Philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas. Metaphysical theory of being by Thomas Aquinas

INTRODUCTION 2

1. Key biography facts 4

2. Philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas 5

2.1. The problem of correlation between philosophy and theology 5

2.2. The Problem of the Creator's Existence 7

2.3. Problem of being 9

CONCLUSION 11

REFERENCES 12

INTRODUCTION

The call for spiritual transformation, mercy was revived in human history more than once, and in the most difficult times. So it was at the end of antiquity, so it was at the end of the 19th century, in the same situation humanity moved into the 21st century. Modern civilization in search of salvation, however strange it may seem at first glance, turns its eyes to the Middle Ages. This interest will become clear as soon as we remember that it was this era that proceeded from the idea of ​​a parallel growth of two opposing forces - good and evil, it was she who demanded an active participation in the struggle of these forces from a person. But the Middle Ages itself is contradictory: religious fanaticism and the denial of the values ​​of earthly life coexisted with the spirit of freedom, love, tolerance, respect for the individual.

Medieval philosophy can be conditionally divided into the following periods: 1) introduction to it, which is represented by patristics (II-VI centuries); 2) analysis of the possibilities of the word - the most important problem associated with the Christian idea of ​​the creation of the world according to the Word and its incarnation in the world (7th-10th centuries); 3) scholasticism (XI-XIV centuries). In each of these periods, a distinction is usually made between "rationalistic" and "mystical" lines. However, it is worth emphasizing that “the thought of the “rationalist” was aimed at comprehending the miracle of the Word-Logos (for it is impossible to call the thinking creature’s focus on it otherwise than a miracle), and the thought of the “mystic” takes on a logical form.

In medieval philosophy, scholasticism (from Latin schola, or school) enjoyed enormous influence. And this term can be translated as “school philosophy”, that is, a philosophy that has been adapted for broadly teaching people the basics of the Christian worldview. Scholasticism was formed during the period of absolute dominance of Christian ideology in all spheres of public life. Western Europe. When, in the words of F. Engels, "the dogmas of the church became at the same time political axioms, and the biblical texts received the force of law in every court."

Scholasticism is the successor that continues the tradition of Christian apologetics and Augustine. Its representatives sought to create a coherent system of Christian worldview, where a hierarchy of spheres of being was built, on top of which the church was located. While outperforming the early Christian thinkers in terms of the breadth of their coverage of problems and the creation of grandiose systems, the scholastics were significantly inferior to them in originality in solving problems and in their creative approach.

The central figure of scholastic philosophy in Western Europe was Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274).

In all Catholic educational institutions in which the teaching of philosophy has been introduced, the system of St. Thomas is prescribed to be taught as the only true philosophy; this became mandatory from the time of the rescript issued by Leo XIII in 1879. As a result, the philosophy of St. Thomas is not only of historical interest, but even today is an effective force, like the philosophical teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Kant and Hegel, in fact, a greater force than the last two teachings.

The main purpose of this work is to reveal the features of the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Consider the main facts of the biography of Thomas Aquinas;

To analyze the philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

1. Basic facts of the biography

Tomaso (Thomas Aquinas) was born into the family of a count in southern Italy near the town of Aquino (hence - "Aquinas", Tommaso d "Aquino -" Thomas Aquinas). From the age of five he studied at the Benedictine monastery, and from 1239 - at the University of Naples .

In 1244 he became a monk of the Dominican order and continued his studies at the University of Paris. After a stay in Cologne, where he helped to establish the teaching of theology - again at the University of Paris; Here he becomes a master of theology. He lectured on theology, professor.

In 1259 he was recalled by the pope to Rome, where he taught in various cities of Italy. Returned to the University of Paris. Engaged in scientific activities. He fought against the opponents of the orthodox doctrine. On the direct assignment of the papal curia, he wrote a number of works.

One of his tasks was the study of Aristotle in order to adapt his views to orthodox Catholicism (he became acquainted with the writings of Aristotle while on a crusade in the East); such an assignment - work on the legacy of Aristotle - he received back in 1259. Thomas Aquinas completes (in 1273) his grandiose work "The Sum of Theology" ("the sum" was then called the final encyclopedic works). From 1272 he returned to Italy, taught theology at the University of Naples. Died in 1274.

Ranked among the saints in 1323, later recognized as one of the "teachers of the church" (1567).

The legacy of this thinker is very extensive. In addition to the noted work, Thomas Aquinas wrote many others, and among them - "On Existence and Essence", "On the Unity of Reason against the Averroists", "The Sum of Truth catholic faith against the pagans, etc. He did a great job of commenting on the texts of the Bible, the works of Aristotle, Boethius, Proclus and other philosophers.

2. Philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas

2.1. The problem of correlation between philosophy and theology

Among the problems that attracted the attention of Thomas Aquinas was the problem of the relationship between philosophy and theology.

The starting principle in his teaching is divine revelation: for a person to be saved, it is necessary to know something that escapes his mind, through divine revelation. Aquinas distinguishes between the fields of philosophy and theology: the subject of the first is the "truths of reason", and the second - the "truths of revelation". Due to the fact that, according to Aquinas, God is the final object of both and the source of all truth, there can be no fundamental contradiction between revelation and correctly acting reason, between theology and philosophy. However, not all "truths of revelation" are available for rational proof. Philosophy is in the service of theology and is as inferior to it as the limited human mind is inferior to divine wisdom. Religious truth, according to Aquinas, cannot be vulnerable from the side of philosophy, in a purely vital, practical and moral sense, love for God is more important than knowledge of God.

Thomas Aquinas believed that philosophy and theology do not actually differ in their subject matter, both of them have God and what he creates as a subject; only theology goes from God to nature, and philosophy from nature to God. They differ from each other primarily by the method, the means of comprehending it: philosophy (and this included then scientific knowledge about nature) is based on experience and reason, and theology is based on faith. But there is no relationship of complete mutual complementarity between them; some provisions of theology, taken on faith, can be justified by reason, philosophy, but many truths are not amenable to rational justification. For example, the dogma of the existence of a supernatural God as a single being and simultaneously in three persons.

Thomas Aquinas believes that it is not reason that should guide faith, but, on the contrary, faith should determine the path of movement of the mind, and philosophy should serve theology. Faith is not irrational, not unreasonable. It is transrational, superintelligent. Reason is simply inaccessible to what faith is capable of.

Between reason and faith, between philosophy and theology, there may be contradictions, but in all such cases, theology and faith should be preferred. “This science (theology) can take something from the philosophical disciplines, but not because it feels the need for it, but only for the sake of greater intelligibility of the positions it teaches. After all, it does not borrow its principles from other sciences, but directly from God through revelation. Moreover, she does not follow other sciences as superior to her, but resorts to them as subordinate servants, just as the theory of architecture resorts to service disciplines or the theory of the state resorts to the science of military affairs. And the very fact that it nevertheless resorts to them does not stem from its insufficiency or incompleteness, but only from the insufficiency of our ability to understand.

Thus, Thomas Aquinas recognizes terrestrial variability and movement as an indelible feature of the universe. The ways of obtaining truth - through revelation, reason or intuitions - are far from equivalent. Philosophy relies on the human mind and produces the truths of the mind; theology, proceeding from the divine mind, receives directly from it the truths of revelation. Contradictions arise from the fact that the truths of revelation are inaccessible to the understanding of the human mind, for they are superintelligent. Thus, he strongly rejects the attempts of science and reason to criticize the truth of revelation.

2.2. The Problem of the Creator's Existence

Another problem that was in the focus of attention of Thomas Aquinas is the problem of the existence of the Creator of the world and of man. From the point of view of Thomas Aquinas, the existence of God is comprehended by both faith and reason. It is not enough to refer only to the fact that every believer accepts God intuitively. Philosophy and theology jointly develop their proofs for the existence of God.

The existence of God is proved by Thomas Aquinas, as in Aristotle, by the motionless mover argument. Things are divided into two groups - some are only moved, others move and at the same time move. Everything that is moveable is set in motion by something, and since an infinite regression is impossible, at some point we must arrive at something that moves without being itself moved. This motionless engine is God. It might be objected that this proof presupposes the recognition of the eternity of motion, a principle rejected by the Catholics. But such an objection would be erroneous: the proof is valid when one proceeds from the hypothesis of the eternity of motion, but becomes even more weighty when one proceeds from the opposite hypothesis, which presupposes the recognition of the beginning and therefore the first cause.

Aquinas puts forward five arguments (or "ways", "ways") in support of the position of the existence of God.

The first argument can be called "kinetic". Everything that moves has something else as the cause of its movement. Since nothing can be simultaneously in itself both moving and moved without extraneous interference, we have to admit that there is a Prime Mover, i.e. God.

The second argument is "causal-finite". Everything that we see, with which we come into contact, is a consequence of something that gave birth to this something, i.e. everything has its reason. But these reasons also have their reasons. Must be main reason- The root cause, and this is God.

The third argument comes from the concepts of possibility and necessity. For concrete things, nonexistence is possible and necessary. But if non-being is possible for everything, then non-being would already exist. In fact, there is precisely being, and it is necessary. The highest necessity is God.

The fourth argument is based on the observation of different degrees in things - more (or less) perfect, more (or less) noble, and so on. There must be a higher degree, or essence, which acts for all essences as the cause of all perfection, goodness, etc. This measure of all degrees, or standard, is God.

The fifth argument (it can be called "teleological") is connected with the goal, expediency. The many bodies of nature are endowed with a purpose. “They reach their goal not by chance, but by being guided by a conscious will. Since they themselves are devoid of understanding, they can only obey expediency insofar as they are guided by someone endowed with reason and understanding, as an archer directs an arrow. Therefore, - Thomas Aquinas concludes, - there is a rational being who sets a goal for everything that happens in nature; and we call him God.

Having proved the existence of God, many definitions can now be made about him, but all of them will be negative in a certain sense: the nature of God becomes known to us through negative definitions. God is eternal, for he is immovable; it is incorruptible, for there is no passive potentiality in it. David Dinant (the materialist-pantheist of the early thirteenth century) "raved" that God is the same as primary matter; this is nonsense, for primary matter is pure passivity, while God is pure activity. There is no complexity in God, and therefore he is not a body, since bodies are made up of parts.

God is his own essence, for otherwise he would not be simple, but would be composed of essence and existence. In God, essence and existence are identical. There are no accidents in God. It cannot be specified by any substantive differences; he is beyond any kind; it cannot be defined. However, God contains perfection of every kind. Things are like God in some respects, not in others. It is more appropriate to say that things are like God than that God is like things.

God is good and his own good; he is the good of every good. He is intellectual, and his act of intelligence is his essence. He knows by his essence and knows himself perfectly.

Although there is no difficulty in the divine intellect, yet it is given the knowledge of many things. One can see a difficulty in this, but one must take into account that the things he cognizes do not have a separate existence in him. Nor do they exist per se, as Plato believed, for the forms of natural things cannot exist or be known apart from matter. Nevertheless, knowledge of things must be available to God before the creation of the world. This difficulty is resolved as follows: “The concept of the divine intellect, how He knows Himself, which is His Word, is not only the likeness of the known God Himself, but also all things, the likeness of which is the divine essence. Wherefore God is given the knowledge of many things; it is given to one intelligible species, which is the divine essence, and to one cognized concept, which is the divine Word. Every form, inasmuch as it is something positive, represents perfection. The divine intellect includes in its essence that which is characteristic of every thing, knowing where it is similar to it and where it is different from it; for example, the essence of a plant is life, not knowledge, while the essence of an animal is knowledge, not reason. Thus the plant is like God in that it lives, but different from him in that it is devoid of knowledge; the animal is like God in that it possesses knowledge, but differs from him in that it is devoid of reason. And the difference between creation and God is always negative.

2.3. The Problem of Being

In ontology, Thomas Aquinas accepts the Aristotelian concept of form and matter, adapting it, as well as many other interpretations of problems by Aristotle, to the tasks of substantiating the dogmas of the Christian religion.

For him, all objects of nature are the unity of form and matter; matter is passive, form is active. There are incorporeal forms - angels. The highest and most perfect form is God; he is a purely spiritual being.

Considering the problem of the relationship between the general and the individual (the problem of "universals"), Aquinas puts forward a peculiar solution to it. The general, he argues, in accordance with the position of Aristotle, is contained in single things, thus constituting their essence. Further, this general is extracted from here by the human mind and therefore is present in it already after things (this is a mental universal). The third kind of existence of universals is before things. Here Thomas Aquinas departs from Aristotle, recognizing the Platonic world of ideas, essentially independent of the natural world. So, according to Thomas Aquinas, the common exists before things, in things, and after things. In the dispute between nominalists and realists, this was the position of moderate realism.

But unlike many Christian thinkers who taught that God directly rules the world, Thomas corrects the interpretation of God's influence on nature. He introduces the concept of natural (instrumental) causes by which God controls physical processes. Thus, Thomas unwittingly expands the field of activity for natural science. It turns out that science can be useful to people, as it allows them to improve technology.

CONCLUSION

Thomas Aquinas is considered the greatest exponent of scholastic philosophy.

Thomas Aquinas spoke out against the widespread in Christian theology position on the opposition of spirit and nature, which led to the denial of earthly life and everything connected with it (“spirit is everything, body is nothing” - the legacy of Plato).

Thomas argued that a person must be studied as a whole, in the unity of soul and body. “A corpse (body) is not a person, but a ghost (spirit) is also not a person.” A person is a person in the unity of soul and body, and a person is the most important value. Nature is not evil, but good. God created nature and is reflected in it, just as in man. We must live in the real world, in unity with nature, strive for earthly (and not only) heavenly bliss.

The theoretical constructions of Thomas Aquinas have become canonical for Catholicism. At present, in a modified form, his philosophy functions in the Christian world as neo-Thomism, the official doctrine of the Vatican.

REFERENCES

Alekseev, P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook [Text] / P V. Alekseev, A. V. Panin. - M.: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2003. - 240 p.

Fundamentals of Philosophy: Tutorial for universities [Text] / Guide. author. coll. and resp. ed. E.V. Popov. - M.: Humanit. Publishing Center VLADOS, 1997. 320 p.

Rosenko, M. N. Fundamentals of modern philosophy: Textbook for universities [Text] / Ed. Rosenko M.N. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 2001. - 384 p.

Spirkin, A. G. Philosophy: Textbook [Text] / A. G. Spirkin– M.: Gardariki, 2000. – 816 p.

In the article we will talk about the biography of Thomas Aquinas. This is the most famous philosopher and theologian, to whom the world owes important knowledge. We will take a detailed look at life path and achievements of this great man.

First meeting

Considering the biography of Thomas Aquinas, let's start with a cursory acquaintance with him. This is an outstanding scientist who is a theologian and philosopher. Moreover, he is canonized by the Catholic Church. He is the largest systematizer of orthodox scholasticism and a teacher of the church. It differs in that for the first time he found the connecting threads between the philosophy of Aristotle and the Christian faith.

A life

The biography of Thomas Aquinas begins with his birth around January 25, 1225. The boy was born near Naples in the Roccasecca castle. He became the seventh son of the famous and wealthy Count Landolph. Thomas' mother was called Theodora, she was a rich and enviable Neapolitan bride. It is known that the boy's father dreamed that he would become an abbot in a monastery located near the family castle.

When the boy was 5 years old, he was sent to where he stayed for 4 years. In 1239 he entered the University of Naples, from which he successfully graduated in 1243. During training, the young man became very close to the Dominicans and even decided to become a member of their order. But the whole family resolutely opposed this, and the brothers imprisoned Thomas in the fortress of San Giovanni.

Liberty

We continue the brief biography of Thomas Aquinas with the fact that he gained freedom only in 1245. At the same time, against the will of the whole family, he became a monk. There, Albert the Great himself became the teacher and mentor of the young man. In the period from 1248 to 1250, Thomas studied at the University of Cologne, to which he followed in the footsteps of his mentor. In 1252 he returned to the Dominican University. After 4 years, he was appointed teacher of theology due to the opportunity for Dominicans to offer their candidacies. Foma began to teach in

First works

It was here, at liberty, that the young man wrote his first works, namely “On Existence and Essence”, “Commentary on the “Sentences””, “On the Principles of Nature”. Then an incredible twist of fate happens: Pope Urban IV summons him to Rome. Thomas devotes the next 10 years of his life to teaching in Italy, namely in Rome and Anagni.

At the same time, the theologian writes a large philosophical and theological work. Most of the time in Italy, the man spent as a theological adviser to the papal curia.

In 1269, the researcher returns to Paris in order to start a fight against the Arab interpreters of the works of Aristotle and to purify his teachings. By the way, the very sharp treatise of the hero of our article, “On the unity of the intellect against the Averroists”, was written just in 1272. He dealt directly with the works of Aristotle and their misinterpretation.

We continue the brief biography of Thomas Aquinas by the fact that in the same year he was recalled to Italy to create a Dominican school in Naples. Unfortunately, due to poor health, the man had to stop teaching and leave writing for a while. But he was not destined to return to his work. So, in 1274 short biography and the work of the philosopher Thomas Aquinas are interrupted, as he dies on the way to Lyon. At that time he was in the monastery of Fossanova. The life of an outstanding theologian ended on the road.

Biography of Thomas Aquinas by G. K. Chesterton

In this book, the author resorts to fiction in order to better illustrate the life of the hero of our article. He combines journalistic and confessional genres in order to better convey the atmosphere. Literally speaking, Gilbert Keith simply transformed the genre of biography in its classical sense. Despite the use artistic techniques, it completely retains the validity historical facts, and on the basis of some data even denies the incorrect information or interpretations that arose from the legends of Aquinas.

Influence

How was the opinion of the hero of our article formed? The biography and philosophy of Thomas Aquinas are inextricably linked with the above-mentioned Aristotle. The point is that this great person had a significant impact on the creative rethinking of Thomas. At the same time, the thoughts of Arabic and Greek commentators, Neoplatonists can be traced in the works: Cicero, Augustine, Avicenna, Maimonides, etc.

Proceedings

The biography, theology and philosophy of Thomas Aquinas would not be possible without his two major works, namely the treatises Sum against the Gentiles and Summa Theology. He also commented on the treatises of Aristotle, Pseudo-Dionysius, Boethius, P. Lombard. It is known that the theologian expressed his opinion about some books of the Bible and the anonymous book “On Causes”. He was interested in alchemy, liturgical verses, and the religious writings of other authors.

In many ways, all these opinions were based on his teaching activities, since at that time the reading of religious books and debates about them were invariably accompanied by comments.

Ideas

The biography and teachings of Thomas Aquinas are very closely intertwined, as he succumbed to the influence of his environment. Let's take a look at his key ideas. Firstly, it must be said that he clearly separated philosophy and theology, believing that reason dominates in the first, and revelation in the second. Thomas believed that philosophy is in strict submission to theology, which he put much higher.

Note that Aristotle singled out 4 main stages of cognition of truth, namely, experience, art, knowledge and wisdom. For Aquinas, wisdom became an independent value, which was knowledge about God. At the same time, he singled out three types of it: at the level of grace, theology and metaphysics.

It was Thomas who proposed the idea that the human mind cannot comprehend wisdom completely, since some truths are simple and understandable (the existence of God), and some are not (trinity, resurrection). Aquinas put forward the idea that natural and theological knowledge cannot be in conflict, since they are harmonious and complement each other. If by wisdom he understood the desire to understand God, then by science he meant the ways of this understanding.

Being

We have briefly reviewed the biography and philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, but some of his ideas require detailed consideration. By being, Thomas understood the most intimate, which is hidden in the depths of the soul of every living being. He emphasized that the existence of a thing is much more important than its essence. This proceeded from the fact that the essence is not an act of creation, in contrast to existence.

Aquinas understood the world as a collection of various existences that depend on God. Only in it does he see the unity of essence and existence as identical concepts. At the same time, the theologian proposed to consider two forms of life: accidental, or dependent, and selfish - unconditional.

At the same time, only God himself was true being, and everything else had only his illusion. Thomas did not deny the existence of angels and other creatures and believed that the closer they are to God in the hierarchy, the more freedom they have.

Form and matter

The researcher saw the essence of being in forms and matter. He considered the latter in the same way as Aristotle, that is, as a passive element necessary for the manifestation of the individuality of other objects. The complexity of the human being lay in its duality. If spiritual creatures could live in one of the forms (random and unconditional), then people must have existed in matter and form.

Thomas believed that the form itself cannot be significant, since it acquires some meaning only when it reflects the spiritual essence of its wearer. The perfect form meant some likeness to God.

Evidence for the Existence of God

First proof of existence higher power Aquinas is built on the fact of movement. This means that everything in the world is moving, and everything that is moved has some kind of force that makes it do it. But at the same time, the original force cannot be driven by anything, which means that it exists by itself.

The second proof is based on the fact that everything in the world has its own reason, which means there is some connection. At the same time, they are all based on the root cause, which is called God, because from it comes the very existence.

The third proof is based on the fact that there are things in the world in which there is a need, and there are those in which it is not. Everything is created and destroyed, but if the process had ended there, then there would have been nothing for a long time. But since something exists, it means that there is something necessary, from which the necessity of everything else follows.

The fourth proof is based on the degree of being. The fact is that there are things good, better, bad, neutral, etc. All of them are equal to a certain ideal, that is, to the highest degree of something. This means that there is something great, which is the cause and the first degree of everything that exists.

The final piece of evidence concerns the target cause. Thomas noticed that unthinking living beings, such as animals, move towards what is best for them. So, they act in the same way and choose the best ways of development for themselves. But unthinking beings, having no cognitive faculty, can only move intentionally if they are guided by something that thinks, that is, God.

Ethics

We finish consideration of the biography of Thomas Aquinas, his ideas and works, but we will stop on ethics to which he paid enough attention. In his views, Thomas relied on the principle of the freedom of the human will, good teaching. According to Aquinas, evil is just not such a perfect good, which happens intentionally in order to go through all the stages of perfection.

The main goal in the ethical views of Thomas concerns the fact that the goal of all human aspirations is highest good, which consists in mental activity and in the knowledge of the truth, and therefore of God himself. Aquinas believed that people do good and do the right thing, not because they are taught that way, but because in the heart of every person there is an unspoken secret law that must be followed.

Summing up the article, let's say that the biography of Thomas Aquinas is very rich and diverse. He had to go against the will of his father and not justify his hopes in order to follow the dictates of his heart. This great man made a huge contribution to the development of theology and philosophy, giving the world incredible and profound ideas about God and existence.

ê Thomas Aquinas (1225/26-1274)- the central figure of medieval philosophy of the late period, an outstanding philosopher and theologian, a systematizer of orthodox scholasticism.

He commented on the texts of the Bible and the works of Aristotle, of whom he was a follower. Starting from the IV century. and to this day his teaching is recognized by the Catholic Church as the leading direction of the philosophical worldview (in 1323 ᴦ. Thomas Aquinas was canonized).

The starting principle in the teachings of Thomas Aquinas is divine revelation: for a person it is extremely important for his salvation to know something that escapes his mind, through divine revelation. Thomas Aquinas distinguishes between the fields of philosophy and theology: the subject of the first is the "truths of reason" and the second is the "truths of revelation". The ultimate object and source of all truth is God. Not all ʼʼtruths of revelationʼʼ are accessible to rational proof. Philosophy is in the service of theology and is as inferior to it as the limited human mind is inferior to divine wisdom. Religious truth, according to Thomas Aquinas, should not be vulnerable to philosophy, the love of God is more important than the knowledge of God.

Based largely on the teachings of Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas considered God as the root cause and ultimate goal of existence. The essence of everything bodily consists in the unity of form and matter. Matter is only a recipient of successive forms, ʼʼpure potentialityʼʼ, because only thanks to the form a thing is a thing of a certain kind and type. The form acts as the target reason for the formation of a thing. The reason for the individual originality of things (ʼʼthe principle of individuationʼʼ) is the ʼʼimprintedʼʼ matter of this or that individual. Based on the late Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas canonized the Christian understanding of the relationship between the ideal and the material as the ratio of the original principle of form (ʼʼprinciple of orderʼʼ) with the oscillating and unsteady principle of matter (ʼʼthe weakest kind of beingʼʼ). The fusion of the first principle of form and matter gives rise to the world of individual phenomena.

Ideas about the soul and knowledge.In the interpretation of Thomas Aquinas, the individuality of a person is a personal unity of soul and body. The soul is immaterial and self-existent: it is a substance that acquires its fullness only in unity with the body. Only through corporeality can the soul form what man is. The soul always has a uniquely personal character.
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The bodily principle of a person organically participates in the spiritual and mental activity of the individual. He thinks, experiences, sets goals not the body and not the soul by themselves, but they are in their merged unity. Personality, according to Thomas Aquinas, is the “most noble” in all rational nature. Thomas adhered to the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul.

Thomas Aquinas considered the real existence of the universal to be the fundamental principle of knowledge. The universal exists in three ways: ʼʼbefore thingsʼʼ (in the mind of God as ideas of future things, as eternal ideal prototypes of things), ʼʼin thingsʼʼ, having received concrete implementation, and ʼʼafter thingsʼʼ - in human thinking as a result of operations of abstraction and generalization. Man has two abilities of knowledge - feeling and intellect. Cognition begins with sensory experience under the action of external objects. But not the entire being of the object is perceived, but only that in it that is likened to the subject. When entering the soul of the knower, the knowable loses its materiality and can enter it only as a ʼʼkindʼʼ. ʼʼViewʼʼ of an object is its cognizable image. A thing exists simultaneously outside of us in all its being and inside of us as an image. Thanks to the image, the object enters the soul, into the spiritual realm of thoughts. First, sensual images arise, and from them the intellect abstracts ʼʼintelligible imagesʼʼ. Truth - ʼʼcorrespondence of the intellect and the thingʼʼ. The concepts formed by the human intellect are true to the extent that they correspond to their concepts that preceded in the intellect of God. Denying innate knowledge, Thomas Aquinas at the same time recognized that some germs of knowledge preexist in us - concepts that are immediately known by the active intellect through images abstracted from sensory experience.

Ideas about ethics, society and the state. At the root of the ethics and politics of Thomas Aquinas lies the position that ʼʼreason is the most powerful nature of manʼʼ.

The philosopher believed that there are four types of laws: 1) eternal; 2) natural; 3) human; 4) divine (excellent and superior to all other laws).

In his ethical views, Thomas Aquinas relied on the principle of free will of man, on the doctrine of being as good and of God as absolute good and of evil as deprivation of good. Thomas Aquinas believed that evil is only a less perfect good; it is allowed by God in order for all the steps of perfection to be realized in the Universe. The most important idea in the ethics of Thomas Aquinas is the concept that happiness is the ultimate goal of human aspirations. It consists in the most excellent human activity - in the activity of theoretical reason, in the knowledge of truth for the sake of truth itself, and, therefore, first of all, in the knowledge of absolute truth, that is, God. The basis of the virtuous behavior of people is the natural law rooted in their hearts, which requires the realization of good, the avoidance of evil. Thomas Aquinas believed that without divine grace, eternal bliss is unattainable.

The treatise of Thomas Aquinas ʼʼOn the Rule of Princesʼʼ is a synthesis of Aristotelian ethical ideas and an analysis of the Christian doctrine of the divine management of the Universe, as well as the theoretical principles of the Roman Church. Following Aristotle, he proceeds from the fact that man by nature is a social being. The main goal of state power is to promote the common good, to preserve peace and justice in society, to help subjects lead a virtuous lifestyle and have the benefits necessary for this. Thomas Aquinas preferred the monarchical form of government (the monarch in the kingdom, like the soul in the body). At the same time, he believed that if the monarch turned out to be a tyrant, the people had the right to oppose the tyrant and tyranny as a principle of government.

Thomas Aquinas, one of the greatest representatives of medieval scholasticism, was born in 1225 in Roccasek, near Naples. His father was Count Aquinas Landulf, who was related to the French royal house. Thomas was brought up in the famous monastery of Monte Cassino. In 1243, against the will of his parents, he entered the Dominican order. An attempt to go to Paris to continue Thomas's education failed at first. On the way he was kidnapped by his brothers and kept for some time as a prisoner in his own castle. But Thomas managed to escape. He went to Cologne where he became an apprentice Albert the Great. Thomas completed his education in Paris, and in the same place from 1248 he began to teach scholastic philosophy. In this field he enjoyed such success that he received the title of doctor universalis and doctor angelicus. In 1261, Pope Urban IV summoned Thomas back to Italy, and he transferred his teaching activities to Bologna, Pisa, and Rome. He died in 1274 on his way to Lyon Cathedral, under circumstances that seemed dark to contemporaries. Dante and G. Villani said that Foma was poisoned by order Charles of Anjou. In 1323 Thomas Aquinas was canonized.

Thomas Aquinas. Artist Carlo Crivelli, 15th century

One of the best connoisseurs of Aristotle, Thomas had a huge influence on the development of medieval thought, although he was not an innovator and did not introduce new ideas into scholasticism. The meaning of Thomas Aquinas lies in the extraordinary gift of systematization, in subordinating the logical order of the smallest details. Here are his main ideas. There are two sources of knowledge: revelation and reason. What is given by revelation, we must believe, even if we do not understand. Revelation is the divine source of knowledge that flows along the channel of Holy Scripture and church tradition. Reason is the lowest source of natural truth, which flows into us through various systems pagan philosophy, mainly through Aristotle. Revelation and reason are separate sources of knowledge of the truth, and in physical matters reference to the will of God is out of place (asylum ignorantiae). But the truth known through each of them does not contradict the other, for in the last analysis they ascend to a single absolute truth, to God. This is how a synthesis is built between philosophy and theology, the harmony of faith and reason is the main position of scholasticism.

In the controversy between nominalists and realists that worried the scholastics at that time, Thomas Aquinas takes, following the example of his teacher Albert the Great, the position of moderate realism. He does not recognize the existence of "common essences", "universals", which dissociates himself from extreme realism. But these universals, according to the teachings of Thomas, still exist as the thoughts of God, embodied in separate things, from where they can be isolated by reason. Thus, universals have a threefold existence: 1) ante rem, as the thoughts of God; 2) in re, as common in things; 3) post rem, as concepts of reason. Accordingly, Thomas Aquinas sees the principle of individuation in matter, which gives rise to the differences of one thing from another, although the same common essence is embodied in both.

The main work of Thomas "Summa theology" ("Summa theologiae") is an attempt at an encyclopedic system in which, with unusual logical harmony, answers are given to all questions of the religious and scientific worldview. For catholic church Thomas's views are considered irrefutably authoritative. No one was a more consistent defender of papal infallibility and a more resolute enemy of human arbitrariness in the field of religion than he. In religion, no one dares to think and speak freely, and the church must hand over heretics to secular power, which "separates them from the world through death." The theological teaching of Thomas, rational and strict, not warmed by love for humanity, is the official doctrine of Catholicism, which had among the Dominicans the most ardent proselytes ( Thomists) and still retains its importance in Roman Christianity, especially since 1880, when Pope Leo XIII introduced the compulsory study of Thomas Aquinas in all Catholic schools.

But it is not for nothing that the writings of Thomas are in the nature of comprehensive encyclopedias. It deals with all the main questions put forward by contemporary reality. In political matters, he stands at the level of feudal views. Any power, in his opinion, comes from God, but in practice there are exceptions: illegal and bad power is not from the Almighty. Therefore, not every authority should be obeyed. Obedience is unacceptable when the power requires either contrary to God's command or beyond its control: for example, in the internal movements of the soul one must obey only God. Therefore, Thomas justifies indignation against unrighteous authority (“in defense of the common good”) and even allows the murder of a tyrant. Of the forms of government, the best is the monarchy, which agrees with virtue, and then the aristocracy, which also agrees with virtue. The combination of these two forms (a virtuous monarch, and under him several virtuous nobles) gives the most perfect government. In developing these views of his, Thomas proposed to his sovereign, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, to introduce something like a bicameral system in his southern Italian kingdom.

Thomas Aquinas surrounded by angels. Artist Gverchino, 1662

Thomas Aquinas deviates somewhat from feudal ideas in matters, so to speak, of trade policy. The remark in De regimine principum states that trade and merchants are necessary in a state. Of course, Thomas notes at the same time, it would be better if each state produced everything necessary by itself, but, since this is rarely possible, merchants, “even foreign ones,” have to be tolerated. For Thomas it was not easy to outline the boundaries of the free activity of merchants. Already in the "Summa teologii", he had to reckon with two established ideas in theology: about a fair price and about the prohibition of lending money on interest. There is one fair price for every item in any given place, and therefore price fluctuations and dependence on supply and demand cannot be allowed. It is the moral duty of both buyer and seller to keep as close as possible to a fair price. In addition, for each item there is also a certain quality, and the merchant is obliged to warn the buyer about the defects of the goods. Trade is generally legal only when the profit from it goes to the maintenance of the merchant's family, to charity, or when, making a profit, the merchant supplies the country with goods necessary but not on the market. Of course, trading based on pure speculation is unacceptable, when the merchant profits by taking advantage of market fluctuations. Only the work of the merchant justifies his profit.

With regard to credit, “he who lends money transfers the ownership of the money to the one to whom he lends; therefore, the one to whom the money is lent keeps it at his own peril and is obliged to return it intact, and the lender has no right to demand more. “To receive interest on money lent is in itself an injustice, for it sells what is not, and through this, obviously, an inequality is established that is contrary to justice.”

Property, from the point of view of Thomas Aquinas, is not a natural right, but it does not contradict it. Slavery is quite normal, because it is useful for both the slave and the master.

Topic: "Thomas Aquinas: the doctrine of man."

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..3 page

1. Biography of Thomas Aquinas……………………………………….…..4 p.

2. Historical and philosophical origins...…………………………..………..….6 p.

3. Ideas of Thomas Aquinas……………………………………..……….......7 pp.

4. Works of Thomas Aquinas……………………………………………......8 pp.

5. The doctrine of man…………………………………………………………..9 p.

Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 11 p.

List of used literature………………………………………...12 p.

INTRODUCTION

Within its control work I will try to briefly talk about one of the greatest scholastic philosophers of the Western European Middle Ages - Thomas Aquinas, about some of the specific provisions of the theocentric worldview developed by him and about its significance in philosophy.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas did not immediately receive universal recognition among the scholastic currents of the Middle Ages. Thomas Aquinas had opponents in the Dominican order, among some members of the clergy, the Latin Averroists. However, despite the initial attacks, from the XIV century. Thomas becomes the highest authority of the church, which has recognized his doctrine as its official philosophy.

1. BIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS AQUINA

Thomas Aquinas (otherwise Thomas Aquinas or Thomas Aquinas, lat. Thomas Aquinas) is the most prominent and influential scholastic philosopher of the Western European Middle Ages. Thomas was born in Italy. Born at the end of 1225. or early 1226 at the castle of Rocolleca, near Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. Thomas' father, Count Landolf, was a prominent Italian feudal lord in Aquino. Mother, Theodora came from a wealthy Neapolitan family. In the 5th year of his life, Thomas is determined to study at the Benedictine monastery in Monte Cassino, where he spends about 9 years, going through a classical school, from which he makes an excellent knowledge of the Latin language. In 1239 he returns to native home taking off the monastic cassock. In the autumn of the same year, he went to Naples, where he studied at the university under the guidance of mentors Martin and Peter of Ireland. In 1244, Thomas decides to join the Dominican order, refusing the post of abbot of Monte Cassino, which caused a strong protest from the family. Having taken monastic vows, he spent several months in a monastery in Naples. Here it was decided to send him to the University of Paris, which at that time was the center of Catholic thought. On the way to Paris, he was captured by a group of horsemen - his brothers and was returned to his father's castle and here, for preventive purposes, he was imprisoned in a tower. where he stayed for over a year. In the future, the family, without neglecting any means, tries to force the son to abandon the decision. But seeing that he was not inclined, she reconciled herself and in 1245 he went to Paris. During his stay at the University of Paris (1245-1248) he listened to the lectures of his teacher Albert Bolstedt, later called Albert the Great, who had a great influence on him. Together with Albert Foma, he also spent the 4th year at Kelm University, during his classes, Foma did not show much activity, rarely took part in disputes, for which his colleagues nicknamed him the Dumb Bull. In 1252 he returns to the University of Paris, where he successively passes all the steps necessary to obtain a master's degree in theology and a licentiate, after which he teaches theology in Paris until 1259. A number of his theological works, commentaries on Holy Scripture, he begins work on the "Philosophical Sum". In 1259 Pope Urban IV summoned him to Rome, where he stayed until 1268. The appearance of Thomas at the papal court was not accidental. The Roman curia saw in him a man who was to perform an important work for the church, namely, to give an interpretation of Aristotelianism in the spirit of Catholicism. Here, Thomas completes the "Philosophical Sum" (1259-1269), begun in Paris, writes works, and also begins work on the main work of his life - "The Theological Sum". In the autumn of 1269 at the direction of the Roman Curia, Thomas goes to Paris, wages a fierce struggle against the Latin Averroists and their head Siger of Brabant, as well as a controversy against conservative Catholic theologians who still wished to adhere only to the principles of Augustinism. In this dispute, he took his own position, speaking out against both those and other Augustians, he reproached for conservatism and rejection of new ideas. The philosophical views of the Averroists undermined the foundations of the Christian Catholic faith, the defense of which became the main meaning of Aquinas' life. In 1272 Thomas was returned to Italy. He taught theology in Naples, where he continued his work on the Theological Sum, which he completed in 1273. Thomas is the author of a number of other works, as well as commentaries on the writings of Aristotle and other philosophers. After 2 years, Aquinas leaves Naples to take part in the council convened by Pope Gregory X, which took place in Lyon. During the trip, he falls seriously ill and dies on March 7, 1274. in the Bernardine monastery in Fossanuov. After his death, he was given the title "angelic doctor". In 1323, during the pontificate of Pope John XXII, Thomas was canonized, and in 1567. recognized as the fifth "teacher of the church".

2. HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS

The greatest influence on the philosophy of Thomas had Aristotle, largely creatively rethought by him; also noticeable is the influence of the Neoplatonists, the Greek commentators Aristotle, Cicero, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Augustine, Boethius, Anselm of Canterbury, John of Damascus, Avicenna, Averroes, Gebirol and Maimonides and many other thinkers.

3. THE IDEAS OF THOMAS AQUINA

The system of Thomas Aquinas is based on the idea of ​​the fundamental agreement of two truths - based on revelation and deduced by the human mind: to some truths received from revelation (for example, the divine trinity, resurrection in the flesh, etc.), the human mind is not able to come using its own means, but these truths, though they transcend reason, do not contradict it. Theology proceeds from the truths given in revelation and uses philosophical means for their explication; philosophy moves from rational comprehension of the given in sensory experience to the justification of the supersensible, for example. the existence of God, His unity, etc. (Comm. to "On the Trinity" Boethius, II 3).

1. WORKS OF THOMAS AQUINA

The works of Thomas Aquinas include two extensive treatises covering a wide range of topics - "The Sum of Theology" and "The Sum against the Gentiles" ("The Sum of Philosophy"), discussions on theological and philosophical problems ("Debatable Questions" and "Questions on Various Subjects"), detailed commentaries on several books of the Bible, on 12 treatises of Aristotle, on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, on the treatises of Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius and on the anonymous "Book of Causes", as well as a number of short essays on philosophical and religious topics and poetic texts for "Debatable Questions" and "Commentaries" were largely the fruit of his teaching activities, which included, according to the tradition of that time, disputes and reading authoritative texts, accompanied by comments.

5. THE DOCTRINE OF MAN

As the first cause, God creates numerous kinds and types of things, endowed with varying degrees of perfection, required for the completeness of the universe, which has a hierarchical structure. A special place in creation is occupied by man, who contains two worlds - the material and the spiritual, which is the unity of the material body and the soul as a form of the body. The material component of man is constitutive and non-eliminable: it is matter that is the “principle of individuation” of representatives of one species (including man). Although the soul is not subject to destruction when the body is destroyed, due to the fact that it is simple and can exist separately from the body, due to the implementation of a special activity independent of the functioning of the material organ, it is not recognized by Thomas as an independent entity; for its perfection, union with the body is required, in which Thomas sees an argument in favor of the dogma of resurrection in the flesh (On the Soul, 14). Man differs from the animal world in the presence of the ability to know and, on the basis of this, the ability to make a free conscious choice: it is the intellect and free (from any external necessity) will that are the basis for performing truly human actions (as opposed to actions that are characteristic of both man and and animal) belonging to the sphere of the ethical. In the relationship between the two highest human abilities - the intellect and the will, the advantage belongs to the intellect (a situation that caused controversy between the Thomists and the Scotists), since the will necessarily follows the intellect, representing for it this or that being as good; however, when an action is performed in specific circumstances and with the help of certain means, volitional effort comes to the fore (On Evil, 6). Along with a person's own efforts, the performance of good actions also requires divine grace, which does not eliminate the originality of human nature, but improves it. Also, the divine control of the world and the foreseeing of all (including individual and random) events does not exclude freedom of choice: God, as the highest cause, allows independent actions of secondary causes, including those entailing negative moral consequences, since God is able to turn to good evil created by independent agents.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion of the test work, I consider it necessary to draw a conclusion that would set out the main views of F. Aquinas.

From the difference in forms, which are the likeness of God in things, Thomas derives a system of order in the material world. The forms of things, regardless of the degree of their perfection, are involved in the creator, due to which they occupy a certain place in the universal hierarchy of being. This applies to all areas of the material world and society.

It is necessary that some are engaged in agriculture, others are shepherds, and still others are builders. For the divine harmony of the social world, it is also necessary that there be people engaged in spiritual work and working physically. Each person performs a certain function in the life of society, and everyone creates a certain good.
Differences in the functions performed by people are the result not of the social division of labor, but of the purposeful activity of God. Social and class inequality is not a consequence of antagonistic production relations, but a reflection of the hierarchy of forms in things. All this essentially served Aquinas to justify the feudal social ladder.
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