Plutarch - biography, facts from life, photographs, reference information.

, Biographer , Moralist

Plutarch(c. 46 - c. 120) - ancient Greek writer, historian, author of moral-philosophical and historical-biographical works. Of the huge literary heritage of Plutarch, which amounted to about 250 works, no more than a third of the works have survived, most of which are united under the general title "Moralia". Another group - "Comparative Lives" - includes 23 pairs of biographies of prominent statesmen of Ancient Greece and Rome, selected according to the similarity of their historical mission and the similarity of characters.

The ancient tradition did not preserve the biography of Plutarch, but it can be reconstructed with sufficient completeness from his own writings. Plutarch was born in the 40s of the 1st century in Boeotia, in the small town of Chaeronea, where in 338 BC. e. there was a battle between the troops of Philip of Macedon and the Greek troops. In the time of Plutarch, his homeland was part of the Roman province of Achaia, and only the carefully preserved traditions of antiquity could testify to its former greatness.

Plutarch came from an old wealthy family and received a traditional grammatical and rhetorical education, which he continued in Athens, becoming a student at the school of the philosopher Ammonius. Returning to his native city, from his youthful years he took part in its administration, holding various magistracies, including the prominent position of eponymous archon.

They say that nature has given everyone two ears and one tongue to speak less than to listen.

Plutarch repeatedly went on political assignments to Rome, where he struck up friendly relations with many statesmen, among whom was a friend of Emperor Trajan, the consul Quintus Sosius Senekion; Plutarch dedicated Comparative Biographies and Table Talk to him. Proximity to influential circles of the empire and growing literary fame brought Plutarch new honorary positions: under Trajan (98-117) he became proconsul, under Hadrian (117-138) - procurator of the province of Achaia. A surviving inscription from the era of Hadrian testifies that the emperor granted Plutarch Roman citizenship, classifying him as a member of the Mestrian family.

Despite a brilliant political career, Plutarch chose a quiet life in his native city, surrounded by his children and students, who made up a small academy in Chaeronea. “As for me,” Plutarch points out, “I live in a small town and, so that it does not become even smaller, I willingly stay in it.” Plutarch's public activities earned him great respect in Greece. Around the year 95, fellow citizens elected him a member of the college of priests of the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo. A statue was erected in his honor at Delphi, from which, during excavations in 1877, a pedestal with a poetic dedication was found.

The time of Plutarch's life refers to the era of the "Hellenic revival" of the beginning of the 2nd century. During this period, the educated circles of the Empire were seized by the desire to imitate the ancient Hellenes both in the customs of everyday life and in literary creativity. The policy of Emperor Hadrian, who provided assistance to the Greek cities that had fallen into decay, could not but arouse among Plutarch's compatriots the hope of a possible revival of the traditions of the independent policies of Hellas.

Those who are greedy for praise are poor in merit.

The literary activity of Plutarch was primarily of an educational and educational nature. His works are addressed to a wide range of readers and have a pronounced moral and ethical orientation associated with the traditions of the teaching genre - diatribe. Plutarch's worldview is harmonious and clear: he believed in a higher mind that governs the universe, and is like a wise teacher who never tires of reminding his listeners of eternal human values.

Small works of Plutarch

The wide range of topics covered in Plutarch's writings reflects the encyclopedic nature of his knowledge. He created “Political Instructions”, essays on practical morality (“On envy and hatred”, “How to distinguish a flatterer from a friend”, “On love for children”, etc.), he was interested in the influence of literature on a person (“How young men get to know poetry") and questions of cosmogony ("On the generation of the world soul according to Timaeus").

They mourned the one who was born, who goes to meet so many sorrows; and if someone found the end of his sufferings in death, his friends endured him with greetings and joy.

The works of Plutarch are imbued with the spirit of Platonic philosophy; his writings are full of quotations and reminiscences from the works of the great philosopher, and the treatise Platonic Questions is a real commentary on his texts. Plutarch was concerned about the problems of religious and philosophical content, which are devoted to the so-called. Pythian dialogues (“On the sign “E” in Delphi”, “On the decline of the oracles”), the essay “On the daimonia of Socrates” and the treatise “On Isis and Osiris”.

A group of dialogues clothed in traditional form conversations of companions at a feast, is a collection of entertaining information from mythology, deep philosophical remarks and sometimes curious natural science ideas. The titles of the dialogues can give an idea of ​​the variety of questions Plutarch is interested in: “Why do we not believe autumn dreams”, “Which hand of Aphrodite was wounded by Diomedes”, “Various legends about the number of Muses”, “What is the meaning of Plato in the belief that God always remains a geometer”. To the same circle of Plutarch's works belong "Greek questions" and "Roman questions", containing different points of view on the origin of state institutions, traditions and customs of antiquity.

Comparative Lives of Plutarch

Immortality, alien to our nature, and power, which depends mostly on luck, we crave and covet, and moral perfection - the only one of the divine blessings available to us - we put in the last place.

The main work of Plutarch, which became one of the most famous works of ancient literature, was his biographical writings. "Comparative Lives" absorbed a huge historical material, including information from the works of ancient historians that have not survived to this day, the author's personal impressions of ancient monuments, quotations from Homer, epigrams and epitaphs. It is customary to reproach Plutarch for an uncritical attitude to the sources used, but it must be borne in mind that the main thing for him was not the historical event, but the trace left by him in history.

This can be confirmed by the treatise "On the Malice of Herodotus", in which Plutarch reproaches Herodotus for partiality and distortion of the history of the Greco-Persian wars. Plutarch, who lived 400 years later, in an era when, in his words, a Roman boot was raised over the head of every Greek, wanted to see the great generals and politicians not as they really were, but the ideal embodiment of valor and courage. He did not seek to recreate history in all its real fullness, but found in it outstanding examples of wisdom, heroism, self-sacrifice in the name of the motherland, designed to strike the imagination of his contemporaries.

In the introduction to the biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch formulated the principle that he put as the basis for the selection of facts: “We do not write history, but biographies, and virtue or depravity is not always visible in the most glorious deeds, but often some insignificant deed, word or joke better reveal the character of a person than battles in which tens of thousands die, the leadership of huge armies and the siege of cities. The artistic skill of Plutarch made the "Comparative Lives" a favorite reading for young people who learned from his writings about the events of the history of Greece and Rome. The heroes of Plutarch became the personification of historical eras: ancient times were associated with the activities of the wise legislators Solon, Lycurgus and Numa, and the end of the Roman Republic seemed to be a majestic drama driven by the clashes of the characters of Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Antony, Brutus.

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of the works written by the ancient sages, their discoveries and other heritage inherited by mankind since those times. Unfortunately, many works have not survived to this day, and this is a serious loss. However, it makes no sense to regret what cannot be changed; one should act based on the current situation. At least, the ancient Greek and Roman sages themselves claimed so, including Plutarch from Chaeronea.

Childhood and youth

Little is known about the childhood of the ancient Greek writer and philosopher. He was born in 46 AD. The boy's parents, although they were wealthy people, did not belong to aristocrats or other privileged classes. However, this fact did not prevent Plutarch and his brother Lamprius from reading books and getting a good education in Athens.

While studying philosophy, rhetoric and mathematics, Plutarch became friends with the teacher Ammonius, an adherent of the doctrine. This friendship led to the fact that at the end of his studies, Plutarch, along with his brother and teacher, went to Delphi.

The purpose of this trip was a personal acquaintance with the cult of Apollo, as well as the activities of oracles and Pythia. This event seriously influenced the young Plutarch, in subsequent years he recalled this more than once (including in his works).

Returning back to his hometown of Chaeronea, Plutarch entered public service, becoming an eponymous archon. The first task of the young archon was to report to the proconsul of the province of Achaia about the demands of the inhabitants of the city. Having successfully completed the assignment, Plutarch continued his work as a public figure.

Philosophy and literature

Plutarch always considered himself a follower of the teachings of Plato. Nevertheless, it would be more correct to attribute him to the eclecticists - adherents of the current, fully formed after the death of Plutarch by the Alexandrian philosopher Potamon.

Many factors influenced the formation of Plutarch's views, among which the Platonist Ammonius played a major role. However, it is worth noting that even during his studies, the future philosopher managed to make acquaintances with the peripatetics ( students) and with the Stoics. And if the followers of Aristotle seemed to him more or less convincing, then Plutarch seriously criticized the Stoics, as well as the Epicureans.

Also during one of his travels around the world, Plutarch managed to get acquainted with the Roman neo-Pythagoreans. The literary heritage of the philosopher is really extensive. According to the catalog compiled by the philosopher's brother Lamprey, Plutarch wrote about 210 works, most of which have survived to this day. Out of this mass, the researchers set aside the Comparative Biographies and the Moralia cycle, consisting of 78 works (plus another 5 with controversial authorship).

"Comparative Lives" are 22 paired biographies of the ancient Greeks and Romans, among which are the Spartan king Leonidas, as well as speakers and. Pairs were selected based on the similarity of characters and activities.

When describing life, the philosopher freely operated on facts, claiming that he was writing a biography, not a history. The main task of this work was to get acquainted with the great figures of the past and carried a purely educational character. By the way, in the original there were more pairs for comparison, but some have not been preserved.

The Moralia cycle also had an educational function, since the main part of the works included in it was written when Plutarch was a lecturer and mentor. The most striking examples include such works: “On excessive timidity”, “On talkativeness”, “On how to use lectures”, “On wisdom”, “On raising children”.

There were also works of a political nature - "Manual on state affairs" and "On the monarchy, democracy and oligarchy." Plutarch wrote them, having received citizenship and public office in Rome (this happened thanks to an acquaintance with Quintus Sosius Senetsion). When the persecution of scientists and philosophers began by the emperor Titus Flavius ​​Domitian, he returned back to Chaeronei, risking being executed for his statements.

Plutarch visited all major cities Greece (including Corinth), visited Sardis, Alexandria and a number of other cities. Based on his travels around the world, the philosopher wrote such works as "On Isis and Osiris", in which he outlined his point of view on understanding ancient Egyptian mythology, the two-volume "Greek Questions" and "Roman Questions".

These works dealt with the history of two influential states, two biographies of Alexander the Great (in addition to those included in the Comparative Biographies) - On the Glory of Alexander and On the Fortune and Valor of Alexander the Great, as well as a number of other works.

Plutarch outlined his philosophical views in the interpretation of the works of Plato (“Plato’s Questions”), in critical writings (“On the contradictions among the Stoics”, “On the fact that even a pleasant life is impossible if you follow Epicurus”), in the collection “Table Talks”, consisting of 9 books, as well as in Pythian dialogues (“On the fact that the Pythians no longer prophesy in verse”, “On the decline of the oracles”, “Let the deity tarry with retribution”).

Personal life

Plutarch loved his family, which he repeatedly mentioned in his works. He had 4 sons and a daughter, but the daughter and one of the sons died in infancy. In order to somehow reassure his wife Timoksen, the philosopher wrote the essay “Consolation to his wife”, which has survived to this day.

When the sons grew up, Plutarch decided to independently engage in their education. Later, his students included the children of other townspeople. This gave the philosopher the idea of ​​teaching people all over the country, which he did.

Death

The exact date of the death of the philosopher is unknown, however, presumably, this happened between 125 and 127. Plutarch died of natural causes - old age. It happened in his hometown of Chaeronea, but Plutarch was buried in Delphi - according to the will.

At the burial place of the philosopher, a monument was erected, which archaeologists discovered in 1877, during excavations. Plutarch left behind a good memory - numerous biographies of great people are named after the philosopher, as well as a crater on visible side Moon.

Bibliography

• "Comparative Lives"
• "morals"
• "Table Talk"
• "Greek Questions"
• "Roman Questions"
• "On Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy"
• "On Controversy Among the Stoics"
• "On Isis and Osiris"
• “That the Pythians no longer prophesy in verse”
• "On the Fortune and Valor of Alexander the Great"
• "Platonic Questions"

Quotes

• "Traitors betray, first of all, themselves."
• “Chatterbox wants to force himself to be loved - and causes hatred, wants to render a service - and becomes obsessive, wants to cause surprise - and becomes ridiculous; he offends his friends, serves his enemies, and all this is to his own destruction.”
• “Whoever expects to secure his health by being lazy acts just as stupidly as a person who thinks in silence to improve his voice.”
• “We often ask a question, not in need of an answer, but in an effort to hear the voice and ingratiate ourselves with the other person, wanting to draw him into the conversation. Getting ahead of others with answers, trying to capture someone else's hearing and occupy other people's thoughts, is the same as climbing to kiss a person who is thirsty for the kiss of another, or trying to attract the gaze of another to himself.
• “Sometimes it is not without benefit to shut up the offender with a witty rebuke; such a rebuke should be brief and not reveal either irritation or rage, but let her know how to bite a little with a calm smile, returning the blow; just as arrows fly from a solid object back to the one who sent them, so an insult seems to fly back from an intelligent and self-controlled speaker and hit the offender.

“I don’t need a friend who, agreeing with me in everything, changes his views with me, nodding his head, because the shadow does the same better.”
These words belong to the famous ancient Greek biographer, philosopher, historian Plutarch. They allow us to understand why the name and works of this truly unique and interesting person known to this day. Although the facts of the biography of Plutarch are largely lost, some information is still available thanks to Plutarch himself. In his own writings, he mentioned certain events that took place on his life path.

Childhood of Plutarch

Plutarch was born in 46 in the Greek city of Chaeronea in Boeotia. Thanks to his parents, the future philosopher received an excellent education, which formed the basis of his future activities. Family upbringing had a great influence on his worldview, helped Plutarch to comprehend many knowledge, and later become the author of numerous works.

His father Autobulus and grandfather Lamprius were well educated and smart people. They told him interesting historical facts, about famous personalities, could keep up the conversation on any topic. The education of his father and grandfather allowed Plutarch to receive his primary education at home.

He had two more brothers - also enlightened people. It is known that despite the education of all family members, they were not aristocrats, although they were wealthy citizens. All this made their family very respected among those around them.

Youth of Plutarch

From the earliest years, Plutarch was constantly studying and, by the way, did this all his life. To receive a special education, he went to Athens, where he studied such sciences as rhetoric, mathematics, philosophy and others. His main teacher in those years was Ammonius, who played a significant role in the formation philosophical views Plutarch.

Plutarch's activities

After receiving his education, Plutarch returns to his hometown and devotes the rest of his life to the service of Chaeronea. Thanks to his versatile knowledge, he has been working in managerial positions since his youth. By the nature of his activities, he often had to visit the Roman emperor Trajan himself in order to resolve certain political issues.

During business visits to Rome, he still managed to attend philosophical and historical lectures, and actively spoke at them himself. During such conversations, he became friends with the consul Quintus Sosius Senekion, Trajan's best friend. This friendship with Senekion, coupled with Plutarch's growing fame, served to advance him in his career. Until 117, he served as consul, and after the death of Trajan, under the new Roman emperor Adrian, Plutarch served as procurator of the province of Achaia.

These positions were very responsible and important. To understand their full significance, it should be noted that not a single decision in the province of Achaia could be valid without the participation of Plutarch. This means that any event had to be coordinated with it. This or that decision was carried out only if it was approved by Plutarch.

In addition to politics, he paid great attention to religion and social activities. So, around the year 95, Plutarch was elected priest in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The priests at that time were chosen by society, and this fact testifies to the deep respect and veneration of Plutarch among the people. People even erected a statue in honor of him.

Works of Plutarch

Plutarch left behind many significant works. He wrote more than two hundred essays on a variety of topics. Mostly, they were historical and instructive in nature. Unfortunately, only a small part of his works have survived to our century. Among them is his main work - "Comparative Biographies", where he described the biographies of famous people: Romans and Greeks.

The essence of "Comparative Lives" is that the author took the biographies of two personalities and made comparisons. So, in this work one can find descriptions of the life of Alexander the Great, Gaius Julius Caesar, Theseus, Romulus, Cicero and others. This work is of great importance for us, as it contains reliable and most complete information about ancient personalities. The biographies of twenty-two couples have survived to this day, the rest have been lost.

Among the other works of Plutarch: "Political Instructions", "On the Ingenuity of Animals", "On the Love of Children", "On Talkativeness", "On the Malice of Herodotus", "On Excessive Curiosity" and many others on a wide variety of topics. Of great interest are the Pythian dialogues, where he discusses various religious and philosophical issues of his time.

Plutarch's Disciples

Despite the fact that he was a very influential politician and was active in public life, Plutarch was also a good family man and father to his children. It is not known for certain how many children he had. Some sources mention five sons.

Like Plutarch's father, he taught his children himself. His house was never empty. Young people have always been welcome here. In this regard, Plutarch opened his own Academy, where he was a leader and lecturer. Thus, he had many students, but history, unfortunately, does not mention their names. It is only known that one of the followers of Plutarch is his nephew Sextus of Chaeronea, who raised Marcus Aurelius himself, the famous future emperor.

Plutarch died in 127. He lived for eighty-one years. For that time it was a very respectable age, few managed to live up to such years. He always adhered to a healthy lifestyle and constantly warned his loved ones and all people in general with the words: “No body can be so strong that wine cannot damage it.” Indeed, the "golden" words, which through many centuries have not lost their relevance.

EXAMPLE PLAN

Legislation of Lycurgus

1. Kings and Ephors

   Education and social life in Sparta

   Property relations among the Spartans

   Origin and position of helots

   The terror of the Spartans against the helots

SOURCES

Reader on the history of ancient Greece / Ed. D. P. Kallistov. M., 1964. Section "Sparta".

Anthology of sources on the history, culture and religion of ancient Greece / Ed. V. I. Kuzishchina. Tutorial. SPb., 2000. Sections V, XI, XIV.

Xenophon. Lacedaemonian polity // Kurilov M. E. Socio-political structure, foreign policy and diplomacy of classical Sparta. Saratov, 2005.

Plutarch. Biography of Lycurgus // Plutarch. Comparative biographies / Ed. S. S. Averintseva. T. I. M., 1994.

MAIN LITERATURE

Andreev Yu. V. Sparta as a type of policy // Ancient Greece. T. 1. M., 1983. S. 194–217.

Latyshev VV Essay on Greek antiquities in 2 volumes. T. I. State and military antiquities. SPb., 1997.

Pechatnova L. G. History of Sparta. Archaic and classical period. SPb., 2001.

Pechatnova L. G. Spartan kings. M., 2007.

ADDITIONAL LITERATURE

Kolobova K. M. Ancient Sparta (X - VI centuries BC). Tutorial. L., 1957.

Kurilov M.E. Socio-political structure, foreign policy and diplomacy of classical Sparta. Saratov, 2005.

Pechatnova L. G. Formation of the Spartan state (VIII-VI centuries BC). Textbook for students. SPb., 1998.

Pechatnova L. G. Crisis of the Spartan policy (end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th century BC). Textbook for students. SPb., 1998.

Starkova N. Yu. The attraction of ancient Sparta. Textbook for the course "Source Studies and Historiography of Antiquity". Part I - II. Izhevsk, 2002.

Shishova I. A. Early legislation and the formation of slavery in ancient Greece. L., 1991.

When studying the topic "Spartan policy", you should pay attention to the following important provisions:

Sparta was not an anomaly in the development of ancient Greek civilization. However, in many respects, Sparta was very different from most Greek policies. Having chosen a special path of development associated with a long military expansion, Sparta gradually turned into a kind of military camp, where all spheres were subjected to severe deformation. public life. Only in Sparta, until the Roman conquest, did patriarchal royal power persist, and in the form of a decarchy, only in Sparta did the state consistently fight against private ownership of land and organize the life of its citizens in such a way as to subordinate personal interests to public ones.

Attention should be paid to the caste character of the civil collective in Sparta. For the non-civilian population of Sparta - helots and perieks - the path to citizenship was almost completely closed, and for the citizens themselves, maintaining their status was associated with the observance of a number of conditions, including economic ones. As a result, Sparta became the only state in Greece where the civilian population was declining catastrophically.

Of particular interest is the Spartan helotia, a type of slavery different from classical ancient slavery. It should be borne in mind that, ultimately, it was the helotia that was the main factor influencing the state of Spartan society. Fear of a huge army of helots and the inability to exist without them gradually made the Spartan policy a militarized state.

One should carefully consider the institutions of state power in Sparta, especially such as the ephorate, which had no analogue in other Greek policies. The preservation of the ancient political institutions, the dual royal power and the gerusia, which originated in Homeric Greece, also requires an explanation. The state, which for centuries preserved its ancient organs of power and traditions of the tribal system without any visible changes, was an amazing example of an artificially conserved socio-political structure, within which there was a continuous process of deformation of the human personality.

SOURCE TEXTS

The first work that has come down to us, specifically dedicated to Sparta, belongs to Xenophon, a writer whose fate was closely connected with Sparta. Xenophon's treatise "The Lacedaemonian Politia", written in the genre of a political pamphlet, had a sharp political focus and, in its own way, was engaged by the Spartan government. Xenophon's main focus is not on the political institutions of Sparta. He describes in detail the system of Spartan education, surprising for other Greeks, thanks to which such an important trait, from the point of view of Xenophon, as “civil virtue” was successfully cultivated in the Spartans. The Laconophile sympathies of Xenophon also manifested themselves in his main historical work, The Greek History. His Hellenica is essentially a Spartan-friendly version of Greek history.

An invaluable source on the history of Sparta is also Plutarch (I - II century AD). Due to the loss of a huge layer of literature, Plutarch remains our main, and sometimes the only informant on the cardinal problems of Spartan history. So he owns the most extensive biography of Lycurgus, containing an excess of antiquarian facts and being, as it were, the result of a centuries-old literary tradition about Lycurgus. The degree of reliability of Plutarch's testimony largely depends on his sources, however, in general, Plutarch's material, adjusted for the well-known tendentiousness of his informants and the originality of the genre of historical biography, seems to us to be quite solid.

LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS

In the preface to the biography of Lycurgus, Plutarch warns the reader that “nothing strictly reliable can be reported about Lycurgus” and that “information about the time he lived is most divergent” (I). Along these main lines - the historicity of Lycurgus and the chronological framework of his legislation - there are still disputes in scientific literature. At present, most scientists believe that there is no reason to doubt the historical existence of the Spartan legislator. The timing of the reforms is determined, as a rule, in the range between the endIXand middleVIIin. BC. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus was not only the author of the first constitutional document, the Great Rethra, but was also responsible for the division of the land in Sparta into clairs, for the introduction of sissitia, and for the entire collection of characteristic features of Spartan social life and public education.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 5–6)

5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return, saying that the only difference between their current kings and the people is the title and honors that are given to them, while in him the nature of the leader and mentor is visible, some kind of power that allows him to lead of people. The kings themselves also looked forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a state of mind when Lycurgus arrived back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state structure. He was convinced that separate laws would not bring any benefit if, as if healing a sick body suffering from all kinds of ailments, with the help of cleansing agents, the bad mixing of juices was not destroyed and a new, completely different way of life was not prescribed. With this thought, he first went to Delphi. 1 Having made sacrifices to the god and questioned the oracle, he returned, carrying that famous saying in which the Pythia called him "god-loving", rather a god than a man; to a request for good laws, the answer was received that the deity promises to give the Spartans orders incomparably better than in other states. Encouraged by the proclamations of the oracle, Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and led secret negotiations, first with friends, gradually capturing an ever wider circle and rallying everyone for the cause he had conceived. When the time came, he ordered thirty of the most noble men to go out early in the morning with weapons to the square in order to instill fear in opponents. Of these, twenty, the most famous, are listed by Hermippus; 1 Artmiada is called the first assistant of Lycurgus in all matters and the most zealous accomplice in the issuance of new laws. As soon as confusion began, King Harilaus, fearing that this was a rebellion, took refuge in the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya, 2 but then, believing persuasion and oaths, he went out and even himself took part in what was happening ...

Of the numerous innovations of Lycurgus, the first and most important was the Council of Elders (Gerousia). In conjunction with the feverish and inflamed, according to Plato, 3 royal power, having an equal right to vote with it in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of well-being and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now to tyranny, when the kings won, then to full democracy, when the crowd took over, placing in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, found balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders (geronts) now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. Aristotle explains this number by the fact that before Lycurgus had thirty supporters, but two, frightened, withdrew from participation in the case. Sphere 4 says that from the very beginning there were twenty-eight of them ... However, in my opinion, Lycurgus appointed twenty-eight elders, most likely so that, together with the two kings, there would be exactly thirty of them.

Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special prophecy on this subject, which is called "retra". 5 It reads: “Establish a temple for Zeus Sillania and Athena Sillania. 6 Divide into phyla and oby. 7 Establish a gerousia of 30 members together with archaetes. From time to time, convene an appeal between Babika and Knakion, and there propose and dissolve, but let the dominance and power belong to the people. The order to “divide” refers to the people, and the phyla and obi are the names of the parts and groups into which it should be divided. The archagetes are the kings. “Calling an apella” is indicated by the word “apelladzein”, because Lycurgus declared the Pythian Apollo to be the beginning and source of his transformations. Babika and Knakion are now called ... / the text is corrupted / and Enunt, but Aristotle claims that Knakion is a river, and Babika is a bridge. Meetings took place between them, although in that place there was neither a portico nor any other shelters: according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to soundness of judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the mind of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention for, instead of doing business, they look at statues, paintings, the proscenium of the theater, or the ceiling of the Council, which is too magnificently decorated. None of the ordinary citizens was allowed to submit their opinion, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would offer. But subsequently, the crowd of various kinds of withdrawals and additions began to distort and disfigure the approved decisions, and then the kings Polydorus and Theopompus 8 made the following addition to the retra: “If the people decide incorrectly, dismiss the gerontes and archagetes”, that is, the decision is not considered accepted, but to leave and dissolve the people on the grounds that it perverts and distorts the best and most useful. They even convinced the entire state that this was the command of God, as is clear from one mention in Tyrtaeus 1:

Those who heard Phoebus speak in the cave of Python,

They brought the wise word of the gods to their own home:

May in the Council the kings whom the gods have honored,

The first will be; let sweet Sparta be kept

With them are the elders, behind them are the men of the people,

Those who have to answer a question directly with a speech.

Translated by S. P. Markish.

GERUSIA

In Sparta, the council of elders, or gerousia, with the low importance of the national assembly, was in fact the highest government body. At the time of the establishment of the Gerousia, its chairmen were the kings, and later the ephors. Gerusia belonged to the highest judicial power. Only the gerontes, for example, could judge kings. Both the method of election, and the lack of accountability, and the lifetime membership in the Gerousia most corresponded to the oligarchic essence of the Spartan state.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 26)

As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decided to replace the dead every time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. 2 There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desirable! And it is true, because it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or the strongest among the strong, but about who among the kind and wise is the wisest and best, who, as a reward for virtue, will receive the supreme one until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable, - power in the state, will be master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest good. The decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the meeting. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next applicant had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others. 3 With a wreath on his head, he went around the temples of the gods. He was followed by a huge crowd of young people, praising and glorifying the new elder, and women who sang of his valor and proclaimed his fate happy. Each of his relatives asked him to eat, saying that the state was honoring him with this treat. Having finished his rounds, he went to a common meal; the established order was not violated in any way, except for the fact that the elder received the second share, but did not eat it, but put it off. His relatives stood at the door, after dinner he called one of them, whom he respected more than others, and, handing her this share, said that he was giving away the award that he himself had received, after which the rest of the women, glorifying this chosen one, escorted her home.

Translated by S. P. Markish.

KINGS AND EPHOR

At the same time, Sparta was ruled by two kings from different dynasties, the Agiads and the Eurypontids. Their power was hereditary. The kings led the Spartan army, and were also the chief priests of the community. Starting from the classical period, their power tended to gradually transform into an ordinary public office, a magistracy, but not completely and not completely. The special status of the kings, who in Sparta occupied a middle, intermediate position between sovereign monarchs and ordinary government officials, was already noted by Aristotle. (Floor.III, 10, 1, 1285 b). In the following passage of Xenophon, the activities of kings as military commanders are discussed in detail.

(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 13, 15)

13. Now I want to state what power and what rights Lycurgus gave the king over the army. Firstly, during the campaign, the state supplies the king and his retinue with food. Those polemarchs eat with him, 1 who are constantly with the king, so that in case of need he can consult with them. Together with the king, three people from among the “gomes” also eat, 2 their task is to take care of everything necessary for the king and his retinue, so that they can devote themselves entirely to taking care of military affairs. I want to tell you as accurately as possible about how the king goes on a campaign with an army. First of all, while still in the city, he makes a sacrifice to Zeus the Driver and the deities, companions of Zeus. 3 If the sacrifices are favorable, the “bringer of fire” takes the fire from the altar and carries it ahead of everyone to the border of the state. Here the king again sacrifices to Zeus and Athena. Only if both deities favor the undertaking, the king crosses the borders of the country. The fire taken from the sacrificial fire is carried all the time in front, not allowing it to die out; behind him are sacrificial animals of various breeds. Each time, the king begins to make sacrifices in the predawn twilight, seeking to win the favor of the deity before the enemies. At the sacrifices there are polemarchs, lohags, pentecosters, commanders of mercenaries, chiefs of the convoy, as well as those of the strategists of the allied states who wish it. There are also two ephors, 4 who do not interfere in anything until the king calls them. They watch how everyone behaves and teach everyone to behave with dignity during sacrifices... When the army is on the march and the enemy is not yet visible, no one goes ahead of the king, except for the Skirites 5 and mounted scouts. If there is to be a battle, the king takes the agema of the first mora and leads it to the right, until he is with her between two mora and two polemarchs. The eldest of the king's retinue builds those troops that should stand behind the royal detachment. This retinue consists of homeys who eat with the king, as well as fortune-tellers, doctors, flute players, the commander of the army and volunteers, if any. Thus, nothing interferes with the actions of people, since everything is foreseen in advance ... When it comes time to settle down for the night, the king chooses and indicates a place for the camp. Sending embassies to friends or enemies is not the business of the king. Everyone turns to the king when they want to achieve something. If someone comes to seek justice, the king sends him to the Hellanodics, 1 if he seeks money - to the treasurer, if he brings booty - to the lafiropolises. 2 Thus, in the campaign, the king has no other duties, except for the duties of the priest and commander ...

I want to tell you what relationship Lycurgus established between the kings and the community of citizens, for the royal power is the only one that remains exactly the same as it was established from the very beginning. Other government institutions, as anyone can see, have already changed and continue to change even now. Lycurgus ordained that the king, descended from God, performed all public sacrifices in the name of the state. He must also lead the army wherever the homeland orders him. The king is given the right to take the honorary part of the sacrificial animal. In the cities of the Perieki 3, the king is allowed to take enough land for himself so that he has everything he needs, but is not richer than he should be. To prevent the kings from eating at home, Lycurgus ordered them to participate in public meals. He allowed them to receive a double portion, not so that the kings would eat more than others, but so that they could honor with food whomever they wished. In addition, Lycurgus gave the right to each king to choose for his meal two comrades, who were called Pythias ... 4 Such are the honors given to the king in Sparta during his lifetime. They are only slightly different from the honors given to individuals. Indeed, Lycurgus did not want either to inspire the kings with a desire for tyranny, or to arouse the envy of fellow citizens for their power. As for the honors paid to the king after death, it is clear from the laws of Lycurgus that the Lacedaemonian kings were not honored as ordinary people but like heroes.

Translation by M. N. Botvinnik.

Ephorate established in 754 BC marked the victory of the policy over the sovereign royal power. With the strengthening of the ephorate, the power of the Spartan kings gradually decreased more and more. In addition to supervising the kings during the war, the ephors constantly watched them in peacetime. Obviously, immediately after the establishment of the ephorate, a monthly oath was established between the kings and the ephors as a sign of compromise between the kings and the community.

(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 15, 7)

Ephors and kings exchange oaths every month: ephors swear on behalf of the policy, the king - on his own behalf. The king swears to rule in accordance with the laws established in the state, and the policy undertakes to keep the royal power inviolable as long as the king is true to his oath.

Translation by M. N. Botvinnik

In classical times, the ephors owned all the executive and control power in the state. Elected from the entire mass of citizens, the ephors, in fact, expressed the interests of the entire community and constantly acted as antagonists of royal power. Already in the classical period, the power of the ephors was so great that Aristotle likens it to tyrannical (Pol.II, 6, 14, 1270 b). However, like any republican magistracy, the power of the ephors was limited to election for only one year and the obligation to report to their successors.

(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 8, 3 - 4)

Naturally, the same people / the most noble and influential in Sparta / together / with Lycurgus / 1 established the power of the ephors, since they believed that obedience is the greatest good for the state, and for the army, and for private life; for the more power the government had, the sooner, they believed, it would force the citizens to obey itself. 4 Now the ephors have the right to punish anyone they please, and they have the power to carry out the sentence immediately. They are also given the power to remove from office before the end of their term of office, and even to imprison any magistrates. However, to award them to death penalty only the court can. Having such great power, the ephors do not allow officials, as is the case in other policies, during their service year to do whatever they see fit, but like tyrants or leaders of gymnastic competitions, they immediately punish those who are convicted of illegality.

Translation by L. G. Pechatnova.

Aristotle points to a number of shortcomings that often paralyzed the activities of the ephorate, including cases of corruption among the ephors.

(Aristotle. Politics, P, 66, 14 - 16, 1270 b )

The situation is also bad with ephoria. This power is in charge of the most important branches of government; it is replenished from among the entire civilian population, 2 so that very poor people often end up in the government, who, due to their insecurity, can easily be bribed, and in the past such bribery often happened, and recently they took place in the Andros case, when some of the ephors, seduced by money, destroyed the whole state, at least as far as it depended on them. 3 Since the power of the ephors is extremely great and similar to the power of tyrants, the kings themselves were forced to resort to demagogic methods, which also resulted in harm to the state system: democracy arose from the aristocracy. 15. Of course, this government body gives stability to the state system, because the people, having access to the highest power, remain calm ... 16. However, the election to this position should be made from all citizens 4 and not in the too childish way in which it is done currently. Moreover, the ephors decide on the most important legal cases, while they themselves turn out to be random people; therefore, it would be more correct if they did not pass their sentences on their own, but following the letter of the law. The very way of life of the ephors does not correspond to the general spirit of the state: they can live too freely, while in relation to the rest there is rather excessive severity, since they, not being able to withstand it, secretly, bypassing the law, indulge in sensual pleasures.

Translation by S. A. Zhebelev.

EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LIFE IN SPARTA

The desire to unify all Spartan citizens and prepare them exclusively for a military career led to the creation of a unified system of public education in Sparta. This system included a circle of customs, official prohibitions and regulations that determined the daily life of every Spartan from birth to death. For the Spartan state with its pronounced military character, the barracks system for educating the younger generation turned out to be very effective. Xenophon (Lak. pol. 2 - 4) and Plutarch tell about the features of the education of young people in Sparta.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 16 - 18)

16. The father was not in the right to manage the upbringing of the child himself - he took the newborn to a place called “forest”, where the oldest relatives in the fillet were sitting. They examined the child and, if they found him strong and well-built, they ordered him to be brought up, immediately assigning him one of nine thousand allotments. 1 If the child was frail and ugly, he was sent to Apothetes (as the cliff on Taygetus was called), considering that his life was not needed either by himself or by the state, since he was denied health and strength from the very beginning. 2 For the same reason, women washed their newborns not with water, but with wine, testing their qualities: they say that those who are sick with epilepsy and generally sick die from unmixed wine, while healthy ones become tempered and become even stronger. The nurses were caring and skillful, the children were not swaddled to give freedom to the members of the body, they were raised unpretentious and not picky about food, not afraid of the dark or loneliness, not knowing what self-will and crying are. Therefore, sometimes even strangers bought nurses from Laconia ... Meanwhile, Lycurgus forbade giving Spartan children to the care of educators bought for money or hired for a fee, and the father could not raise his son as he pleases. As soon as the boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took them away from their parents and divided them into detachments so that they lived and ate together, learning to play and work next to each other. At the head of the detachment, he put the one who surpassed the others in quick wits and was the bravest in fights. The rest looked up to him, obeyed his orders and silently endured punishment, so that the main consequence of this lifestyle was the habit of obedience. Old men often looked after the children's games and constantly quarreled them, trying to cause a fight, and then they carefully observed what qualities each had by nature - whether the boy was brave and stubborn in fights. They learned literacy only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it, 3 otherwise, all education was reduced to the requirements of unquestioning obedience, steadfastly endure hardships and prevail over the enemy. With age, the requirements became more and more stringent: the children were cut short, they ran barefoot, they learned to play naked. At the age of twelve, they were already walking around without a chiton, receiving a himation once a year, dirty, neglected; baths and ointments were unfamiliar to them - for the whole year they used this blessing for only a few days. They slept together, in silts and detachments, on bedding, which they prepared for themselves, breaking the reed panicles on the banks of the Eurotas with their bare hands. In winter, the so-called lycophone was thrown to the reed and mixed in: it was believed that this plant had some kind of warming power. 17. At this age, the best young men have lovers. Old people also aggravate their supervision: they attend gymnasiums, attend competitions and verbal skirmishes, and this is not for fun, because everyone considers himself to some extent the father, educator and leader of any of the teenagers, so there was always someone to reason with and punish the delinquent. Nevertheless, from among the most worthy husbands, a pedon is also appointed - supervising the children, and at the head of each detachment the teenagers themselves put one of the so-called irens - always the most reasonable and brave. (Irenes are those who have matured for the second year already, Mellirens are the oldest boys). Irene, now in her twenties, commands her subordinates in fights and orders them when it's time to take care of dinner. He orders the big ones to bring firewood, the little ones - vegetables. Everything is obtained by theft: some go to the gardens, others with the greatest caution, using all their cunning, make their way to the common meals of their husbands. If the boy was caught, he was severely beaten with a whip for negligent and awkward theft. They also stole any other provisions that came to hand, learning how to deftly attack sleeping or gaping guards. The punishment for those who got caught was not only beatings, but also hunger: the children were fed very poorly, so that, enduring hardships, they themselves, willy-nilly, became proficient in insolence and cunning ... 18. While stealing, the children observed the greatest caution; one of them, as they say, having stolen a fox, hid it under his cloak, and although the animal tore his stomach with claws and teeth, the boy, in order to hide his deed, was fastened until he died. The reliability of this story can be judged by the current ephebes: I myself saw how not one of them died under blows at the altar of Orthia. 2

Translation by S. P. Markish

Citizens in Sparta, even in their daily lives, had to follow certain, strictly regulated regulations. Their whole life was spent in full view of fellow citizens, the role of the family was reduced to a minimum. Being freed from material concerns and not even having the right to engage in crafts by law, the Spartans spent most of their time hunting, in gymnasiums, at public tables, the so-called. sissies. Sissitia were a kind of dining clubs, participation in which was strictly mandatory for all Spartan citizens. Thanks to public education and public dinners, Sparta managed to unify the whole life of its citizens and achieve, if not actual, then at least apparent equality. Perhaps due to their outlandish nature, sissitia were described in such detail by ancient authors.

(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 5, 2 - 7)

... Noticing that the order that he found among the Spartans, when they, like all other Hellenes, ate at home, leads to effeminacy and carelessness, Lycurgus introduced joint meals. He forced them to eat in front of everyone, believing that there would be fewer violations of prescribed laws. He set the amount of food so that it would not lead to excesses, but would not be insufficient either. Hunting prey is often added to this, and the rich sometimes substitute wheat for bread. 1 Thus, when the Spartans dine together in tents, their table is never devoid of food or luxurious. As for drinks, Lycurgus, having forbidden excessive drinking, relaxing the soul and body, allowed the Spartans to drink only to quench their thirst, believing that the drink was then harmless and most pleasant ... In other states, people mostly spend time with their peers, as with them they feel more free. Lycurgus mixed all ages in Sparta, believing that young people can learn a lot from the experience of their elders. It was customary to talk about the exploits accomplished in the state in filitias; so that in Sparta arrogance, drunken antics, shameful acts and foul language are extremely rare. Eating out also has the following benefits: people returning home are forced to take a walk; they must think about not getting drunk, knowing that they cannot stay where they dined.

Translation by M. N. Botvinnik.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 12)

... Fifteen people gathered for meals, sometimes a little less or more. Each companion brought monthly medimn of barley flour, eight hoi 2 wines, five minas of cheese, two and a half minas of figs, and, finally, a very insignificant amount of money for the purchase of meat and fish. 3 If any of them sacrificed or hunted, common table part of the sacrificial animal or prey was received, but not all of it, for those who lingered on the hunt or because of the sacrifice could not dine at home, while the rest had to be present. The Spartans strictly observed the custom of joint meals until later times ... They say that whoever wanted to become a participant in the meal was subjected to the following test. Each of the companions took a piece of bread crumb in his hand and, like a pebble for voting, silently threw it into a vessel, which was brought up, holding on his head, by a servant. As a sign of approval, the lump was simply lowered, and whoever wanted to express his disagreement, he first strongly squeezed the crumb in his fist. And if at least one such lump was found, corresponding to a drilled pebble, 4 the seeker was refused admission, wishing that everyone sitting at the table would find pleasure in each other's company ... 5 Of the Spartan dishes, the most famous is black stew. The old people even refused their share of meat and gave it to the young, while they themselves ate plenty of stew. There is a story that one of the Pontic kings, solely for the sake of this stew, bought himself a Laconian cook, but, after tasting it, turned away in disgust, and then the cook told him: “The king, in order to eat this stew, you must first bathe in Evrota.” Then, moderately drinking dinner with wine, the Spartans went home without lighting lamps: they were forbidden to walk with fire, both in this case and in general, so that they would learn to move confidently and fearlessly in the darkness of the night. Such was the arrangement of common meals.

Translated by S. P. Markish.

For the first time, the ideals of military prowess were embodied in his elegies by Tirteus, the Spartan poetVIIin. BC, participant in the Second Messenian War. Tyrtaeus valued military prowess above all human virtues. His famous marching songs, the so-called. embatery, and military elegies had a huge impact on the education in the spirit of high patriotism of many generations of Spartans. The poetic heritage of Tyrtaeus was canonized very early, becoming an obligatory element of Spartan school education.

(Tirtei, Fragments 6 - 9).

Since you are all descendants of Hercules, who were not defensible in the battles,

Be cheerful, Zeus has not yet turned away from us!

Do not be afraid of huge enemy hordes, do not know fear,

Let each one keep his shield right between the first fighters,

Considering a hateful life, and the gloomy messengers of death -

Dear, how sweet the golden rays of the sun are to us!

All of you are experienced in the affairs of the many-tearful god Ares,

You are well aware of the horrors of a hard war,

Young men, you saw men and those who were running;

You have had enough of the spectacle of both!

Those warriors who dare, closing tightly in rows,

To engage in hand-to-hand combat between the front fighters,

In a smaller number they die, and those standing behind are saved;

The despicable coward's honor dies instantly forever:

There is no one who could tell all the torment to the end,

What goes to the lot of a coward who has acquired shame!

It's hard to decide because an honest warrior from the rear to hit

Husband running back from the field of bloody massacre;

The dead man, lying in the dust, is covered with shame and shame,

Behind, pierced through the back with a spear point!

Let, stepping wide and resting your feet on the ground,

Everyone stands still, biting his lip tightly,

Thighs and lower legs from below, and your chest together with your shoulders

A convex circle of a shield, strong with copper, covering;

With his right hand let him shake the mighty lance,

The formidable sultan shook his head above his head;

Let him learn powerful things among the feats of arms

And there is no distance of flying arrows with a shield;

Let him go to hand-to-hand combat and with a long pike

Or strike the enemy to death with a heavy sword!

Putting his foot to his foot and leaning his shield on the shield,

Terrible sultan - oh sultan, helmet - oh comrade helmet,

Tightly closing chest to chest, let everyone fight with enemies.

Squeezing a spear or sword hilt with your hand!

Forward, O sons of fathers, citizens

Men of the illustrious Sparta!

Hold up the shield with your left hand,

Shake your spear bravely

And do not spare your life:

After all, it is not in the customs of Sparta.

Translation by V. V. Latyshev

PROPERTY RELATIONS AMONG SPARTIANS

With the name of Lycurgus, ancient tradition connects the rebirth of the entire Spartan society. It consisted, firstly, in the formation of a military caste, which included all the Spartans, secondly, in the artificial equalization of their standard of living and, thirdly, in the complete isolation of Sparta from the entire outside world. The absence of its own coinage and the prohibition of the import of foreign currency artificially slowed down the development of a commodity-money economy in Sparta and put Sparta among the most economically backward policies of Greece. Important remarks about this side of the life of Spartan society are found in Plutarch.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 9, 1-6)

9, 1-6 Then he / Lycurgus / took up the division of movable property in order to completely destroy all inequality, but, realizing that the open seizure of property would cause sharp discontent, he overcame greed and greed by indirect means. Firstly, he put out of use all gold and silver coins, leaving only iron coins in circulation, and even that, with its enormous weight and size, assigned an insignificant value, so that to store an amount equal to ten mines, 1 a large warehouse was required, and for transportation - pair harness. As the new coin spread, many types of crime in Lacedaemon disappeared. Who, in fact, could have the desire to steal, take bribes or rob, since it was unthinkable to hide the uncleanly acquired, and it did not represent anything enviable, and even broken into pieces did not receive any use? After all, Lycurgus, as they say, ordered the iron to be tempered by dipping it in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became brittle and no longer good for anything, because it was no longer amenable to any further processing. Then Lycurgus expelled useless and superfluous crafts from Sparta. However, most of them would have already retired after the generally accepted coin, not finding a market for their products. It was pointless to carry iron money to other Greek cities - they did not have the slightest value there, and they only made fun of them - so that the Spartans could not buy anything from foreign trifles, and in general merchant cargo stopped coming to their harbors. Neither a skillful orator, nor a wandering charlatan-foreteller, nor a pimp, nor a gold or silver craftsman 2 appeared within Laconia - after all, there was no more coin there! But because of this, luxury, gradually deprived of everything that supported and nourished it, withered and disappeared by itself. Wealthy citizens lost all their advantages, because wealth was closed to the people, and it was hiding locked up in their homes without any business.

Translation by S. P. Markish

ORIGIN AND POSITION OF HELOTS

Already in antiquity, there was an amazing diversity of opinions regarding the origin of the helots. However, without exception, all ancient the authors agreed on one thing: helotia in Sparta is a special form of slavery, different from its classical version and arising as a result of the enslavement of the Laconian and Messenian Greeks by the Dorian conquerors. The position of the Spartan helots seems to have been far more humiliating than that of the slaves in any other Greek city. In a fragment of Myron from Priene, preserved by Athenaeus (borderII – IIIcenturies n. BC), shows the whole range of measures aimed at the physical and moral-psychological suppression of the helots.

(Athenaeus, XIV , 657 D )

The impudence and arrogance with which the Lacedaemonians behaved towards the helots is also testified by Myron of Priene in the second book of his Messenian studies: “And everything that they entrust to the helots is connected with shame and humiliation. So they are supposed to wear dog-skin hats and dress in animal skins. Every year helots receive a certain number of blows, even if they have not committed any crime. This is done so that the helots always remember that they are slaves. Moreover, if any of them appearance begins to differ greatly from the slave, then he himself is punished by death, and a fine is imposed on his master for not stopping the excessive development of his helot in time.

Translation by L. G. Pechatnova

The fear that the helots instilled in the Spartans forced the latter to live in an atmosphere of constant stress. Perceiving the helots as internal enemies, the Spartans had the deepest distrust of them. The extent of this mistrust is shown by a passage from a lost political treatise by Critias, an active participant in the tyranny of the Thirty in Athens and a well-known laconophile. This fragment is cited in his speech “On Slavery” by the sophist writerIVin. Libanius.

(Libanius, XXV , 63)

The Lacedaemonians gave themselves complete freedom against the Helots to kill them, and of them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some and the most complete freedom of others. After all, because of what else, - says Critias himself, - if not because of distrust of these very helots, the Spartiate takes away the handle of the shield from them at home? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely efficient. He always walks with a spear in his hands, to be stronger than the helot if he rebels, armed with only a shield. They also invented for themselves constipation, with the help of which they believe to overcome the intrigues of the helots.

It would be the same as living together with someone, experiencing fear of him and not daring to take a break from the expectation of dangers. And how can those who, both during breakfast, and in sleep, and during the administration of any other need, are armed with fear in relation to slaves, how can such people ... enjoy true freedom? ... Just as their kings are by no means were free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to bind and execute the king, so all the Spartans lost their freedom, living in conditions of hatred from the slaves.

Translation by A. Ya. Gurevich.

SPARTAN TERROR AGAINST THE HELOTS

According to Thucydides (IV, 80), most of the activities of the Spartans were aimed mainly at protecting against helots. One of the main forms of intimidation of the helots in Sparta was the so-called cryptia, or secret murder of slaves. With the invention of cryptia, the Spartan terror against the helots became legalized. The most complete description of cryptia belongs to Plutarch.

(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 28)

That's how cryptos happened. 1 From time to time, the authorities sent young people, who were considered the most intelligent, to roam the neighborhood, providing them with only short swords and the most necessary supply of food. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads ... Aristotle especially dwells on the fact that the ephors, taking power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. 2 In general, the Spartans treated them roughly and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing cheesy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding the entertainments befitting a free man. Even much later, during the campaign of the Thebans in Laconia, 3 when the captured helots were ordered to sing something from Terpander, Alkman, or the Laconian Spendont, they refused, because the gentlemen did not like it. So, those who say that in Lacedaemon the free man is free to the end, and the slave is completely enslaved, have correctly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictnesses appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after a great earthquake, 4 when, as they say, the helots, having set out together with the Messenians, terribly outraged throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the city. I, at least, cannot ascribe such a vile deed as cryptia to Lycurgus, 5 having formed an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe character of this man from that meekness and justice, which otherwise mark his whole life and are confirmed by the testimony of a deity.

Translated by S. P. Markish.

In addition to cryptia, the Spartans had other ways to intimidate helots in the arsenal of the Spartans. The most famous case is the destruction of two thousand helots, who were previously promised freedom by the Spartans for military service. This action was a consequence of the panic that seized the Spartans due to the exodus of helots to the Athenian-occupied Pylos (425 BC).

(Thucydides, IV , 80, 2 – 4)

At the same time, the Spartans received a welcome excuse to remove part of the helots from the country, so that they would not take it into their heads to raise an uprising now that Pylos was in the hands of enemies. For most of Lacedaemonian activities were, in essence, designed to keep the helots in line. Frightened by the insolence of the numerous youth of the helots, the Lacedaemonians also resorted to this measure. They offered to select a certain number of helots who considered themselves the most capable in military affairs, promising them freedom (in fact, the Lacedaemonians only wanted to test the helots, believing that just the most freedom-loving ones were most likely capable, in the consciousness of their own dignity, of attacking their masters). Thus, about 2,000 helots were selected, who, with wreaths on their heads (as if they had already received freedom), went around the temples. A little later, however, the Lacedaemonians slew these helots, and no one knew where or how they died.

Translation by G. A. Stratanovsky.

When dinner was over, Iren ordered whom to sing, to whom he asked questions that required reflection and ingenuity, such as: “Who is the best among husbands?” or “What is the act of such and such a person?” So from the very beginning of their lives they were accustomed to judge the merits of fellow citizens, for if the one to whom the question was addressed “Who is a good citizen?” Who deserves blame? , did not find what to answer, this was considered a sign of nature sluggish and indifferent to virtue. In the answer, it was supposed to name the reason for this or that judgment and give evidence, putting the thought into the shortest words. The one who spoke out of place, not showing due diligence, Iren punished - he bit his thumb. Often, Iren punished boys in the presence of old people and authorities, so that they would be convinced of how justified and fair his actions were. During the punishment he was not stopped, but when the children dispersed, he held the answer if the punishment was stricter or, on the contrary, softer than it should have been.

And the good fame and dishonor of the boys was shared with them by their beloved. It is said that when one day a boy, having grappled with a comrade, suddenly got scared and screamed, the authorities imposed a fine on his lover. And, although the Spartans allowed such freedom in love that even worthy and noble women loved young girls, rivalry was unfamiliar to them. Not only that: common feelings for one person became the beginning and source of mutual friendship of lovers, who united their efforts in an effort to bring their loved one to perfection.

19. Children were taught to speak in such a way that in their words caustic wit was mixed with grace, so that short speeches caused lengthy reflections. As already mentioned, Lycurgus gave the iron coin great weight and negligible value. He acted completely differently with the “verbal coin”: under a few mean words, a vast and rich meaning should have been hidden, and by forcing the children to be silent for a long time, the legislator elicited accurate and accurate answers from them. For just as the seed of people who are immensely greedy for intercourse is mostly fruitless, so the intemperance of the tongue gives rise to empty and stupid speeches. Some Athenian scoffed at the Spartan swords - they are so short that they are easily swallowed by magicians in the theater. “But with these daggers we perfectly get our enemies,” King Agid objected to him. I find that the speech of the Spartans, with all its external brevity, perfectly expresses the very essence of the matter and remains in the minds of the listeners.

Lycurgus himself apparently spoke little and aptly, as far as one can judge from his sayings that have come down to us. So, to a man who demanded the establishment of a democratic system in Sparta, he said: “First, you establish democracy in your house.” Someone asked why he made the sacrifices so modest and modest. “So that we never cease to honor the deity,” replied Lycurgus. And here is what he said about competitions: “I allowed fellow citizens only those types of competitions in which you do not have to raise your hands.” It is reported that in letters he answered his fellow citizens no less successfully. “How can we avert the enemy’s invasion from ourselves?” - "Remain poor, and let no one try to become more powerful than another." About city walls: "Only that city is not without fortifications, which is surrounded by men, and not by bricks." It is difficult, however, to decide whether these letters are genuine or forged.

20. The following statements testify to the disgust of the Spartans for lengthy speeches. When someone began to talk about an important matter, but inappropriately, Tsar Leonid said: “Friend, all this is appropriate, but in a different place.” Lycurgus' nephew Harilaus, when asked why his uncle issued so few laws, replied: "Those who manage with a few words do not need many laws." Some people scolded the sophist Hecataeus, because, invited to a common meal, he kept silent throughout the dinner. “Whoever knows how to speak, knows the time for this,” Archidamid objected to them.

And here are examples of sharp, but not without elegance, memorable words, which I have already mentioned above. Some rogue pestered Demarat with absurd questions and, by the way, kept wanting to know who was the best of the Spartans. “The one who is least like you,” Demarat finally said. Agid, hearing the praises of the Eleans for the excellent and fair organization of the Olympic Games, remarked: “It really is a great thing to observe justice once every four years.” A foreigner, to show his friendly feelings, told Theopompus that among his fellow citizens he is called a friend of the Laconians. “It would be better for you to call yourself a friend of fellow citizens,” answered Theopompus. The son of Pausanias Plistoanakt said to the Athenian speaker, who called the Spartans ignoramuses: “You are right - of all the Greeks, we alone did not learn anything bad from you.” Archidamid was asked how many Spartans there were. “Enough, friend, to repel the villains,” he assured. From the jokes of the Spartans, one can also judge their habits. They never chatted in vain, never uttered a word that did not have a thought behind it, one way or another worthy of thinking about it. The Spartan was called to listen to how they imitate the song of a nightingale. “I heard the nightingale himself,” he refused. Another Spartan, reading the epigram:

remarked: "And rightly so: it was necessary to let her burn to the ground." A young man said to a man who promised to give him roosters that fight to the last breath: “Keep them for yourself, and give me those that beat the enemy to the last breath.” Another young man, seeing people who emptied their intestines while sitting on a toilet seat, exclaimed: “I wish I never had a chance to sit in such a place that it is impossible to give way to an old man!” Such are their sayings and memorable words, and some, not without reason, assert that to imitate the Laconians means to attach one's soul to philosophy rather than to gymnastics.

21. Singing and music were taught with no less care than the clarity and purity of speech, but even in the songs there was a kind of sting that aroused courage and compelled the soul to enthusiastic impulses to action. Their words were simple and unsophisticated, the subject - majestic and didactic. These were mainly glorifications of the happy fate of those who fell for Sparta and reproaches to cowards doomed to drag out life in insignificance, promises to prove their courage or, depending on the age of the singers, boasting of it. It would be useful to place here, as an example, one of these songs. On holidays, three choirs were composed - old men, husbands and boys. The old people sang:

Men in their prime picked up:

And the boys finished:

In general, if anyone reflects on the works of the Laconian poets, some of whom have survived to this day, and restores to memory the marching rhythms of melodies for the flute, to the sounds of which the Spartans marched on the enemy, he will perhaps admit that Terpander and Pindar were right in finding connection between courage and music. The first says of the Lacedaemonians thus:

And Pindar exclaims:

Both depict the Spartans as both the most musical and the most warlike people.

said the Spartan poet. Not without reason, before the battle, the king sacrificed to the Muses - in order, it seems to me, that the soldiers, remembering the upbringing they received and the sentence that awaits them, boldly walked towards danger and performed feats worthy of being preserved in speeches and songs.

22. During the war, the rules of behavior for young people were made less severe: they were allowed to take care of their hair, decorate their weapons and clothes, mentors rejoiced at seeing them like war horses that proudly and impatiently dance, snort and rush into battle. Therefore, although the boys began to look after their hair as soon as they were children, they especially diligently anointed and combed it on the eve of danger, remembering the words of Lycurgus about hair, that they make beautiful hair even more plausible, and ugly - even more terrible. On campaigns, gymnastic exercises became less strenuous and tiring, and in general at this time the young men were asked less strictly than usual, so that on the whole earth for the Spartans alone, the war turned out to be a rest from preparation for it.

When the construction of the battle line ended, the king, in front of the enemy, sacrificed a goat and gave a sign to everyone to crown himself with wreaths, and the flutists ordered Kastorov to play the tune and at the same time he tightened the marching paean. The spectacle was majestic and formidable: the warriors advanced, stepping in accordance with the rhythm of the flute, firmly holding the line, not experiencing the slightest turmoil - calm and joyful, and their song led. In such a state of mind, probably, neither fear nor anger has power over a person; unshakable steadfastness, hope and courage, as if bestowed by the presence of a deity, gain the upper hand. The king went to the enemy, surrounded by those of his people who deserved the wreath by winning the competition. It is said that at the Olympic Games one Laconian was given a large bribe, but he refused the money and, having gathered all his strength, defeated the enemy. Then someone said to him: “What is the benefit to you, Spartan, from this victory?” “I will take a place in front of the king when I go into battle,” the winner replied smiling.

The Spartans pursued the defeated enemy only as much as was necessary to secure victory for themselves, and then immediately returned, considering it ignoble and contrary to the Greek custom to destroy and exterminate those who stopped the fight. This was not only beautiful and generous, but also beneficial: their enemies, knowing that they killed those who resisted, but spared those who retreated, found it more useful for themselves to flee than to remain in place.

23. Lycurgus himself, according to the sophist Hippias, was a man of proven militancy, a participant in many campaigns. Philostephan even attributes to him the division of the cavalry into ulama. Ulam under Lycurgus was a detachment of fifty horsemen, built in a quadrangle. But Demetrius of Phaler writes that Lycurgus did not touch on military affairs at all and established a new political system during the time of peace. And it is true that the idea of ​​the Olympic Truce could, apparently, belong only to a meek and peace-loving person. However, as Hermippus says, others argue that at first Lycurgus had nothing to do with all this and had nothing to do with Ifit, but arrived at the games by accident. There he heard a voice behind him: someone reproved him and marveled that he did not incline fellow citizens to take part in this general celebration. Lycurgus turned around, but the speaker was nowhere to be seen, and, considering what had happened a divine sign, he then only joined Ifit; together they made the festival more magnificent and glorious, gave it a reliable foundation.

24. The upbringing of the Spartan continued into adulthood. No one was allowed to live the way he wanted: as if in a military camp, everyone in the city obeyed the strictly established rules and did what was assigned to them from the affairs useful to the state. Considering themselves belonging not to themselves, but to the fatherland, the Spartans, if they had no other assignments, either watched the children and taught them something useful, or themselves learned from the old people. After all, one of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to his fellow citizens was the abundance of leisure. They were strictly forbidden to engage in craft, and in the pursuit of profit, which required endless labor and trouble, there was no need, since wealth had lost all its value and attractive power. The helots cultivated their land, paying the appointed tax. One Spartan, being in Athens and having heard that someone was condemned for idleness and the condemned returned in deep despondency, accompanied by friends, also saddened and distressed, asked those around him to show him a man to whom freedom was imputed as a crime. That's how low and slavish they considered all manual labor, all sorts of worries associated with profit! As was to be expected, litigation disappeared along with the coin; and poverty and excessive abundance left Sparta, their place was taken by the equality of prosperity and the serenity of complete simplicity of morals. The Spartans devoted all their free time from military service to round dances, feasts and festivities, hunting, gymnasiums and forests.

25. Those under thirty years of age did not go to the market at all and made the necessary purchases through relatives and lovers. However, even for older people it was considered shameful to constantly push around in the market, and not spend most of the day in gymnasiums and forestry. Gathering there, they sedately talked, not mentioning a word about either profit or trade - the hours flowed in praise of worthy deeds and censures of bad ones, praises, combined with jokes and ridicule, which inconspicuously exhorted and corrected. And Lycurgus himself was not overly harsh: according to Sosibius, he erected a small statue of the god of Laughter, wishing that a joke, appropriate and timely, would come to feasts and similar meetings and become a kind of seasoning for the labors of every day.

In a word, he taught fellow citizens that they did not want and did not know how to live apart, but, like bees, were inextricably linked with society, everyone was closely united around their leader and wholly belonged to the fatherland, almost completely forgetting about themselves. in a fit of inspiration and love for glory. This way of thinking can be discerned in some of the sayings of the Spartans. So Pedarit, not chosen among the three hundred, went away, beaming and rejoicing that there were three hundred better people in the city than he. Polystratides and his comrades arrived as an embassy to the commanders of the Persian king; they inquired whether they were on private business or on behalf of the state. “If everything goes well - on behalf of the state, if not - on a private matter,” answered Polystratides. Several citizens of Amphipolis, who ended up in Lacedaemon, came to Argyleonida, the mother of Brasidas, and she asked them how Brasidas died and whether his death was worthy of Sparta. They began to extol the deceased and declared that there was no second such husband in Sparta. "Don't talk like that, strangers," said the mother. “It is true that Brasidas was a worthy man, but there are many more remarkable ones in Lacedaemon.”

26. As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decreed that instead of the dead, each time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desirable! And it’s true, because it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or the strongest among the strong, but about who among the kind and wise is the wisest and best, who, as a reward for virtue, will receive the supreme one until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable, - power in the state, will be master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest blessings. The decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the Assembly. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next applicant had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others. With a wreath on his head, he went around the temples of the gods. He was followed by a huge crowd of young people, praising and glorifying the new elder, and women who sang of his valor and proclaimed his fate happy. Each of his relatives asked him to eat, saying that the state was honoring him with this treat. Having finished his rounds, he went to a common meal; the established order was not violated in any way, except for the fact that the elder received the second share, but did not eat it, but put it off. His relatives stood at the door, after dinner he called one of them, whom he respected more than others, and, handing her this share, said that he was giving away the award that he himself had received, after which the rest of the women, glorifying this chosen one, escorted her home.

27. No less remarkable were the laws concerning burial. Firstly, having done away with all kinds of superstition, Lycurgus did not interfere with burying the dead in the city itself and placing tombstones near the temples, so that young people, getting used to their appearance, would not be afraid of death and would not consider themselves defiled by touching a dead body or stepping over the grave. Then he forbade anything to be buried with the deceased: the body was to be interred wrapped in a purple cloak and entwined with olive greens. It was forbidden to inscribe the name of the deceased on the gravestone; Lycurgus made an exception only for the fallen in the war and for the priestesses. He set a short period of mourning - eleven days; on the twelfth, a sacrifice was to be made to Demeter and an end to sorrow. Lycurgus did not tolerate indifference and inner relaxation, he somehow combined the necessary human actions with the assertion of moral perfection and the condemnation of vice; he filled the city with many instructive examples, among which the Spartans grew up, which they inevitably encountered at every step, and which, serving as a role model, led them along the path of good.

For the same reason, he did not allow to travel outside the country and travel, fearing that foreign customs would not be brought to Lacedaemon, they would not begin to imitate someone else's, disorderly life and a different form of government. Moreover, he drove out those who flocked to Sparta without any need or definite purpose - not, as Thucydides claims, that he was afraid that they would not adopt the system he had established and would not learn valor, but rather, fearing how if these people themselves did not turn into teachers of vice. After all, along with strangers, other people's speeches invariably appear, and new speeches lead to new judgments, from which many feelings and desires are inevitably born, as opposed to the existing state system as wrong sounds are to a well-coordinated song. Therefore, Lycurgus considered it necessary to guard the city more vigilantly from bad morals than from an infection that could be brought from outside.

28. In all this there is not a trace of injustice, for which some blame the laws of Lycurgus, believing that they instruct quite enough in courage, but too little in justice. And only the so-called cryptia, if only she, as Aristotle claims, is a Lycurgus innovation, could inspire some, including Plato, with a similar judgment about the Spartan state and its legislator. That's how cryptos happened. From time to time, the authorities sent young people, who were considered the most intelligent, to roam the neighborhood, providing them with only short swords and the most necessary food supply. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads. Often they went around the fields, killing the strongest and strongest helots. Thucydides in the Peloponnesian War tells that the Spartans chose helots who distinguished themselves by their special courage, and those with wreaths on their heads, as if preparing to gain freedom, visited temple after temple, but a little later they all disappeared - and there were more than two thousand of them - and neither then nor afterwards could anyone say how they died. Aristotle specifically dwells on the fact that the ephors, taking power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. In general, the Spartans treated them rudely and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing cheesy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding the entertainments befitting a free man. Even much later, during the campaign of the Thebans in Laconia, when the captured helots were ordered to sing something from Terpander, Alkman, or the Laconian Spendont, they refused, because the gentlemen did not like it. So, whoever says that in Lacedaemon the free man is free to the end, and the slave is completely enslaved, he correctly identified the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictnesses appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after a great earthquake, when, as they say, the helots, having set out together with the Messenians, terribly outraged throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the city. I, at least, cannot attribute such a vile deed as cryptia to Lycurgus, having formed an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe character of this man from that meekness and justice, which otherwise mark his whole life and are confirmed by the testimony of a deity.

29. When the most important of the laws took root in the customs of the Spartans and the political system was strong enough to continue to be maintained by its own forces, then, like the god of Plato, who rejoiced at the sight of the emerging universe, which first set in motion, Lycurgus was delighted and delighted with the beauty and grandeur of his legislation, launched in the course and already coming in his own way, and wished to ensure him immortality, inviolability in the future - since this is accessible to human understanding. So, having gathered the National Assembly, he declared that now everything has been given the proper measure, that what has been done is enough for the prosperity and glory of the state, but there remains one more question, the most important and basic, the essence of which he will reveal to his fellow citizens only after he asks God for advice. . Let them strictly adhere to the published laws and do not change anything in them until he returns from Delphi, but when he returns, he will do what God commands. Everyone agreed and asked him to leave as soon as possible, and, having taken an oath from the kings and elders, and then from other citizens that, until Lycurgus returned, they would remain faithful to the existing system, he left for Delphi. Having arrived at the oracle and made a sacrifice to God, Lycurgus asked if his laws were good and sufficient to lead the city to prosperity and moral perfection. God answered that the laws were good, and the city would be at the height of its glory if it did not change the Lycurgus system. Having written down the prophecy, Lycurgus sent it to Sparta, and himself, again sacrificing to God and saying goodbye to his friends and son, decided not to release his fellow citizens from their oath and to die voluntarily for this: he had reached the age when you can still continue life, but you can also to leave her, especially since all his plans came, apparently, to a happy conclusion. He starved himself to death, firmly believing that even the death of a statesman should not be useless for the state, that his very death should not be a weak-willed submission, but a moral deed. For him, he reasoned, after the most beautiful deeds that he accomplished, this death will truly be the crown of good luck and happiness, and for fellow citizens who have sworn to remain faithful to his institutions until he returns, it will be the guardian of those blessings that he delivered to them during his lifetime. And Lycurgus was not mistaken in his calculations. Sparta excelled all Greek cities in goodness and glory for five hundred years, while observing the laws of Lycurgus, in which none of the fourteen kings who ruled after him, up to Agida, the son of Archidamus, changed anything. The creation of the post of ephors served not to weaken, but to strengthen the state: it was only at first glance a concession to the people, but in fact it strengthened the aristocracy.

30. In the reign of Agida, the coin first penetrated into Sparta, and with it greed and money-grubbing returned, and all through the fault of Lysander. Personally, he was inaccessible to the power of money, but he filled the fatherland with a passion for wealth and infected with luxury, bringing - bypassing the laws of Lycurgus - gold and silver from the war. Before, however, when these laws remained in force, Sparta led the life not of an ordinary city, but rather of a highly experienced and wise husband, or, more precisely, like Hercules in the songs of poets goes around the universe with only a club and a skin on his shoulders, punishing unjust and bloodthirsty tyrants, just as Lacedaemon, with the help of a wandering stick and a simple cloak, dominated Greece, voluntarily and willingly obeying him, overthrew lawless and tyrannical power, settled disputes between the warring, calmed the rebels, often without even moving his shield, but sending one the only ambassador, whose orders everyone immediately obeyed, like bees, when the queen appears, they gather in unison and take their place. Such were the prosperity and justice that flourished in the city.

All the more, some writers amaze me, claiming that the Spartans perfectly carried out orders, but they themselves did not know how to order, and referring with approval to King Theopompus, who, in response to someone’s words, that de Sparta is kept by the firm power of kings, said: “ No, or rather, the obedience of citizens. People do not long obey those who cannot rule, and obedience is an art taught by a ruler. Whoever leads well, they follow well, and just as the skill of a horse tamer is to make a horse meek and meek, so the king’s task is to inspire humility, while the Lacedaemonians inspired the rest not only humility, but also a desire to obey. Well, yes, because they were asked not for ships, not for money, not for hoplites, but only for a Spartan commander and, having received, they met him with respect and fear, like the Sicilians of Gylippus, the inhabitants of Chalkis - Brasida, and the entire Greek population of Asia - Lysandra, Kallikratida and Agesilaus. These commanders were called the rulers and mentors of the peoples and authorities of the whole earth, and the state of the Spartans was looked upon as an uncle, a teacher of a decent life and wise administration. This, apparently, is jokingly hinted at by Stratonicus, proposing a law according to which the Athenians are charged with the duty of celebrating the sacraments and organizing processions, the Eleans - to be judges at the games, since in these studies they know no equal, and if one or the other in what guilty - flog the Lacedaemonians. But this, of course, is a mischievous mockery, nothing more. But Aeschines, a follower of Socrates, seeing how the Thebans boast and boast of their victory at Leuctra, noticed that they are no different from the boys who rejoice, puffing up their uncle.

31. However, this was not the main goal of Lycurgus - he did not at all strive to put his city at the head of a huge number of others, but, believing that the well-being of both an individual and a whole state is a consequence of moral height and internal harmony, he directed everything towards the Spartans remained free as long as possible, independent and prudent. On the same foundations, Plato, Diogenes, Zeno, and in general everyone who spoke about this and whose works gained praise built their state. But after them, only writings and speeches remained, and Lycurgus, not in writings and not in speeches, but in fact, created a state that had no equal and no, showing the eyes of those who do not believe in the existence of a true sage, a whole city, devoted to philosophy. It is quite understandable that he surpasses in glory all the Greeks who have ever acted in the public arena. That is why Aristotle claims that Lycurgus did not receive in Lacedaemon everything that is due to him by right, although the honors rendered by the Spartans to their legislator are extremely great: a temple was erected to him and sacrifices are made annually, as to a god. It is said that when the remains of Lycurgus were transferred to their homeland, lightning struck the tomb. Subsequently, this did not fall to the lot of any of the famous people, except for Euripides, who died and was buried in Macedonia near Aretusa. With him alone, after death, the same thing happened that once - with the purest and most amiable man to the gods, and in the eyes of the passionate admirers of Euripides - this is a great sign that serves as a justification for their ardent commitment.

Lycurgus died, according to some writers, in Kirra, Apollothemis reports that shortly before his death he arrived in Elis, Timaeus and Aristoxenus - that the last days of his life were spent in Crete; Aristoxenus writes that the Cretans even show his tomb near Pergamon by the high road.

He left, they say, the only son named Antior, who died childless, and the line of Lycurgus ceased. But friends and relatives, in order to continue his labors, established a society that existed for a long time, and the days on which they met were called Lycurgides. An aristocrat, the son of Hipparchus, says that when Lycurgus died in Crete, those who received him at home burned the body and scattered the ashes over the sea; such was his request, for he was afraid that if his remains were transferred to Lacedaemon, they would not say that, they say, Lycurgus had returned and the oath had lost its force, and under this pretext they would not make changes to the system he created.

This word means “contract”, as well as “saying of the oracle”.).... - The chant, under which the Spartans went into battle, is also mentioned by Xenophon (Numa, 12 Lys., 19. Sparta was the only state in Greece that cared about preserving military secrets.

…flog the Lacedaemonians.- That is, the Spartans, as educators and mentors of all Greece, are responsible for the mistakes of their students.

Pergamon- of course, not the citadel of Troy and not a city in Asia Minor, but the city of the same name on the northwestern tip of Crete.