What animals eat wax. Parasites of bees

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Items can be temporary and permanent. They, in turn, are divided into those that enter the body of bees by accident and can live outside it (mice, T-shirt larvae), and those that adapt to the body of bees and the living conditions of the bee colony and can no longer live outside it.

Depending on which part of the body was struck by P., they are divided into internal and external; the internal ones affect the host organism, the external ones are located on the outer covers of the bees. Because where P. live - on an individual or in a bee nest - they are divided into P. bees and P. bees.

Invasive diseases are caused by unicellular (protozoa) and multicellular (arthropod) organisms of animal origin.

Protozoa, helminths, ticks and insects belong to internal P. items.

Protozoa are microscopic single-celled animal organisms. Their organs of movement are flagella and cilia. They feed through the mouth openings or suck food through the entire surface of the body.

The fight against P. and pests of bees includes the preventive disinfection of hives, apiary equipment and inventory, the use of proper methods of dealing with them.

Metalnikov S.tuberculosis problem. New ways in the study of tuberculosis [article] // Modern notes. 1921. Prince. III. pp. 239–248.

THE PROBLEM OF TUBERCULOSIS.

New ways in the study of tuberculosis.

Undoubtedly tuberculosis is currently the most common disease. There is reason to believe that all people are infected to a greater or lesser extent with tuberculosis.

According to the study of many doctors, the corpses of all people who died from a wide variety of diseases, with careful examination, bear traces of tuberculous lesions.

However, not all people who are infected with tuberculosis suffer from this disease. As is known, only 1/7 of approximately all deaths are due to tuberculosis. In the majority of people, that is, in 6/7 of all mankind, undoubtedly infected with tuberculosis, this disease often proceeds completely painlessly and is even imperceptible to the infected themselves.

Thus, these observations already indicate that tuberculosis, contrary to the generally accepted opinion, is one of the most curable diseases, with which the human body in most cases easily and quickly copes.

It is only by the presence of these agents that the chronic character which tuberculous lesions assume both in man and in other animals can be explained.

But what are these drugs, where are they located in the body, and in what ways does the body use them in the fight against tuberculosis? In other words, what causes the body to be resistant or immune to tuberculosis and other microbes that enter the blood and other organs?

Mechnikov's brilliant theory, as is known, reduced all the phenomena of immunity to the phenomena of digestion.

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Mechnikov was the first to show that microbes that enter the body of an animal are swallowed by white blood globules, or phagocytes, and are digested by them in exactly the same way as bacteria and microbes swallowed by some ciliate or amoeba are digested.

Even in cases where this digestion or dissolution of the microbe takes place outside the blood globules, in the blood plasma, and there these digestive fluids or enzymes seem to have their source in the blood globules or phagocytes.

But what are the reasons for immunity in relation to tuberculosis? What enzymes and digestive fluids are needed to digest tuberculosis bacilli?

These are questions of great theoretical and practical interest. Instead of looking for radical remedies and cures for tuberculosis, would it not be easier to use those remedies that are undoubtedly present in the body of humans and other animals that have immunities against tuberculosis.

But for this, first of all, it is necessary to study the causes of immunity, that is, to determine the forces and methods by which the body is freed from tuberculous bacilli.

Having learned these natural means inherent in every organism, we may be able, if necessary, to use them in the fight against tuberculosis. But what are these funds and where are they located? To resolve this issue, you first need to know what tubercle bacilli are and how they differ from other bacilli and microbes.

Numerous experiments and observations made on tuberculous bacilli have established with certainty that tuberculous bacilli are surrounded by a special shell, which makes them unusually resistant and hardy. This shell consists of a special fatty substance, similar in its properties to wax.

The same shell is the reason for such a terrible spread of tuberculosis in nature. Thrown out along with the sputum and secretions of patients, tuberculosis bacilli do not die when dried, but are carried along with dust everywhere. The waxy shell is, in all likelihood, the reason that tuberculous bacilli that have entered the human body cannot be digested as easily in the juices and cells of the body, as is the case with other microbes, simply because the human body is not able to digest wax. .

If all these considerations

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are true, then surely an animal that would be able to digest the wax and waxy shells of tuberculous bacilli would also have to be completely immune to tuberculosis.

Wax-eating animals are extremely rare, but they do exist. This is the so-called bee moth (Galleria mellonilla), the larvae of which live in a bee hive and eat wax. The first idea about the bee moth was expressed by Mechnikov, but he did not have time to experiment. Fascinated by this idea, I found this insect, bred a large number of cultures in his laboratory and studied its anatomy and physiology. *) The bee moth is a small gray butterfly that lays its testicles in the crevices of the hive. Small caterpillars emerge from the testicles, which crawl inside the hive and begin to feed on the wax. After 3-4 weeks they reach their maximum growth (2 1/2 of its length) and at this time they are most suitable for experiments.

As experiments have shown, wax is the necessary constituent part food and replaces them to some extent with water. Caterpillars cannot live without wax and die even if there is a large amount of good food.

Already the first experiments showed me that caterpillars have amazing immunity against tuberculous bacilli. I injected colossal amounts of tuberculosis bacilli into the body cavity of the caterpillars without any harm to their lives. Infected caterpillars lived normally, turned into pupae and butterflies.

Blood test and internal organs of infected caterpillars showed that, first of all, tuberculosis bacilli are quickly swallowed by white blood cells or phagocytes of the caterpillar and digested inside the phagocytes. Large masses of tuberculous bacilli are surrounded on all sides by phagocytes, which stick together and form a giant cell. Inside this cell, tubercle bacilli are rapidly digested and converted into a black-brown pigment. Soon this cell is surrounded by a mass of white blood cells, which form a shell or capsule around. With this capsule, the internal mass containing live tubercle bacilli is isolated and separated from normal, uninfected tissues. After 2-3 days, almost all tuberculous bacilli are destroyed and digested, and the animal is completely recovered.

Destruction of tuberculosis bacilli in the blood and in the capsule

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*) See Arch. Zoo 1, exp.

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lah happens so quickly and so obviously that we can say that the caterpillars of the bee moth have an extraordinary immunity against tuberculosis, and that this immunity is due to the action of some digestive enzymes that are inside the phagocytes.

But what are these enzymes?

The study of blood and extracts from bee moth, made by me together with N. O. Ziber-Shumova, showed that caterpillar juices contain a large amount of lipolytic enzymes ( ferment lypalitique ), i.e., enzymes that break down and digest fats. Already in my first works, I hypothesized that lipase is, in all likelihood, the enzyme that acts on the fatty-wax membrane of tuberobacilli.

Further experiments and observations made in various countries more and more confirm this hypothesis.

As known, Hanriot was one of the first to prove and quantify the presence of lipase in animal and human sera.

According to Carrier" a , most serolipase in dogs and humans (from 15 to 18) and least in guinea pigs (4). Perhaps this circumstance explains the greatest sensitivity of the guinea pig to tuberculosis. The amount of lipase can vary considerably in the same individual. During fasting, lipolytic energy decreases. With abundant nutrition, and especially when eating fats, it increases. Especially strongly affect the amount of lipase various diseases. In tuberculosis there is always a great decrease in the lipolytic energy, according to the degree of suffering and the more or less rapid development of the disease. In the terminal period of consumption, a fall in lipase should be recognized as a rule.

Recently, the question of the significance of lipase in tuberculosis was dealt with by Pisnyachevsky in St. Petersburg. He studied changes in the amount of lipase in hundreds of tuberculosis patients in St. Petersburg hospitals. While in healthy people the average lipase index, according to Pisnyachevsky's observations, is 13-14, in seriously ill people it drops to 4 and even 2 1/2.

With the improvement of the patient's condition, as well as with increased fat nutrition, he observed an increase in lipolytic energy.

These facts alone suggest that lipase plays some role in tuberculosis.

The question of the significance of lipase in tuberculosis infection has been studied for a long time in la-

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boratorium of the late N. O. Ziber-Shumova at the St. Petersburg Institute of Experimental Medicine. Dr. Grinev*, who has worked on this question and studied the changes in lipase in infected animals, comes to the following conclusions.

“The decrease in the strength of intracellular lipase in chronic tuberculosis is extremely large: it reaches almost half of its original amount in almost all the organs taken for the experiment. Only in the heart and in the spleen this decrease is comparatively lower, but in the liver it reaches almost 60%. Hepatic and lung tissue, more than all other tissues, suffers from tuberculosis poison during this infection.

N. Kochneva came to the same results when she studied the quantitative change in enzymes when killed tubercle bacilli were injected.**)

All these experiments indicate that lipase undoubtedly plays some role in tuberculosis infection.

In support of this view, doctors also point out the importance of eating fats and fatty foods (fish oil, cream, kefir, koumiss, lard) for a tuberculous patient.

Salo, especially lard, is still considered in some countries the best folk remedy against consumption.

Thus, the connection between tuberculosis and fat diet, which is now being scientific research, has long been established empirically in folk remedies against tuberculosis.

All sanatorium treatment of tuberculosis patients, which gives such good results, is now reduced to an increased diet of fatty foods, which, presumably, enhances lipolytic energy.

At the same time, doctors have repeatedly stated that those people who do not digest fats well are more susceptible to tuberculosis (Bou chard, Dabelle and etc.). Along with works that indicate the existence of some connection between tuberculosis and fat metabolism in the body, there are many works that show that people and animals, even those who do not have complete immunity against tuberculosis, nevertheless have some that means in the fight against this disease.

Only the existence of these remedies can explain the high percentage of recovery that is observed in people, especially if we keep in mind not only obviously tuberculosis-

–– ––

*) Arch. Sc. Biol. petersbourg, T . XVII.

**)N. Kotchneff. bioch. Zeit. b. 5 1913.

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ny, but also all those who are infected with tuberculosis. And such, as I pointed out, are the majority of people.

Mechnikov was one of the first to show that in ground squirrels, which are distinguished by their unusual resistance to tuberculosis, tuberculous bacilli are swallowed by phagocytes and giant cells, inside which they are destroyed.

The destruction of tuberculous bacilli was seen by Koch himself in necrotic tissue and pus of tuberculous lesions.

In the last decade, there has been whole line works that prove that tuberculous bacilli can be destroyed in the body of even such animals sensitive to tuberculosis as guinea pigs (Morkl, O. Bail, Kraus and Hofer).

The fact that tuberculosis bacilli are usually not found in pus has led many researchers to look for bacterio-destroying and digesting substances not in the blood, but in pus, that is, in white blood cells and blood-forming organs. There are a lot of works done in this direction (Font e s, Bergel, Fiessinger et Marie, Bartel etc.).

Fontes investigated the effect of extracts prepared from tuberculous guinea-pig ganglia on tuberculous bacilli; moreover, he established that in the tuberculous ganglia there is some kind of principle capable of destroying tuberculous bacilli in vitro.

"This beginning, according to Fontes" a, also splits tubercular wax. As a result of this splitting, palmitic and stearic acid. This beginning should be attributed to the class of exims (tuberculocyrose).

Almost simultaneously with the work of Fontes "a, the work of Bergel" appeared, which showed that the lipolytic enzyme that breaks down the wax is brought into the tuberculous pus by lymphocytes and mononuclear cells *).

He also proved the presence of the same lipase in the serum and exudates obtained after injecting large amounts of old tuberculin or tubercle bacilli under the skin. That white blood cells**) contain various intracellular digestive fluids or enzymes is an indisputable fact at the present time, which has been known for a long time, since the appearance of the first works of Mechnikov on phagocytosis and intracellular digestion. The great merit of Mechnikov and his theory of phage

–– ––

*) Bergel. Munch. Med. Woch. 109 and Zeit. f. Tub. b.22.

**) As you know, Mechnikov distinguishes three main types of white blood cells: microphages (small bodies), macrophages (large bodies) and lymphocytes.

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cytosis lies, among other things, in the fact that he was the first to point out the importance that intracellular digestion has in the life of the organism. At present, it is becoming more and more clear that the role of intracellular digestion is even broader and greater than Mechnikov initially assumed. It has to do not only with inflammatory processes and immunity, but also in general with nutrition and the distribution of nutrients throughout the body. This is indicated, among other things, by works concerning the number of white blood cells after feeding with various types of food.

In the excellent book Fiessenger et Marie (Les Ferments digestifs des Ancocytes), several interesting experiences. When feeding guinea pigs with chicken protein for 2 months, the number of microphages that digest protein well increases almost 2 times - from 12,000 per cubic meter. PC. up to 28.000.

At the same time, the proteolytic *) energy of the white blood cells themselves also increases significantly. Thus, white blood cells, as it were, adapt to certain foods.

When chicken protein is injected under the skin, a huge number of microphages flow to the injection site.

This is not the case with fat feeding or fat spraying.

When feeding animal fats, the number of lymphocytes and macrophages (Erdely, Rosenthal, Grunenberg, Fiessinger) that digest fats increases.

Injection of fat or wax similarly produced large numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages (Erdely, Rosenthal, Fiessinger).

All these observations give sufficient grounds to assume that there is a real division of labor in the work of white blood cells. Some phagocytes (microphages) adapt to the digestion of proteins, others to the digestion of fats (microphages and lymphocytes).

This explains why in some cases the pus or exudate consists only of microphages, while in other cases the pus contains a huge amount of microphages and lymphocytes, as is the case, for example, with tuberculosis.

Recently, a large number of works have appeared devoted to the study of intracellular enzymes of white blood cells (Leber, Achalm, Fiessenger et Marie, Bergel, Tschernoruzki).

From all these works it follows that microphages contain

–– ––

*) i.e. the ability to digest proteins.

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reap mainly enzymes for the digestion of proteins, while macrophages - for the digestion of fats.

This phenomenon is so constant that, according to Fiessenger "a, one can always determine by pus and its enzymes whether there is a tuberculosis infection in this case.

Thus, macrophages are the body's main defenders against tuberculosis.

Comparing the immunity of the bee moth in relation to tuberculosis with the immunity of other animals and humans, we can say that while in the bee moth the struggle of cells with tuberculosis infection proceeds very quickly, in higher animals this struggle drags on for a long time. But the very process of struggle proceeds in approximately the same way as in the bee moth.

As is now well known, infection of higher animals (rabbit, guinea pig, or mouse) with tubercle bacilli is primarily accompanied by the strongest phagocytosis. First, all TB bacilli are ingested by microphages, which we know do not contain the lipolytic enzyme to digest the adipose-wax membrane of TB bacilli. Not being able to digest them, they soon give way to macrophages and lymphocytes flowing in from all directions. It is often possible to observe at the same time how large macrophages swallow small phagocytes or microphages with tubercle bacilli inside.

Then macrophages are fixed in any tissues (in the lungs, liver, spleen), where they form the so-called tubercules. microscopic examination showed that tubercles consist of a large giant cell in which tubercle bacilli are located, and of a mass of small embryonic cells that surround them on all sides. Subsequently, a shell or capsule is formed from the embryonic cells. Gradually, the giant cell and the tuberculous bacilli inside it regress and, as it were, are digested.

The process of recovery or healing will be concluded when all the tuberculous bacilli, swallowed by macrophages and giant cells, are, as it were, immured inside these capsules. In view of the fact that the cells of vertebrates have not adapted to the digestion of tuberculous wax, the very process of digestion of tuberculous bacilli proceeds very slowly. In those cases when the cells of the body are weakened, not active enough and are not able to adapt and

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swarm, their external irritants, tuberculous bacilli, take over, begin to multiply intensively, and the body gradually dies, continuing the struggle to the very end.

Thus, we see that in higher animals and humans, the very process of fighting tuberculosis infection proceeds approximately in the same way as in the bee moth. Phagocytosis, giant cell formation and entrapment of tubercle bacilli inside capsules.

The difference is only in the speed with which tubercle formation proceeds. While in vertebrates this process is slow, chronic, which lasts for months, in moths everything proceeds very quickly.

Knowing all this, we can ask ourselves whether the fight against tuberculosis is possible and by what means and ways it should be carried out.

Based on the foregoing, we must first of all state that the human body is perfectly adapted to fight tuberculosis, that in most people infected with tuberculosis, this disease proceeds so easily that it often goes unnoticed by the patient himself.

As shown by numerous experiments and observations on animals and people, the very process of healing from tuberculosis occurs due to the activity of cells. All attempts to find any tuberculosis antitoxins and bacteriolysins in the juices and sera of the body have so far failed.

That is why we must say that anti-tuberculosis immunity is cellular immunity, which is carried out by the activity of cells.

Therefore, all these means, which can lead to strengthening of cells, to an increase in the number of phagocytes (especially macrophages and lymphocytes), will at the same time the best means against tuberculosis. What means lead to the strengthening of cells? Primarily, good conditions life. Good and plentiful food, good country air, not exhausting work, peace of mind. As we saw above, fat feeding increases the number of macrophages and lymphocytes, and also enhances the lipolytic energy of the blood. That is why all tuberculosis patients are advised to eat a rich diet of fat. But here, too, caution and gradualism are needed. The human body is not able to digest an unlimited amount of fat. It is necessary to gradually and consistently accustom the patient's body to the digestion of large amounts of fat.

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Experiments carried out in this direction in St. Petersburg gave very good results. Patients were accustomed gradually to the digestion of large quantities of fish oil. At the same time, the lipolytic energy of the blood increased and, at the same time, the general condition of the patient improved. This is one way that science is going to solve the difficult problem of tuberculosis. This path has already given excellent results in sanatoriums.

But there may be another way.

This is the way to search for curative sera and specific remedies against tuberculous bacilli. Unfortunately, this path has not yet given the expected results.

As we saw above, such a specific solvent enzyme exists not only inside the cells of the bee moth, which is distinguished by amazing immunity, but also, apparently, in many other animals and people.

The whole question is how to get these intracellular enzymes and how to use them for medicinal purposes. This problem presents enormous difficulties and still cannot be considered solved.

S. Metalnikov

Schmidt-Nielsen K. Animal Physiology. Adaptation and environment. Edited by Kreps E. M. - M .: Mir, 1982. - 416 p.
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Some fat-like substances, including waxes, are not hydrolyzed by conventional lipases. Waxes are esters of one molecule of high molecular weight aliphatic alcohol with one fatty acid molecule; if they could be hydrolyzed, their components would be absorbed and provide a large amount of energy. Of the waxes, beeswax is best known; with one exception, it is not digested by vertebrates and therefore has no nutritional value. .J

202 Chapter 5

The suggestion that symbiotic bacteria are responsible for the digestion of wax by the honeyguide was confirmed by introducing pure cultures of bacteria taken from the digestive tract of honeyguides to domestic chickens. Normally, chickens are completely incapable of digesting wax, but if wax is fed to them along with such cultures, they can digest and assimilate it (Friedman et al., 1957).

The digestion of wax by birds with the help of symbiotic bacteria is a rare curiosity. On the contrary, as we shall see later in this chapter, symbiotic digestion of cellulose, one of the most common plant materials- is of great importance for herbivores.

Although waxes do not play a significant role in the nutrition of land dwellers, they are extremely important in the food chain of marine animals, along with common fats and oils.

Wax available from a large number a variety of marine organisms: cephalopods and other molluscs, shrimps, sea anemones, coral polyps and many fish. The primary producers of waxes appear to be small planktonic crustaceans, especially copepods. In some of them, waxes can make up to 70% of the dry weight of the body. Copepods feed on phytoplankton, which does not contain wax. Diatoms and armored flagellates accumulate oil globules, consisting mainly of triglycerides. However, the fatty acids in copepod wax closely resemble the characteristic fatty acids found in phytoplankton, and there is reason to believe that these latter are directly used by copepods to produce waxes.

The role of waxes. in marine food chains is immeasurably more important than it seemed a few years ago, since planktonic crustaceans are the main link between micro-

Digestion 203

scopic photosynthetic algae and large sea creatures. According to estimates, thanks to this link, about half of all organic matter, formed on Earth during photosynthesis, turns into wax for some time (Benson et al., 1972).

Fish that feed on copepods (eg, herring, anchovies, sardines) have lipases in their digestive tract to break down waxes (Sargent and Gatten, 1976). The alcohols of these waxes are oxidized to fatty acids, which are then part of the usual neutral fats - triglycerides. In a number of other fish, the number of wax lipases is much lower, and the question of how well they can digest wax remains open. Since waxes are found in the fats and oils of so many marine animals, even whales, it is difficult to say whether they can be used in metabolic processes and serve as an energy reserve, or whether they simply accumulate as a result of passive absorption and difficulties in using them. This is an important question now intensively studied.

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

There is not much difference between vertebrates and invertebrates regarding the digestion of carbohydrates. Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are absorbed unchanged and are used directly in normal metabolic processes. Disaccharides such as sucrose (plant sugar) or lactose (found in milk) are broken down into monosaccharides before they can be absorbed and used. The enzyme sucrase is secreted in the intestine, but it is not present in the cellular apparatus of animals. Therefore, if sucrose is introduced into the body of a vertebrate by injection, it will be completely excreted in the urine unchanged.

Many plants accumulate starch as their main energy reserve. It is a polymer composed of glucose residues. It is relatively insoluble, but hydrolyzed by the enzyme amylase (from the Latin amylum, starch), secreted by the salivary glands of humans (and some other, but not all, mammals) and, to a greater extent, by the pancreas.

Lizards belong to the class of reptiles. Their defining characteristics include a long tail, two pairs of legs that extend outward from the body, and scaly skin. Most lizards are cold-blooded animals and depend on environmental conditions to regulate their body temperature. There are many types of lizards distributed throughout the world. Different kinds Lizards have different distinctive characteristics, which makes them interesting to study. Some of them even look prehistoric or sci-fi movie creatures!

gecko toki

gecko currents ( gecko gecko) is a species of nocturnal reptile belonging to the genus Gekko, found in Asia, as well as on some islands in the Pacific Ocean. The toki gecko has a robust body, large head, strong limbs and jaws compared to other gecko species. This is a large lizard that reaches 30 to 35 centimeters in length. Despite the fact that the toki gecko camouflages itself to its environment, it usually has a grayish color with red spots. Its body is cylindrical in shape and smooth in texture. Toki geckos are sexually dimorphic, which means that the males are brighter than the females. They feed on insects and other small ones. Strong jaws allow them to easily crush the exoskeleton of insects.

marine iguana

marine iguana ( Amblyrhynchus cristatu listen)) is a species of lizard found only in the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador, with each island being home to marine iguanas. different sizes and forms. Recently, their populations have been threatened due to the large number of predators that feed on lizards and their eggs. Marine iguanas are marine reptiles that are often described as ugly and disgusting because of their appearance. Contrary to their fierce look, marine iguanas are gentle. Their coloration is mostly black soot. The long, flattened tail helps them swim, while the flat and sharp claws allow them to cling to rocks in case of strong currents. Marine iguanas often sneeze to clear their nostrils of salt. In addition to sneezing, they have special glands that secrete excess salt.

Lesser belttail

Small belttails ( Cordylus cataphractus) lives in desert and semi-desert regions. They are mainly found along the west coast of South Africa. Lizards were used in the pet trade for a long time until they became endangered. The color of the small girdle is either light brown or dark brown, and the lower part of the body is yellow with dark stripes. They are diurnal reptiles that feed on small plants, as well as other types of small lizards and rodents. If the lizard senses danger, it inserts its tail into its mouth to form a spherical shape that allows it to roll. In this form, the spikes on the back are exposed, protecting the lesser girdled tail from predators.

Agama Mwanza

Agama Mwanza ( Agama mwanzae) are found in most sub-Saharan countries. They are usually 13-30 cm long, and males are 8-13 cm longer than females. These lizards usually live in small groups with one male as the leader. The dominant male is allowed to breed, while other males cannot mate with females in the group unless they eliminate the main male or form their own group. Mwanza Agamas feed on insects, reptiles, small mammals and vegetation. They mate during the rainy season. Before mating, the male digs small holes with his snout. After mating, the females lay their eggs in the holes. Incubation period takes 8 to 10 weeks.

komodo dragon

Komodo dragon ( Varanus komodoensis) - biggest known species lizards. They live on the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinka, Flores and Gili Motang. Mature monitor lizards weigh an average of 70 kg and are about 3 meters long. Komodo dragons ambush a variety of prey that includes birds, invertebrates, small mammals, and in rare cases, humans. Its bite is venomous. The protein venom they inject when they bite can cause unconsciousness, low blood pressure, muscle paralysis, and hypothermia in victims. Komodo dragons breed from May to August, and the females lay their eggs between August and September.

Moloch

(Moloch horridus) is mostly found in the Australian deserts. It grows up to 20 cm and has a lifespan of 15 to 16 years. Its color is usually brown or olive. Moloch camouflages himself in cold weather by changing his skin tone to a darker one. His body is covered with spikes for protection. The lizard also has soft tissues that resemble its head. The fabrics are located on the upper part of the neck and serve as a defense, in which the prickly dragon hides its real head if it senses danger. Moloch has another amazing mechanism wilderness survival. Its complex skin structure, under the action of capillary force, helps to fuse water into the lizard's mouth. The basis of the diet of Moloch is the ant.

Arizona gila-tooth

Arizona gila-tooth ( Heloderma suspectum) - a poisonous species of lizard that lives in the desert and rocky regions of Mexico and the United States. These reptiles have flattened triangular heads that are larger in males than females. Long, thick and cylindrical body, wider in females. Their diet consists of reptile eggs, birds and rodents. Hunting skills are characterized by a strong sense of smell and hearing. The Arizona gill can hear the vibrations of its prey from afar and smell the buried eggs. A large body and tail are used to store fat and water reserves, which allows them to survive in deserts. Dry and flaky scales prevent excessive water loss from the lizard's body.

Parson's Chameleon

Parson's Chameleon ( Calumma Parsonii) is the largest chameleon in the world. It is found in Madagascar. The large and triangular head has independently moving eyes. Males have two horn structures running from the eyes to the nose. Females lay up to fifty eggs, which can be incubated for up to 2 years. After hatching, Parson's young chameleons immediately become independent. Due to their unusual appearance, they are imported for home keeping in other countries. However, most reptiles die during transportation. Parson's chameleons are immobile animals, making minimal movements only for feeding, drinking and mating.

lobe-tailed gecko

Bladetail Gecko ( Ptychozoon kuhli) is found in Asia, especially India, Indonesia, Southern Thailand, and Singapore. They have unusual leathery outgrowths on the sides of their bodies and webbed feet. They feed on crickets, wax worms and mealworms. They are nocturnal reptiles. Males are very territorial and difficult to keep in a cage. They disguise themselves as tree bark, which helps them avoid predators. Blade-tailed geckos live inside trees and jump from branch to branch, especially when they sense danger.

Iguana rhinoceros

Rhino Iguana ( Cyclura cornuta) is an endangered species of lizard that lives on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. They have a horn-like outgrowth on their snout, similar to a rhinoceros horn. The length of rhinoceros iguanas is 60-136 cm, and the weight ranges from 4.5 kg to 9 kg. Their color varies from grayish to dark green and brown. Rhinoceros iguanas have large bodies and heads. Their tail is vertically flattened and quite strong. They are sexually dimorphic and males are larger than females. After mating, females lay between 2 and 34 eggs within 40 days. Their eggs are among the largest among lizards.

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April 28

Biologists have made a big discovery. It turns out that ordinary caterpillars, which are often bred as bait for fish, have a much more valuable property. They can recycle polyethylene, one of the most durable and commonly used types of plastic that litters landfills and the world's oceans everywhere. Polyethylene and polypropylene make up 92% of the world's plastic production, including polyethylene - 40%. Every year people use and throw away trillion plastic bags.

These caterpillars are the larvae of the common insect Galleria mellonella (large wax moth). The animal is considered a pest because it lays larvae in honey bee hives. There, caterpillars feed on honey, pollen and wax (hence the name of the moth), damaging everything around: honeycombs, brood, honey reserves, bee bread, frames and insulating material of the hives. But still, these harmful caterpillars found useful application. Instead of wax, they can be fed plastic waste.

Plastic is one of the most hazardous materials in terms of polluting the planet. In terms of the combination of prevalence and duration of natural decomposition, it has almost no equal. For comparison, paper decomposes in nature from one month to three years, clothing made from wool - a year, from natural fabrics - two to three years, iron can- 10 years, but an ordinary plastic bag decomposes for 100-200 years. Among all types of garbage in this indicator, polyethylene is inferior only to aluminum cans (500 years), disposable diapers (300-500 years) and glass bottles(over 1000 years).

Plastic production has grown exponentially over the past 50 years. In the EU countries, despite all efforts to recycle waste, up to 38% of plastic ends up in landfills, the rest is recycled (26%) or incinerated (36%). When incinerated or disposed of in a landfill, polyethylene creates a serious load on environment, therefore, scientists are intensively looking for acceptable ways for the harmless degradation of plastic. Using large wax moth caterpillars is one great option.

Scientists estimate that the rate of biodegradation of polyethylene by wax moth caterpillars is much faster than the plastic-eating bacteria reported last year. Those bacteria could eat 0.13 mg per day, and the caterpillars devour the material right before our eyes. The photo above shows that 10 tracks were made with a package in just 30 minutes.

Federica Bertochini contacted colleagues from the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Cambridge - and together they put the experiment on time. About a hundred caterpillars were placed in an ordinary plastic bag from a British supermarket. Holes in the bag began to appear after 40 minutes, and after 12 hours the mass of plastic decreased by 92 mg!

Scientists have yet to study the details of the biodegradation of wax and plastic, but it looks very likely that the caterpillars in both cases break the same chemical bonds between molecules (CH²-CH²) in the substance. By chemical formula and its properties, wax is a polymer, something like a "natural plastic", and its structure is not much different from polyethylene.

The scientists performed a spectroscopic analysis and tested how caterpillars break chemical bonds in polyethylene. They found that the result of processing is ethylene glycol, a dihydric alcohol, the simplest representative of polyols. The analysis proved that the holes in the plastic bag are not the result of a simple mechanical chewing of the material, but there is indeed a chemical reaction and biodegradation of the material. To be 100% sure of this, biologists conducted a scientific experiment: they crushed the caterpillars in mashed potatoes and mixed it with plastic bags. The result was identical - part of the plastic disappeared. This is the strongest evidence that caterpillars do not just eat plastic, but digest it into ethylene glycol. Chemical reaction occurs somewhere in the animal's digestive tract - it could be the salivary glands or symbiotic bacteria in the esophagus. The corresponding enzyme has not yet been identified.

Lead author Paolo Bombelli believes that if a chemical process is carried out using a single enzyme, then it is quite possible to reproduce this process by biochemical methods on a large scale. "This discovery could be an important tool to get rid of plastic waste accumulated in landfills and in the ocean,” he says.

The scientific work was published on April 24, 2017 in the journal Current Biology.

In an experiment with bacteria, a film of 1 cm² of Ideonella sakaiensis bacteria processed 0.13 mg of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) per day.