplete negation is not absolute. Negation - as a moment of connection, as a moment of development with the retention of the "plus" of quality. Adialectical negation presupposes the complete annihilation of the phenomenon, the cessation of its further development. According to this law, the denial of phenomena goes in cycles. Each cycle consists of 3 stages:
the initial state of the phenomenon is the sowing of grain in the ground.
its transformation into its opposite, i.e. its negation is the negation of the grain by the plant.
the transformation of this opposite into its opposite, i.e. denial - denial of the plant by the fruit.
the meaning of dialectical negation is to create conditions for the further development of phenomena.
dialectical negation is characterized by two possibilities: it is a condition, a moment of development, and it is a moment of connection between the old quality and the new.
“The world, every moment of it is the fruit of the future. The present absorbs the positive moments of the past, and the future rushes under the present in order to take threads from it for its fabric. (Herzen). Development is where the new stops the existence of the old, removing it from it. The dialectical understanding of continuity does not mean a simple borrowing of the positive elements of the old quality. Continuity in development involves the processing of the old quality, changing it to a new quality. Continuity exists in inanimate nature, because chemical form includes mechanical and physical. There are also succession processes in the organic world. For example, in man there are elements of heredity and variability. The legacy is also manifested in the life of society: a new stage of historical development always inherits all the best from the past (science, culture). Continuity also exists in science, each new discovery is based on the achievements of science of the past. The process of development from the point of view of this law goes in a spiral. Spiral development is characterized by:
in a spiral translational and circular motion are intricately combined, because here there is a kind of repetition of the old, but at a higher level.
the spiral interprets the continuous development and at the same time the qualitative renewal of the subject, it has unity, reasonable traditions.
the spiral expresses the progressive nature of development, since each last turn is not a simple repetition of the old, but a qualitative renewal of the object through the development of its positive aspects in a new condition.
the invincibility of the new in the confrontation with the old is expressed in the spiral, since what arises in the process of denying the system has more
as the transition from lower forms of matter to higher forms, the rate of development of the system accelerates.
Knowledge of this law is of great importance in the life of a person and society:
he shows that there is nothing eternal in life and therefore encourages a critical attitude towards them
he teaches that any new forms in life can be sustainable when they keep best traditions of the past.
he warns against adialectical negations
it shows that the main line of development is progress.
Basic laws of dialectics
1. Basic laws of dialectics
1.1 Law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes
1.2 The law of unity and struggle of opposites
1.3 Law of negation of negation
List of sources used
1. Basic laws of dialectics
1.1 Law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes
Dialectics is a theory and method of understanding new facets of being, specific situations, problems. Dialectics comprehends the environment through the dialogue of thought and action, through the analysis and synthesis of mutually exclusive and mutually positing opinions and points of view. Dialectics teaches wisdom, teaches to avoid mistakes. In its internal foundation, dialectics is one, in its manifestations, forms and methods of application it is diverse and multidimensional. In the initial settings and goals, it is relatively stable, in specific applications and incarnations it is changeable, constantly improving (the latter can be seen, at least, on the example of the enrichment of dialectics with the ideas of synergetics).
The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes shows how connections are made and development takes place, what is their mechanism. The content of this law is revealed through the categories: "quality", "quantity", "property", "measure", "leap".
Man has long tried to reveal the nature of qualitative and quantitative characteristics in the structure and dynamics of the universe. The Pythagoreans argued that numbers expressing quantitative relationships are the elements of all things, give harmony to the spheres solar system. The difference from each other of unequal things and processes, i.e. their qualitative originality, tried to explain Thales, Anaximenes and Heraclitus. Aristotle introduced the categories of quality and quantity to determine the fundamental properties of nature and knowledge. He attributed the following contexts to quality: properties and states, both transient and stable, inherent in things and phenomena in the process of their existence; appearance things. Aristotle considered quantity from the point of view of "multitude" and "magnitude", "equality" or "inequality".
In the Middle Ages, the notion of "hidden" qualities was affirmed as eternal and unchanging "forms" that predetermine the properties of objects. In modern times, Boyle, Newton, Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza and other natural scientists and philosophers continued to develop the theory of qualities, subdividing them into primary and secondary, objective and subjective.
In philosophical and scientific thought, the gap between quantity and quality was not uncommon: the reduction of quality to quantity (Democritus, Gassendi, Descartes, La Mettrie); denial of the influence of quantitative changes on supposedly forever given qualitative differences (the theory of preformism in biology, Cuvier's theory of geological catastrophes, etc.). In general, philosophy has established a view of the interdependence of quality and quantity. Hegel recognized quality as the internal certainty of being, and quantity as its external certainty.
Quality is the discovery of the certainty of an object (process) through the totality of its features. The existence of quality is possible on the basis of discreteness as a principle structural organization matter. Quality expresses the general that is characteristic of homogeneous objects or processes, and at the same time fixes that something has specificity, due to which it is a given concrete formation. The largest "blocks" of qualitative differences are between the main types of matter and the corresponding forms of motion.
The quality of objects is revealed through their properties, i.e. "facets" of an object that determine its difference or similarity with other objects and manifest themselves in interaction with them. When conditions change, individual properties of objects change or disappear altogether. There are actual (realized) and potential, latent properties.
Quantity is a philosophical category that characterizes the pace of processes, the mobility and variability of things, the degree of development or intensity of the properties of objects or processes. Quantity is measurable or computable by means of mathematical knowledge. Proclaimed by Galileo (1564 - 1642), the principle of a quantitative approach to phenomena is the methodological foundation of exact natural science, a prerequisite for scientific and technological progress. DI. Mendeleev believed that science begins where measurement begins. The process of mathematization was especially intensified with the development of the computer. The more complex the phenomenon (in the field of politics, morality, aesthetic perception of the world, etc.), the more difficult it is to subject it to the study of quantitative methods. F. Engels in "Dialectics of Nature" emphasized that in biology and in the history of society, in contrast to the exact sciences, quantities cannot be clearly measured and traced. Some modern authors argue similarly, who argue that such phenomena and processes as "national-cultural traditions, beliefs, the subconscious ... often ... are not invested ... in quantitatively calculated statistical columns or mathematical formulas" And yet, there is an objectively quantitative side to complex objects, although it is not expressed in exact quantitative parameters. The cultural traditions of this or that ethnic group can probably be indirectly, approximately judged, for example, by the number of people who adhere to certain rituals, about religious faith - by the number of people observing fasts, about the morality of a person - by the number of his good deeds, etc. d. These quantitative benchmarks, of course, are supplemented by other indicators. Quantitative relationships, in addition to measurements, are also captured using comparisons (higher, more intense, etc.).
In the process of development, quantitative changes at a certain stage turn into qualitative differences (for example, the transition of water from one state of aggregation to another in accordance with changes in temperature, pressure and other factors, the transformation of some chemical elements into others depending on the change in the charge of the atomic nucleus), and new qualities give rise to new possibilities and intervals of quantitative changes.
Quality and quantity are opposite and at the same time inextricably linked characteristics of objects, which is expressed by the concept of measure. Nothing too much, everything is good in moderation, Chilo argued. Use your measure, Thales insisted. Plato saw in the thesis "nothing beyond measure" a synonym for wisdom. Hegel defined measure as the unity of qualitative quantity. The measure arises due to the double transition (quality into quantity, quantity into quality). Measure - such an interval of quantitative changes, within which the qualitative certainty of the subject is preserved. In many phenomena (especially social and spiritual ones), the position of the boundaries of the interval is fuzzy and difficult to determine.
The world and its fragments are characterized by the unity of relative exhaustibility and inexhaustibility (infinity), and development is the unity of continuity (changes within the limits of the measure) and discontinuity (changes in the measure itself).
Hegel established that the real whole is the result together with its becoming. F. Engels pointed out that the essential moment of development is the mediation of opposites, when “all differences merge in intermediate steps, all opposites pass into each other through intermediate members”75. Intermediateness is evidence of the objective fluidity of things, the eternal becoming of all that exists. Between the old and the new quality there is a transitional state of a thing, an object. It is something specifically united, integral, systemic in relation to both interlocking poles (old and new qualities). At the same time, it is unstable, internally bifurcated by the current intensification of the struggle between the new and the old. The transition state is characterized by a situation of relative equilibrium of opposite poles. Within the framework of the transitional period, opposites exist simultaneously, interacting as two structures in one “organism”, a system (thus, regarding the economy of the transitional period, Lenin wrote that “in this system there are elements, particles, pieces of both capitalism and socialism”76). In transitional states of society, traditions and innovations, remnants of the past and potentialities of the future “collide”. A person involved in situations of transition, doubting, hesitating, forced to make risky decisions in conditions of instability and uncertainty, is faced with the need to sometimes participate in mismatched activities that generate asynchrony in his inner world and are assessed by him as a crisis.
The transitional state probably leads to twofold consequences. The first is connected with the expansion of the new, when out of the two qualities the new develops further under the increasing influence of immanent laws, which makes it possible to reverse the inertia of the old system and give rise to a new quality. There is a self-negation of the old quality due to the depletion of its resources by the new quality. Applied to social life in the current transitional state of society in the CIS, the scenario of the establishment of productive neo-capitalism or humane-democratic socialism suggests itself (after all, slavery, feudalism and "wild capitalism" are stages passed by mankind, and "state socialism" is unpromising). In the second variant of the consequences, the transitional state leads to a diversity of reality that exceeds the capabilities of any single system, to a "synthesis" of the old and the new qualities. In society, this will lead to a synthesis of labor and capital, to filling capitalism with the positive parameters of socialism, and socialism - positive traits capitalism. Countries appear in which there is socialism with capitalist elements (China, Vietnam, etc.) and capitalism with features of socialism (Sweden, Norway, etc.).
Dialectics(Greek dialextice - to conduct a conversation, dispute) - the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine.
Distinguish objective dialectic studying the development of the real world (nature and society) and subjective dialectic- regularities of dialectical thinking (dialectics of concepts).
In the history of philosophy, there have been three main forms of dialectics:
a) antique
, which was naive and spontaneous, because it relied on everyday experience and individual observations (Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Elea);
b ) German classical
, which was developed by Kant, Fichte, Schelling and especially profoundly by Hegel, on an idealistic basis;
v ) materialistic
, the foundations of which were laid by K. Marx and F. Engels.
Basic principles of dialectics:
- the general interconnection of all phenomena;
- universality of movement and development;
- the source of development - the formation and resolution of contradictions;
- development as negation;
- the contradictory unity of the general and the singular. Essence and phenomena, form and content, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, etc.
The main categories of dialectics- matter, consciousness, development, quality, quantity, negation, contradiction, necessity and chance, cause and effect.
The basic laws that describe the development of the world and the process of cognition are the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation.
The Law of the Transition of Quantitative Changes into Qualitative reveals the general mechanism of development: how it happens. The main categories of laws are quality, quantity, measure, leap. The essence of the law is as follows. The gradual accumulation of quantitative changes (the degree and rate of development of objects, the number of its elements, spatial dimensions, temperature, etc.) at a certain point in time leads to the achievement of a measure (the boundaries within which this quality remains itself, for example, for water - 0- 100), a qualitative leap occurs (transition from one qualitative state to another, for example, water, reaching a temperature of 0 degrees, turns into ice), as a result, a new quality arises.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the source of development (contradiction). Everything that exists consists of opposites (good and evil, light and darkness, heredity and variability in living nature, order and chaos, etc.) Opposites are such sides, moments, objects that at the same time
a) are inextricably linked (there is no good without evil, no light without darkness);
b) are mutually exclusive;
c) their struggle - contradictory interaction gives impetus to development (order is born from chaos, good grows stronger in overcoming evil, etc.). The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula: the division of the one into opposites, their struggle, the transformation of the struggle into an insoluble (antagonistic) conflict - a contradiction, the victory of one of their opposites (which in turn also represents a new unity of opposites). Development appears as a process of emergence, growth, aggravation and resolution of various contradictions, among which the internal contradictions of a given subject or process play a decisive role. It is they who act as a decisive source, the driving force of their development.
Law of negation of negation expresses the direction of development and its form. Its essence is that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns into the old and is denied by more and more new ones, and so on. For example, a change in socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to historical process), the evolution of the genus (children "deny" their parents, but they themselves become parents and they are already "denied" by their own children, who in turn become parents, etc.). Therefore double negation is negation of negation.
The most important category of the law is "denial" - the refusal by the developing system of the old quality. However, denial is not just its destruction, the system must preserve its own unity and continuity. Therefore, in dialectics, negation is understood as the rejection of the previous stage of development (of the old quality) with the preservation of the most essential and best moments at the new stage. This is the only way to ensure the continuity of the system. No matter how fundamentally changed over time historical types economy, politics and morality, their main achievements do not become a thing of the past, but are preserved in the further development of the system, albeit in a significantly modified form.
The law of negation of negation expresses the progressive, successive nature of development and has the form of a spiral, the repetition at the highest stage of some properties of the lower one, "returning supposedly to the old", but already at a higher stage of development.
End of work -
This topic belongs to:
The formation of ancient dialectics
It forms the cause of everything q does not agree with the fact that the senses of perception of qualities coincide with the qualities themselves q admits that atoms are different in .. the presence of expediency in nature q spreads and the doctrine of the doctrine of .. irrationalistic philosophy of the age of Nietzsche Freud ..
If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:
What will we do with the received material:
If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
| tweet |
All topics in this section:
The formation of ancient dialectics
Dialectic with Greek art of conversation. Initially, dialectics was interpreted as the art of finding the truth through the disclosure of contradictions in the statements of opponents, as the art of conversation. The first pre
Philosophy of Plato
Plato philosopher Ancient Greece, student of Socrates, founder of his own philosophical school- Academy, the founder of the idealistic trend in philosophy. Plato - the first ancient
Aristotle's teaching in the history of philosophy and science
Aristotle criticizes Plato for ascribing independent existence to ideas, isolating and separating them from the sensible world. Ar. recognized the objective existence of matter. He considered her forever
Features of the culture of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The physics and ethics of Epicurus, the fatalism of the Stoics, the rationalism of the skeptics
Epicurus is an ancient Greek materialist philosopher. The philosophy of Epicurus is divided into three large sections: the doctrine of nature and space ("physics"); the doctrine of knowledge
Philosophical ideas in ancient Greek medicine
Among the ancient Greeks, knowledge was not divided into separate sciences and was united by the general concept of philosophy. Ancient Greek natural science was characterized by a limited accumulation of accurate knowledge and abundant
Theocentrism of medieval philosophy. The Changing Role of Medieval Philosophy
Medieval theological philosophy is the leading philosophical direction, widespread in Europe in the 5th - 16th centuries, which recognized God as the highest existing
Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas - a Dominican monk, a major theological medieval philosopher, a systematizer of scholasticism, the author of Thomism - one of the dominant trends in
Philosophy of the Renaissance. Renaissance as a synthesis of antiquity and the Middle Ages
The philosophy of the Renaissance is a set of philosophical trends that arose and developed in Europe in the 14th - 17th centuries, which were united by anti-church and anti-scholastic
Anthropocentrism and Renaissance Humanism
During the Renaissance, a new philosophical outlook first of all, thanks to the work of a whole galaxy of outstanding philosophers, such as Nicholas of Cusa, Marsilio Ficino, Leonardo da Vinci,
Features of the philosophy of modern times. historical conditions. Scientific revolution of the 17th century
The achievements and discoveries of the Renaissance era were successively accepted by the worldview of the New Age. The emergence of capitalist relations required new rational approaches to the study of nature, about
F. Bacon as the founder of experimental science and philosophy of modern times
A prominent representative of the modern era is Bacon. He was a deist - the creator of all things is God, but the world develops independently, and a materialist. Mechani materialism
The doctrine of being (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza). Method Problem
R. Descartes is the founder of European rationalism. Descartes. (1596-1650) Descartes - an outstanding scientist. He is the creator of analytical geometry, introduced the method of coordinates, owned the concept of a function
18th century French materialism
The materialistic ideas of the 18th century, which continued the progressive tradition of the philosophers of the 17th century, are further developed and brightly public role in France. specifically
Philosophy of the Enlightenment. Social Philosophy of Enlightenment
18th century French philosophy called the philosophy of the Enlightenment. It received such a name due to the fact that its representatives destroyed the established ideas about God, the world around and
Feuerbach's anthropological materialism
Ludwig Feuerbach is the last great representative of the class. German Phil. Initially, F. fond of Hegel's philosophy, but then subjected her to sharp criticism. From the point of view of F., ideals
Principles of dialectical-materialist monism in views on nature, society and thinking
The basis of the dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels was Hegel's dialectic, but on completely different, materialistic (rather than idealistic) principles. According to Eng
Social philosophy of Marxism. Theory of socio-economic formations
The philosophical innovation of K. Marx and F. Engels was the materialistic understanding of history (historical materialism). The essence of historical materialism
Philosophical ideas in Russia in the 18th century. M. Lomonosov. A. Radishchev
M. Lomonosov, XV 111 c. - materialist and atomist: formulated the law of conservation of matter and motion, developed the corpuscular theory of the structure of matter and the mechanical theory of heat. opposed
Westernizers and Slavophiles
"Slavophiles" (A. S. Khomyakov, I. V. Kireevsky, Yu. F. Samarin, A. N. Ostrovsky, brothers K. S. and I. S. Aksakov) believed that Russia had its own way of development. The Russian people have their own
Russian religious philosophy
V.S. Solovyov - the idea of "the all-one being", i.e. the sphere of the absolute, the divine, and the real world is its embodiment. Intermediary - world soul- divine wisdom. A single thing
Philosophy of Russian cosmism
Russian cosmism is the doctrine of the inseparable unity of man, the Earth, the Cosmos, the cosmic nature of man and his limitless possibilities for space exploration. Representatives: N. Fe
Historical forms of positivism
Positivism took shape in the 30s of the twentieth century and has since gone through a long path of development. It is precisely because of its ability to evolve that it turned out to be a surprisingly strong and stable phenomenon in
Philosophy of existentialism
Existentialism - Philosophy of existence. E. raised the question of the meaning of life, the fate of people, the choice and personal responsibility in the context of historical catastrophes and contradictions. Exodus
category of being. Its meaning and specificity
One of the central sections of philosophy that studies the problem of being is called ontology, and the problem of being itself is one of the main ones in philosophy. The formation of philosophy
Formation of the scientific and philosophical concept of matter
Of all forms of being, the most common is material being. In philosophy, there are several approaches to the concept (category) "matter": mat
The concept of movement. Basic forms of movement
In the broadest sense, motion as applied to matter is "change in general", it includes all the changes taking place in the world. Ideas about movement as change originated already in ancient times.
Space and time
Space is a form of existence of matter, which expresses the extent, structure, order of coexistence and disposition of material objects. Time is a form
Chicken in kefir - recipes for marinated, stewed and baked poultry for every taste!
Simple Chicken Recipe in English (Fried) Recipes in English with translation
Chicken hearts with potatoes: cooking recipes How to cook delicious chicken hearts with potatoes
Recipes for dough and fillings for jellied pies with mushrooms
Stuffed eggplant with chicken and mushrooms baked in the oven with cheese crust Cooking eggplant stuffed with chicken