An essential difference between the culture of the Renaissance is humanism in its new European understanding. AT ancient era humanism was assessed as the quality of a well-mannered and educated person, elevating him above the uneducated. In the medieval era, humanism was understood as the qualities of the sinful, vicious nature of man, which placed him much lower than the angels and God. During the Renaissance, human nature began to be evaluated optimistically; a person is endowed with a divine mind, is able to act autonomously, without the guardianship of the church; sins and vices began to be perceived positively, as an inevitable consequence of life experimentation.
The humanism of the Renaissance is a set of teachings that represent a thinking person who knows how not only to go with the flow, but also able to resist and act independently. Its main direction is interest in each individual, faith in his spiritual and physical capabilities. It was the humanism of the Renaissance that proclaimed other principles of personality formation. A person in this teaching is presented as a creator, he is individual and not passive in his thoughts and actions.
The new philosophical direction took ancient culture, art and literature as a basis, focusing on the spiritual essence of man. In the Middle Ages, science and culture were the prerogative of the church, which was very reluctant to share its accumulated knowledge and achievements. Renaissance humanism lifted this veil. First in Italy, and then gradually throughout Europe, universities began to form, in which, along with theosophical sciences, secular subjects began to be studied: mathematics, anatomy, music and the humanities.
The most famous humanists of the Italian Renaissance are: Pico della Mirandola, Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francesco Petrarca, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michelangelo Buanarotti. England gave the world such giants as William Shakespeare, Francis Bacon. France gave Michel de Montaigne and François Rabelais, Spain gave Miguel de Cervantes, and Germany gave Erasmus of Rotterdam, Albrecht Dürer and Ulrich von Hutten. All these great scientists, educators, artists forever turned the worldview and consciousness of people and showed a reasonable, beautiful soul and thinking person. It is to them that all subsequent generations are indebted for the gifted opportunity to look at the world differently.
Humanism in the Renaissance put the virtues that a person possesses at the head of everything, and demonstrated the possibility of their development in a person (independently or with the participation of mentors). Anthropocentrism differs from humanism in that a person, according to this trend, is the center of the universe, and everything that is located around should serve him. Many Christians, armed with this doctrine, proclaimed man the highest creature, while heaping on him the greatest burden of responsibility.
Anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance are very different from each other, so you need to be able to clearly distinguish between these concepts. An anthropocentrist is a person who is a consumer. He believes that everyone owes him something, he justifies exploitation and does not think about the destruction of wildlife. Its main principle is the following: a person has the right to live as he wants, and the rest of the world is obliged to serve him. The anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance were further used by many philosophers and scientists such as Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Hobbes and others. These two definitions have been repeatedly taken as a basis in various schools and trends. The most significant, of course, for all subsequent generations was humanism, which in the Renaissance sowed the seeds of goodness, enlightenment and reason, which even today, several centuries later, we consider the most important for a reasonable person.
The place of man in the world was very accurately indicated by the Italian philosopher and humanist of that time, Pico della Mirandola, who said that he puts a man in the center of the universe, so that from there it would be convenient for him to survey everything that is in the world. Man, created in the "image and likeness" of God, capable of seeing and perceiving the beauty of the surrounding world, has become the main theme of literature, painting, and sculpture. The creativity of the Renaissance was directed primarily to man. Self-knowledge and self-creation of a person are the main ideas of revival humanism.
The formation and development of the Renaissance culture was a long and uneven process. The culture of the Renaissance was not the property of Italy alone, but in Italy a new culture was born earlier than in other countries, and the path of its development was exceptionally consistent. Italian Renaissance art went through several stages. The first shifts in the visual arts and literature, emerging in the second half of the XIII century - the beginning of the XIV century. received the name Proto-Renaissance - the transitional era between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance itself;
Early Renaissance - the period from the middle of the XIV century to 1475;
Mature, or High, Renaissance - the last quarter of the 15th - the beginning of the 16th century;
Late Renaissance -XVI - beginning of the XVII century.
The brightest, most talented exponents of the Italian Renaissance: Dante Alighieri, Niccolo Machiavelli and Giovanni Boccaccio.
Dante Alighieri- the largest Italian poet, literary critic, thinker, theologian, politician, author of the famous "Divine Comedy". There is very little reliable information about the life of this person; their main source is an artistic autobiography written by him, in which only a certain period is described.
Dante Alighieri was born in Florence, in 1265, on May 26, in a well-born and wealthy family. It is not known where the future poet studied, but he himself considered the education received insufficient, therefore he devoted much time to independent education, in particular, the study of foreign languages, the work of ancient poets, among which he gave special preference to Virgil, considering him his teacher and "leader".
When Dante was only 9 years old, in 1274, an event occurred that became a landmark in his life, including his creative one. At the celebration, his attention was attracted by a peer, a neighbor's daughter - Beatrice Portinari. Ten years later, as a married lady, she became for Dante that beautiful Beatrice, whose image illuminated his whole life and poetry. The book entitled A New Life (1292), in which he spoke in poetic and prose lines about his love for this young woman who died untimely in 1290, is considered the first autobiography in world literature. The book glorified the author, although this was not his first literary experience, he began to write in the 80s.
The death of his beloved woman forced him to go headlong into science, he studied philosophy, astronomy, theology, turned into one of the most educated people of his time, although the baggage of knowledge did not go beyond the medieval tradition based on theology.
In 1295-1296. Dante Alighieri declared himself and as a public, political figure, participated in the work of the city council. In 1300 he was elected a member of the college of six priors that governed Florence. In 1298 he married Gemma Donati, who was his wife until her death, but this woman always played a modest role in his fate.
Active political activity was the reason for the expulsion of Dante Alighieri from Florence. A charge of bribery was brought against Dante, after which he was forced, leaving his wife and children, to leave his native city so as not to return to it ever again. It happened in 1302.
Since that time, Dante constantly wandered around the cities, traveled to other countries. So, it is known that in 1308-1309. he visited Paris, where he participated in open debates organized by the university. The name of Alighieri was twice included in the list of persons subject to amnesty, but both times it was deleted from there. In 1316, he was allowed to return to his native Florence, but on the condition that he publicly admits the wrongness of his views and repents, but the proud poet did not do this.
Since 1316, he settled in Ravenna, where he was invited by Guido da Polenta, the ruler of the city. Here, in the company of his sons, the daughter of his beloved Beatrice, admirers, friends, the last years of the poet passed. It was during the period of exile that Dante wrote a work that glorified him for centuries - "Comedy", to the name of which several centuries later, in 1555, the word "Divine" will be added in the Venetian edition. The beginning of work on the poem dates back to about 1307, and Dante wrote the last of the three parts (“Hell”, “Purgatory” and “Paradise”) shortly before his death.
He dreamed of becoming famous with the help of the Comedy and returning home with honors, but his hopes were not destined to come true. Having fallen ill with malaria, returning from a trip to Venice on a diplomatic mission, the poet died on September 14, 1321. The Divine Comedy was the pinnacle of his literary activity, but his rich and versatile creative heritage is not limited to it alone and includes, in particular, philosophical treatises, journalism, and lyrics.
Niccolo Machiavelli- an outstanding Italian politician, thinker, historian, Renaissance writer, poet, military theorist. He was born on May 3, 1469 in an impoverished noble family.
The political biography of Niccolo Machiavelli dates back to 1498, he acts as secretary of the Second Chancellery, in the same year he was elected secretary of the Council of Ten, which was to be responsible for the military sphere and diplomacy.
In 1512, Machiavelli had to resign because of the Medici who came to power, he was expelled from the city as a republican for a year, and the next year he was arrested as an alleged participant in the conspiracy and tortured. Machiavelli firmly defended his innocence, in the end he was pardoned and sent to the small estate of Sant'Andrea.
The most intense period of his creative biography is connected with his stay in the estate. Here he writes a number of works devoted to political history, the theory of military affairs, and philosophy. So, at the end of 1513, the treatise "The Sovereign" was written (published in 1532), thanks to which the name of its author entered the world history forever. In this essay, Machiavelli argued that the end justifies the means, but at the same time, the “new sovereign” should pursue goals related not to personal interests, but to the common good - in this case, it was about uniting politically fragmented Italy into a single strong state.
The works of Machiavelli were received with enthusiasm by his contemporaries and enjoyed great success. By his last name, a system of politics was called Machiavellianism, which does not neglect any of the ways to achieve the goal, regardless of their compliance with moral standards. In addition to the “Sovereign”, famous throughout the world, the most significant works of Machiavelli are considered to be “Treatise on the Art of War” (1521), “Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius” (1531), and “History of Florence” (1532). He began writing this work in 1520, when he was summoned to Florence and appointed historiographer. The customer of the "History" was Pope Clement VII. In addition, being a multi-talented person, Niccolo Machiavelli wrote works of art - short stories, songs, sonnets, poems, etc. In 1559, his writings were included by the Catholic Church in the "Index of Forbidden Books".
In the last years of his life, Machiavelli made many unsuccessful attempts to return to stormy political activity. In the spring of 1527, his candidacy for the post of Chancellor of the Florentine Republic was rejected. And in the summer, on June 22 of the same year, while in his native village, the outstanding thinker died. The place of his burial has not been established; in the Florentine church of Santa Croce there is a cenotaph in his honor.
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Task 2. Abstract presentation of the topic
ITALIAN HUMANISM OF THE RENAISSANCE
2. Early Italian humanism (F. Petrarch, G. Boccacho, C. Salutati)
4. Ethical teaching of L. Valla
1. Cultural and historical prerequisites for the formation of humanistic ideology in Italy in the 14th-16th centuries
humanism italian ideology mirandola
A powerful surge in the cultural life of many European countries, which occurred mainly in the XIV-XVI centuries, and in Italy began in the XIII century, is commonly called the Renaissance.
Renaissance - Renaissance, one of the brightest in the history of mankind. In the 16th century, the culture of the Renaissance became a pan-European phenomenon - primarily a Western European one. This period was marked by an unprecedented creative upsurge in the field of art, literature, science, socio-political thought. This is the time of ingenious creators, the time of a decisive exit of a person beyond the boundaries of traditional society, the time of affirming the individualistic orientation of a person, the time of sharp contrasts and contradictions. The Renaissance gave the world dozens of names that make up the glory of world culture: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Dante, Petrarch, Michel Montaigne and many others.
The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture, humanistic consciousness. Under similar conditions, similar processes developed in art, philosophy, science, morality, social psychology and ideology. The colossal achievements of spiritual culture in this era of the history of Italy and Europe are widely known, they have become the subject of the closest attention, admiration, study, comprehension, meaning the all-round progress of man, reflected in this culture. The special significance of a person, his originality, his creative activity is revealed. The human person, as it were, takes over the function of God and is able to master both himself and nature. A person personifies creativity, be it art, politics, religion, and even a technical invention. The Renaissance man seeks to maximize the field of his daring.
Also a significant event of the XIV century. in Italy there was the emergence of studia humanitatis, which means "humanitarian knowledge". From here comes the concept of "humanism" (Latin humanist - humane), in the general sense of the word means the desire for humanity, to create conditions for a life worthy of a person. Humanism is defined as an ideological movement that was formed during the Renaissance and whose content is the study and dissemination of ancient languages, literature, art and culture. Humanism encompasses views and ideas that emphasize respect for the rights and dignity of a person, his desire for self-affirmation, freedom and happiness. The significance of humanists must be considered not only in connection with the development of philosophical thinking, but also with research work on the study of old texts. Therefore, Italian humanism is characterized as literary, philological.
Renaissance humanists were those who devoted themselves to the study and teaching of the studia humanitatis. Humanists were the creators of a new system of knowledge, in the center of which stood man and his destiny. Praising the mind of man, humanists saw in the rational human nature the image of God, what God endowed man with, so that man would improve and improve his earthly life.
The ideology of humanism carried a new attitude towards the world and man himself. Contrary to the dominant teaching of the Church in previous centuries about earthly life as sinful and joyless, humanists discovered the multi-colored world of reality in all its living concrete diversity.
An important feature of the ideology of humanism was individualism. Humanists show a passionate interest in the inner world of a person, in the individual originality of his feelings and experiences. Humanism proclaimed the greatness of man, the power of his mind, his ability to improve himself.
Humanists showed great interest in culture Ancient Greece and Rome. In this culture, they were attracted by its secular nature, life-affirming orientation. She opened the humanist world of beauty and had a huge impact on all areas of Renaissance art.
Humanists were also interested in the problems of ethics. Since the new ideology meant a reassessment of all human actions, humanists were concerned about the behavior of man in society.
The creators of the humanistic ideology were scientists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, artists, sculptors, architects, and writers. They formed a new social layer - the intelligentsia. This category of people engaged in mental labor played an important role in public life that time. Invention in the middle of the XV century. book printing made the works of the humanists accessible to a wider circle of educated people and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the ideas of the Renaissance. New ideas embodied in the images of literature and art had a special power of influence.
A person can achieve perfection not by virtue of redemption and special divine grace, but by his own mind and will, aimed at the maximum disclosure of all his natural abilities. The desire for self-expression, the desire to go beyond the limits of the possible were characteristic of many people of the Renaissance. This massive surge of energy in many ways gave rise to the phenomenon of renaissance culture.
In the humanism of Italy, two directions are distinguished: one of them gravitates in meaning to civil topics (power-ruler-citizen-man) and, because of this, can conditionally be called civil: the other takes as a basis a person as a value in itself and, therefore, can be attributed to universal humanism.
Humanists were sure that a person can become better, able to change himself and thereby affect social life as a whole.
2. Early Italian humanism (F. Petrarch, G. Boccaccio, C. Salutati)
The culture of the Italian Renaissance gave the world a poet, a humanist franchesko Petrarch(1304-1374). The great poet and thinker, the first humanist and the first man of the Renaissance, Francesco Petrarca was born far from his native city of Florence in the city of Arezzo, since his father, a wealthy Florentine notary who belonged to the White Guelph party, was expelled from Florence in 1302 and was forced to seek shelter in a foreign land. In 1312, Petrarch and his family came to Provence and settled near Avignon, which, as you know, was the papal capital at that time. It so happened that Petrarch himself spent in Avignon best years life and moved to his homeland in Italy only at its end. Petrarch studied at two universities - in Montpellier and Bologna, where he studied law, but was not going to become a lawyer.
Petrarch spent many years in the south of France (in Avignon since 1326) and Vaucluse (a picturesque valley near Avignon), where he spent four years in complete solitude, indulging in the reading of ancient authors. Vaucluse - the heyday of his work, almost all of his works were written here, such as, for example, "The Life of Famous Men" - biographies of the heroes of Antiquity, starting with Romulus; Latin poem "Africa", for which on April 8, 1341 on the Capitol Hill he was declared "The Great Poet and Historian of Italy."
The ideological dominant creativity of Petrarch was the love of the ancients, Petrarch was the best connoisseur of ancient literature, poetry, philosophy, history and mythology among his contemporaries. He sought to liken his life to the ancient image, considering himself the successor of the poets of antiquity and finding his age corrupted, he sought refuge in antiquity. Studies in antiquity absorbed the lion's share of his time. He managed to collect a very valuable library of ancient manuscripts (it included many works, more than thirty ancient authors), he was their first textual critic and commentator and was able to lay the foundations of the Renaissance classical philology. In general, the efforts of Petrarch laid the foundation for the process of restoring successive ties with antiquity, characteristic of the culture of the Renaissance.
Petrarch was the first to express the basic principles of humanism and the first to almost completely subordinate his life to literature and philosophy, he was engaged exclusively in mental work. He laid the foundations of a new humanistic ethics, the main principle of which was the achievement moral ideal through self-knowledge, as well as education, the meaning of which Petrarch saw in the broad mastery of the cultural experience of mankind. In his ethics, one of the basic concepts was the term "humanitas" (human nature, spiritual culture). It was he who formed the basis for building a new humanistic culture.
Petrarch believed that the main dignity that elevates a person above the crowd is not his noble origin, but high education, science, poetry, which gives a person his "humanity". In one of the letters, he wrote that “The Lord created many very amazing things ... but the most amazing of all that he created on earth - man". This idea of a man with a powerful mind, and formed the basis of humanism.
Petrarch's younger contemporary was Giovanni Boccaccio. Together with him, he became the great founder of the humanistic culture of the European Renaissance.
GiovanniBoccaccio(1313-1375) an outstanding Italian humanist, philologist, poet, prose writer. Born in Paris, but throughout his adult life he was associated with such cultural centers of the Italian Renaissance as Naples and Florence. In Naples he spent the best years of his life, here he studied canon law and commerce, but his main passion was poetry.
The most famous and significant work of Boccaccio, the pinnacle of his work is the collection of short stories "Decameron" (translated into Russian means "Ten Days"; the Greek title of this work was essentially a tribute to the Greek language, which Boccaccio mastered one of the first among humanists) created at the end 40s early 50s The novels were popular among contemporaries and were a huge success. In his short stories, Giovanni Boccaccio came up with a bold secular concept of man and expressed a number of purely humanistic ideas. The nobility of a person (according to Giovanni) is rooted not in nobility and wealth, but in moral perfection and valor.
Along with the outstanding poets of antiquity, Boccaccio revered Dante, who truly brought dead poetry back to life, highly valued Petrarch's book of songs. He saw in Dante and Petrarch the creators of the national Italian language and literature, the development of which he himself contributed to with the short stories of the Decameron.
Boccaccio boldly proclaimed a break with hypocritical church morality, rehabilitated the sensual beginning of human nature, emphasized the value of individuality, the importance of the valiant deeds of the individual, as opposed to the inherited nobility of the family.
Boccaccio was also known as a philologist. An important contribution of Boccaccio to the formation of the culture of the Renaissance was his Latin work "Genealogy of the Pagan Gods" - a philological work, which was a kind of code of ancient myths, in which the author built a kind of pantheon of gods and heroes of ancient mythology. In general, Boccaccio's "Genealogy" became the beginning of a humanistic understanding of ancient mythology from the standpoint of new philology.
Petrarch and Boccaccio were more than their contemporaries: they were united by belonging to almost the same social and cultural environment, common philological hobbies and artistic interests, numerous analogies in their biography and work, and in the second half of their lives - a deep friendship, accompanied by a very strong influence of Petrarch on Boccaccio who loved and honored the founder of Italian humanism as a teacher and elder brother.
The work of the founders of the new culture was continued by their younger contemporary and follower ColuccioFireworkati(1331-1406). A representative of an old Tuscan knightly family, a lawyer by education (he graduated from the faculty in Bologna), Salutati, from 1375 until the end of his days, served as chancellor of the Florentine Republic. follower of Petrarch. The author of numerous works - treatises, poems, letters, in which he developed the program of the Renaissance culture. He believed that true knowledge is not given by scholasticism, but by ancient wisdom.
The main merit of Salutati is the establishment of humanistic education as the basis for the development of a new culture. He brought to the fore a complex of humanitarian disciplines: philology, history, pedagogy, rhetoric, ethics, designed to form a new person with humanism, which he interpreted as the ability to do virtuous deeds and achieve learning. Humanism is not inherent in a person from birth, this property is acquired as a result of hard work. According to Salutati, although earthly life was given to people by God, their own task is to build it in accordance with the natural laws of goodness and justice.
Salutati made a significant contribution to the development of humanistic ethics, his writings “On the River, Fate and Chance”, “On Life in the World and Monasticism”, “On the Labors of Hercules” and many letters are devoted to the problems of morality. Considering, in accordance with Christian tradition, the earthly vale as the kingdom of the devil, at the same time he called for an active struggle against evil, he saw the main destiny of man in building a kingdom of goodness and justice on earth with his own efforts.
3. "Civil Humanism" L. Bruni
The founder of civil humanism was Leonardo Bruni, or, as he was often called by his place of birth, Leonardo Aretino (1370 or 1374-1444), a student of Salutati, just like him, the chancellor of the Florentine Republic. He developed the concept of republicanism, which was based on the principles of equality, freedom and democracy. Freedom and equality meant freedom from tyranny, equality of all before the law. Bruni believed that only in conditions of freedom, equality, justice can a perfect citizen be formed.
An excellent connoisseur of ancient languages, he translated the works of Aristotle from Greek into Latin. He wrote a number of works on moral and pedagogical topics, as well as an extensive, documented History of the Florentine People, which laid the foundations of Renaissance historiography. Bruni left an extensive creative heritage, covering history, moral philosophy, political theory, pedagogy, and philology.
A staunch champion of the republican system, a passionate patriot of Florence, Bruni became a prominent spokesman for the ideas of civil humanism, a prominent theorist of humanistic ethics and pedagogy. His political views are characterized by a certain evolution. In one of his early works - "Praise of the city of Florence" - he substantiates the strength of the republican order in Florence, making it the center of republicanism in modern Italy.
Leonardo Bruni proceeded from the thesis ancient philosophy about a person as a social being, who most fully reveals himself in interaction with other people. Hence the special attention of the humanist to the problem of the relationship between the individual and society. Bruni solves it unequivocally, social harmony requires the subordination of personal interest to the common good.
He considered the best state system to be a republic based on the principles of freedom, equality and justice.
The moral behavior of the individual and various social groups should proceed from the interests of society as a whole - such is the leitmotif of the ethical teachings of Bruni, and later of the entire direction of civil humanism.
Civil humanism, which began its journey in Florence at the end of the 14th century - the first decades of the 15th century, unconditionally proclaimed a new ideal of man, the Florentine humanists put forward the ideal of a citizen of the republic, full of social activity, which rose very widely - from family economic affairs to participation in government. It was the ideal of secular ethics, based on the philosophical tradition of antiquity.
Bruni is considered one of the most prominent theorists of humanistic pedagogy. Science - philosophy, ethics and especially politics - must serve society. This is how Bruni understood the duty of a scientist and the meaning of all humanistic education.
4. Ethical teaching of L. Valla
The most famous humanist philosopher after Petrarch can be called Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457). A bright thinker who made an invaluable contribution to the humanistic science of his time. Italian humanist, founder of historical and philological criticism, representative of the historical school of scholars. A remarkable philologist, one of the founders of the method of comparative analysis. Considering natural everything that serves self-preservation, the happiness of man.
Lorenzo Valla belongs to a generation of Italian humanists who entered into a creative life, during the period of humanism's assimilation of new spheres of ideological life.
The years of Valla's youth passed near the Roman Curia. At the age of 24, Valla tried to get a seat in the papal curia, but due to his youth, his candidacy was rejected. In 1431 Valla accepted the chair of rhetoric at the University of Pavia, where, in addition to teaching, he began systematic research in the field of philology, rhetoric, and philosophy.
The doctrine of man occupies a central place in his philosophy. The philosophy of Lorenzo Valla sees its ideal in the figure of Epicurus. Developing the teachings of Epicurus, Valla tries to justify the full value of human life, the spiritual content of which, in his opinion, is impossible without bodily well-being. In his teaching, Valla saw a support for substantiating a new humanistic ethics, which contains the principle of pleasure, which Valla reduces to the pleasures of the soul and body.
Valla understands pleasure differently from the historical Epicurus, who was not an Epicurean in the modern sense of the word. Valla understands epicureanism precisely as a preference for enjoyment over all other human values, and sometimes even regrets that a person has only five senses, and not 50 or 500, in order to receive pleasure in a much larger volume.
Walla became the founder of the ethical doctrine, the source of which was the ethics of Epicurus. The basis of all reflections of Lorenzo Valla on the topics of ethics is the idea of the desire of all living things for self-preservation and the exclusion of suffering. Life is the highest value, and therefore the whole process of life should be a desire for pleasure and goodness, as a feeling of joy. Walla refuses to consider man in the spirit of the Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, according to which man was considered to be involved in God through the dual nature of the soul as unreasonable and rational, mortal and immortal. Valla believes that the soul is something unified, although he singles out such functions as memory, reason, and will. All the faculties of the soul are recognized in the senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Walla is a sensualist, he considers sensations the only source of knowledge of the world and moral activity. Sensations are also of primary importance in his ethical teaching. He is trying to comprehend such feelings as gratitude, affection for a person, pleasure, anger, greed, fear, revenge, cruelty, etc. Pleasure is defined by Walla as “a good that is sought everywhere and which consists in the pleasure of the soul and body”, and it is pleasure that is declared the "highest good." For Valla, the highest good is any pleasure that a person receives in his life, if it is his life goal. In the works of Valla there are such concepts as "personal benefit", "personal interest". It is on them that the relations of people in society are built.
Walla is a true representative of the era of humanism. With his critical works, Valla made a significant contribution to rethinking the medieval worldview and creating the prerequisites for New European knowledge and self-awareness. In his work, he embodied the ideal of a free thinker, for whom his own mind is the main authority, and the inquisitiveness of a restless mind is the stimulus for creativity.
5. Humanistic concept of L.B. Alberti
Italian scientist, humanist, writer, one of the founders of the new European architecture and a leading theorist of Renaissance art.
Born in Genoa, he came from a noble Florentine family in exile in Genoa. He studied liberal arts in Padua and law in Bologna. In 1428 graduated from the University of Bologna, after which he received the post of secretary from Cardinal Albergati, and in 1432 - a place in the papal office, where he served for more than thirty years. In 1462 Alberti left service in the Curia and lived in Rome until his death.
Leon Batista is a prime example of the universality of Renaissance man's interests. Versatile gifted and educated, he made a major contribution to the theory of art and architecture, literature and architecture, was fond of the problems of ethics and pedagogy, studied mathematics and cartography. The central place in Alberti's aesthetics belongs to the doctrine of harmony as an important natural pattern, which a person must not only take into account in all his activities, but also extend his own creativity to different areas of your being. An outstanding thinker and talented writer created a humanistic doctrine of man.
The ideal person, according to Alberti, harmoniously combines the powers of the mind and will, creative activity and peace of mind. He is wise, guided in his actions by the principles of measure, has a consciousness of his dignity. All these qualities give the image created by Alberti, features of Greatness. His ideal of a harmonious personality had an impact both on the development of humanistic ethics and on Renaissance art, including in the portrait genre. This type of person is embodied in the images of painting, graphics and sculpture in Italy of that time, in the masterpieces of Antonello da Messina, Piero della Francesca and other great masters.
The initial premise of the humanistic concept of Alberti is the inalienable belonging of man to the world of nature. The harmony of man and nature is determined by his ability to cognize the world, to a prudent, striving for good existence. The choice between good and evil depends on the free will of man. The humanist saw the main purpose of the individual in creativity.
Alberti especially highly valued the work of the architect, the organizer of people's lives, the creator excellent conditions their existence. In the creative ability of man, the humanist saw his main difference from the animal world. Work for Alberti is a source of spiritual uplift, material wealth and fame. Only life practice itself reveals the great possibilities inherent in a person. It is in the power of man to reveal these natural abilities and become a full-fledged creator of his own destiny. The abilities of a person, his mind, will, courage help him to survive in the fight against the goddess Fortune. The ethical concept of Alberti is full of faith in the ability of a person to rationally arrange his life, family, society, and state. Alberti united all the potential abilities of a person with the concept of VIRTU (VALOR; ABILITY).
6. The doctrine of human dignity by D. Pico della Mirandola
Pico della Mirandola Giovanni (1463-94) Italian thinker of the Renaissance, a representative of early humanism, a handsome young aristocrat. Contemporaries called Pico "divine", they saw in him the embodiment of the high aspirations of humanistic culture. He struck the imagination of his contemporaries and descendants with his extraordinary early talent and learning.
Pico studied new and ancient languages (in addition to Latin and Greek, also Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldean), striving to capture all the most important and secret of what was accumulated by the spiritual experience of different times and peoples.
While studying at the University of Paris in 1485-86, he got acquainted with numerous texts of Greek, Arabic and Jewish philosophers. Working with these texts served Starting point to develop his own philosophical system.
Pico's philosophical anthropology substantiates the dignity and freedom of man as the sovereign creator of his own self. Absorbing into himself, a person is able to become anything, he is always the result of his own efforts; while retaining the possibility of a new choice, he can never be exhausted by any form of his present existence in the world.
In 1486, the 23-year-old philosopher compiled “900 theses on dialectics, morality, physics, and mathematics for public discussion”, hoping to defend them at a scholarly debate in Rome, in which, according to the author, it was necessary to invite scientists from all over Europe. A commission of theologians, specially created by order of Pope Innocent XIII, classified some of Pico's theses as heretical, and after the author's refusal to recognize the correctness of these accusations, which caused sharp displeasure of the pope, all theses were declared heretical. Pico was summoned to the court of the Inquisition, from the harsh consequences of which he was saved only by the intercession of Lorenzo Medici (Ruler of Florence). The debate did not take place, but the Speech on the Dignity of Man, written for the opening speech to it, made the name of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola widely known in Italy and abroad. Pico's "Speech" became a program in the humanist movement of the late 15th - early 16th centuries.
Pico's work provides a philosophical justification for the dignity of human nature in its new humanistic understanding.
To the man who is being born, the Father gave the seeds and germs of a heterogeneous life, and according to how each one cultivates them, they will grow and bear fruit in him.
Pico wrote about the immeasurable creative possibilities of a person, about the value and uniqueness of the individual, defending the right to free thought, calling for the spiritual development of all people, regardless of origin and social status. Destroying the divine determinism of the Middle Ages, Mirandola released the will of man, rewarding her with freedom worthy of an earthly god.
Task 1. Complete the definition with the appropriate concepts.
1) The broad anti-Catholic and anti-feudal movement in Europe in the 16th century, which laid the foundation for Protestantism, - ...
2) The system of the world, according to which the motionless Earth is the center of the universe (developed in the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy), - ...
3) The idealistic view, according to which all nature is animated, has a psyche, - ...
4) The area of \u200b\u200bphilosophical knowledge, a feature of which is a predominantly speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety, - ...
5) The worldview, the philosophical thinking of the Renaissance, which puts a person, his secular life and activities aimed at achieving happiness in earthly life, at the center of attention and reasoning, - ...
1). The broad anti-Catholic and anti-feudal movement in Europe of the 16th century, which laid the foundation for Protestantism, is the Reformation (from the Latin reformatio of transformation) - a socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th century, which adopted a religious form of struggle against Catholic teachings and the church. This is the first, still immature bourgeois revolution in history.
2) . The system of the world, according to which the motionless Earth is the center of the universe (developed in the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy), is the Geocentric system of the world. The anthropocentric idea of the central position of the Earth in the Universe, which survived until the late Middle Ages, arose in ancient Greek science. According to the geocentric system of the world, the planets, the sun and other celestial bodies revolve around the Earth in orbits that are a complex combination of circular orbits.
3) . The idealistic view, according to which all nature is animated, has a psyche - Panpsychism (Greek pan - everything and psyche - soul) - the idea of the universal animation of nature. The forms of panpsychism are different: from the animism of primitive beliefs to the developed teachings about the soul and psychic reality as the true essence of the world.
4) The area of philosophical knowledge, a feature of which is a predominantly speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety, is Naturphilosophy, a direction of science, scientific thought, and philosophy. The name itself speaks for itself: natura - nature and fiieo and sofia - love of wisdom. Naturphilosophy understands the surrounding world as an indivisible whole, a single organism that develops and wraps itself in a network of logical relationships.
5) . The worldview, the philosophical thinking of the Renaissance, which puts a person, his secular life and activities aimed at achieving happiness in earthly life, at the center of attention and reasoning, is Anthropocentrism (from Greek - man and lat. -centrum - center). Anthropocentrism is one of the most consistent expressions of the point of view of teleology, that is, the attribution to the world outside of natural, external goals. Man was opposed to all other creatures on earth and it was taken for granted that only the interests and needs of man matter, all other creatures have no independent value. This worldview conveys popular expression: "Everything for a person."
Task 3. Fill in the table. nine
The doctrine of God in the history of philosophy
|
Understanding the Absolute |
|||
|
The era of the Middle Ages from X to XV centuries. |
Religious worldview, proceeding from the understanding of absolute being as an infinite divine personality, transcendent to the world, creating it in a free act of will and then disposing of it. |
||
|
Pantheism |
Renaissance |
Religious doctrine of God and the world. This is a doctrine proclaiming the identity of the world and God (Absolute). Its essence lies in the fact that God merges with him, is identified with man, with the world. God in pantheism cannot be conceived by Himself, apart from the world. God is completely immanent in the world. there is no personal God. |
|
|
Age of Enlightenment |
Recognizes God, but considers him only as the Creator of the world (and man), and his laws. God is completely transcendent to man, i.e. absolutely incomprehensible and inaccessible to him. Deism affirms. that on the part of God it is impossible to give help and means of salvation to a person, any kind of providence for him. |
Task 4. Exercises, comments
WEstablish what principles of organizing the life of society are common to the social utopias of T. More, T. Campanella, and Plato.
One of the forms of socio-political modification of the Renaissance was utopianism. Utopianism was not as striking as the doctrine of Machiavelli. However, the features of renaissance self-negation are quite noticeable here. The mere fact that the creation of an ideal society was attributed to very remote and uncertain times, quite clearly testified to the disbelief of the authors of such a utopia in the possibility of creating an ideal person immediately and as a result of the elementary efforts of people of the current time. There is almost nothing here of the Renaissance spontaneously human artistry, which brought such incredible joy to the Renaissance man and forced him to find ideal traits already in the state of the then society.
The greatest thing that has been in this area so far is confidence in the liberal reforms of the current and near present, which inspired the illusion of spontaneous selflessness of a real person of that time. The utopians, on the other hand, pushed all this into an indefinite future, and thereby revealed their complete disbelief in the ideal artistry of modern man.
a) The first utopian of the Renaissance is Thomas More (1478-1535), a very liberal-minded English statesman, a supporter of the sciences and arts, a propagandist of religious tolerance and a vivid critic of the then feudal and emerging capitalist orders. But he remained a faithful Catholic, opposed Protestantism, and after the departure of Henry XIII from the Catholic Church, he was mercilessly executed for his Catholic beliefs. In general, his activities relate either to civil history or to the history of literature. We can be interested here in only one of his works, which was published in 1516. titled "The Golden Book, as useful as it is funny, about the best arrangement of the state and about the new island of Utopia", since the whole aesthetics of the Renaissance is based on the spontaneous self-affirmation of the human personality in the state that More himself considered ideal.
In fact, More's depiction of the utopian man is a bizarre mixture of all sorts of old and new views, often liberal, often quite reactionary, but, apparently, with one main difference: from the bright revivalist artistry in More's utopian state, one might say, exactly nothing left. A person of a rather gray type is drawn, apparently controlled by the state, yet quite absolutist. Everyone should be engaged in physical labor according to state distribution, although the sciences and arts are not at all denied, but are even extolled by More, especially music. Society is divided into families, but families and these are understood more as a production, due to which belonging to a particular family is determined not only by the natural origin of family members, but first of all also by state decrees, by virtue of which family members can be transferred from one family to another for industrial or other government purposes. Mora also intervenes in marital affairs in the most significant way, and much in them is determined simply by state decree. Religion, generally speaking, any is allowed, including pagan worship of heavenly bodies. Full tolerance is required. Priests must be elected by the people. The activities of atheists are very limited, since the absence of religious faith interferes with the moral state of society. In any case, open speeches by atheists are prohibited. In addition, Christianity or monotheism in general is still recognized as the highest religion.
The family is recommended not to eat separately, but in common dining rooms. Except for some individual cases, everyone should have the same clothes. In this ideal state, slaves also play an important role. Not only is the very institution of slavery affirmed, but it is even shown to be very beneficial both for the state, which receives cheap labor in the form of slaves, and for the entire population of the country, for whom slaves are an example of what should not be done. Material pleasures are recognized. However, in More we read: “Utopians especially value spiritual pleasures, they consider them the first and dominant ones, the predominant part of them comes, in their opinion, from the exercise in virtue and the consciousness of a blameless life.” In other words, the bright and brilliant artistic aesthetics of the Renaissance is reduced here only to moralism, which is declared the highest "spiritual pleasure." The exaltation of production in comparison with consumption is striking. At the same time, Mora emphasizes the equalization of work and duties, as well as the primacy of the state over any public organizations and over the family. It is clear that all such features of More's utopianism were connected with the childish state of the then bourgeois-capitalist society. But for us it is more important that this is a modified Renaissance and one hundred modifications of this is directed by More towards the elimination of the spontaneously personal and artistically subjective individualism of the classical Renaissance.
b) another representative of revivalist utopianism is Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639). This is a major writer and public figure of his time, who suffered for preparing an anti-Spanish conspiracy in Naples and spent 27 years in prison, a monk and a convinced communist of the early utopian type. The features of early utopian communism are much more pronounced in Campanella than in More. In his treatise of 1602. under the title "City of the Sun" Campanella highlights the doctrine of labor, the abolition of private property and the community of wives and children, i.e. on the elimination of the family as the original social unit. Mora had none of this in vivid form. They talked about the influence of the ideas of early Christianity on Campanella. However, a careful study of Campanella's ideas shows that this influence is almost zero. And what undoubtedly influenced Campanella was, of course, the teaching of Plato in his Republic.
In the ideal State of the Sun of Campanella, like in Plato, philosophers and sages, contemplators of eternal ideas, and on this basis, who govern the entire state, are not so much secular rulers as real priests and clergymen. They are the absolute rulers of the entire state and society, right down to the smallest everyday regulation. Marriages are made only in accordance with state decrees, and children, after breastfeeding, are immediately taken from their mother by the state and brought up in special institutions, not only without any contact with their parents, but even without any acquaintance with them. Husbands and wives do not exist at all as current. They are such only in moments of decreed cohabitation. They shouldn't even know each other, just as they shouldn't know their own children. In antiquity, this weakened sense of personality was generally a natural phenomenon, and with Plato it was only brought to its limit. As for the Renaissance, the human personality was immediately at least in the first place. And therefore, what we find in Campanella is, of course, a rejection of the ideas of the Renaissance.
Nevertheless, it is also impossible to say that Campanella has nothing to do with the Renaissance at all. He is not only a preacher of positively understood labor; his entire utopia undoubtedly bears traces of revivalist views. Therefore, it would be more accurate to say that what we have before us is precisely a modified Renaissance, and precisely a Renaissance that criticizes itself in socio-political terms.
As for individual details, the Utopians of Campanella mock such rulers who, in the case of horses and dogs, are very attentive to their breed, but in the case of people they do not pay any attention to this breed. In other words, from Campanella's point of view, human society must be turned into an ideal stud farm. The “principal of procreation”, subordinate to the ruler of Love, is obliged to enter into such intimacy of sexual life, which we do not consider it necessary to talk about here, and astrology is used in sexual matters in the first place. The purest naivete are the indications that people should walk around in white clothes during the day, and at night and outside the city - in red, and woolen or silk, and black is completely prohibited. The same kind of advice about work, trade, swimming, games, treatment, getting up in the morning, about astrological methods for founding cities, and many others. Executioners in the exercise death penalty it is not supposed to, so as not to desecrate the state, but the people themselves stone the criminal, and first of all the accuser and witnesses. The sun is revered almost in a pagan manner, although the true deity is still considered higher. Copernicanism is rejected and the sky is recognized in the medieval sense.
In Campanella, a mixture of pagan, Christian, revivalist, scientific, mythological and completely superstitious views is striking. Thus, the aesthetically modified Renaissance is outlined in this utopia with the most striking features. The main thing is ignoring that spontaneously human and artistic individualism, which distinguished the aesthetics of the Renaissance from the very beginning. If we say that here we find a self-criticism and even a self-negation of the Renaissance, then we are hardly mistaken in this.
Engels refers the "City of the Sun" to utopian communism. But still not very accurate, and therefore, basically, researchers consider More and Campanella to be the founders of utopian socialism. But one can also consider Campanella as belonging to the humanistic trend, to utopian humanism, which gave this humanism an unprecedented democratic coloring and genuine universal breadth.
The "City of the Sun" bore the stamp of the time, and if some humanist prejudices do not allow this work to be attributed to "directly communist theories", nevertheless, Campanella's merits in spreading communist teachings are great. But paying tribute to this remarkable thinker, who saw the only deliverance from the cruelties of his time in the abolition of private property and the humanistic-philosophical transformation of society, one should not exaggerate the historical significance of the utopia he created. Of course, More and Campanella were both precursors of scientific socialism. But they cannot be combined with the utopianists of the 19th century - Saint-Simon and Owen - under the common heading "utopian socialism".
The "City of the Sun" represents a utopian-socialist doctrine in the history of humanism, and this allows us to consider it as an integral part of the Renaissance culture and see in the great Calabrian one of the great sons of the Renaissance.
WAccording to his biography, determine the name of the thinker.
Born in 1469 in Florence, where from 1498. and was in the public service. When in 1512 the republican government was replaced by the tyranny of the Medici, he was expelled from Florence. Experienced imprisonment, tortured. Describing his knowledge, he called himself a historian, comedian, tragedian. Traditionally, he is considered a philosopher of politics. In 1559 all of his writings were included in the first Index of Banned Books.- Machiavelli Niccolo.
Niccolò Machiavelli - public figure, historian, outstanding political thinker. He came from an old noble family. In his youth, he mastered the Latin language and freely read ancient authors. In the original, at the same time, Alighieri highly appreciated Dante, Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio - he was alien to the pedantry of the humanists, their reverence for antiquity.
He entered the history of political and legal thought as the author of a number of: "The Sovereign" (1513), "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius" (1519), "History of Florence" (first edition-1532), etc. His writings laid the foundation for political legal ideology of modern times.
The main object of Machiavelli's study was the state. It was he who first introduced the term "state". Before him, thinkers relied on such terms as city, empire, kingdom, republic, principality, etc.
Niccolo Machiavelli appears on the political arena of Florence at the age of about 30, when in the spring of 1498. elected to the post of secretary of the Second Chancellery, and then secretary of the Council of Ten - the government of the republic. For 14 years, he has carried out many important political assignments for the Florentine Signoria. He takes part in embassies to Rome, France, Germany, writes reports, memorandums, "Discourses", in which he touches on important issues of foreign and domestic policy of the republic. His "business" writings of this time testify to a deep understanding of the political situation in Italy and Europe, to an extraordinary observation, witty, analytical approach to the events of our time. This political experience formed the basis of his later writings in the field of political theory.
Machiavelli was not satisfied with religious ideas about the ideal person as a humble person, averse to real life. He approved of active people, especially commanders and rulers of states.
Machiavelli develops a new concept of the state as opposed to the theocratic concept of the state that prevailed at that time. He proceeds from the fact that the most powerful stimulus of human action is interest. Its manifestations are diverse, but most of all it manifests itself in the desire of people to preserve their property, their property. In this regard, Machiavelli gives recommendations to the ruler: “In order to avoid hatred, the sovereign must refrain from encroaching on the property of citizens and subjects, and on their women. The sovereign must beware of encroaching on someone else's property, for people would rather forgive the death of their father than the loss of property.
Machiavelli gives politicians practical advice to achieve real results. The quality of the people must be taken into account. According to Machiavelli, almost all civilized people are unscrupulous egoists. "People are more prone to evil than to good."
The real political reality leaves no room for beautiful-hearted dreams. It is necessary to clearly distinguish the real from the proper, to see that in life there is both good and evil.
Politics, according to Machiavelli, is a person's creed, and therefore occupies a dominant position in the worldview.
Machiavelli argues that power, whatever it is, must be firm, unshakable. He based politics on will, strength, cunning and experience.
Politics for Machiavelli is the result of the struggle of social forces, groups, individuals. The main role in it is played by human interest. Machiavelli saw the basis of his political doctrine in the inner nature of man, its basic properties. Hence the content of Machiavellianism.
Task 5. Knowledge test
a) "City of the Sun" 4) Tomaso Campanella
b) "The Sovereign" 1) Niccolo Machiavli
c) "Experiments" 2) Michel Montaigne
d) "Praise of stupidity" 3) Erasmus of Rotterdam
2. The last Italian humanist of the Renaissance is,
hell. boccaccio,
b) T. Campanella,
c) L. Valla,
d) M. Ficino.
3. The philosophical doctrine that everything is contained in God is called,
a) Theism
b) panpsychism,
c) Pantheism,
d) Deism.
4. The idea of the absence of a single, stable, strictly fixed center in the Universe was first put forward by
a) Galileo Galilei
b) Nicolaus Copernicus,
c) Johannes Kepler
d) Nicholas of Cusa.
5. The central idea of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance is,
a) the ideal of creationism,
b) the idea of a divine first impulse,
c) the idea of the passivity of matter,
d) the idea of self-activity of matter.
6. The words: “Better a worthy and heroic death than an unworthy and vile triumph,” belong to
a)D. Bruno,
b) L. Bruni,
c) G. Galileo,
d) B. Telesio.
7. The foundations of the philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa is,
a) Neoplatonism
b) Aristotelianism,
c) Stoicism
d) Atomistics.
8. The theologian and public figure of the Reformation era, the founder of German Protestantism, who opposed the idea of justification by “personal faith” to the Catholic doctrine of justification by “good works”, this
a) J. Calvin,
b) M. Luther,
d) y. Zwingli.
9. Renaissance culture was born
a) in Germany
b) England
c) Italy
d) Russia.
10. Was not an ideologue of the Reformation
a) I. Loyola,
b) J. Calvin,
c) W. Zwingli,
d) M. Luther.
Literature
1. Strelnik O.N. Philosophy: A short course of lectures. M.: Yurait-Izat, 2002-240 p.
2. Fundamentals of philosophy in questions and answers. Textbook for higher educational institutions. Phoenix Publishing. 1997. 448 p.
3. Man: Thinkers of the past and present about his life, death and immortality. The ancient world - the Age of Enlightenment / Ed.: I.T. Frolov and others; Comp. P.S. Gurevich. Moscow: Politizdat. 1991.
4. Radugin A.A. Philosophy: a course of lectures. M., 1996.
5. Bragina L.M. Italian humanism of the Renaissance. Ideals and practice of culture. M., 2002.
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Humanists of the Renaissance on the formation of personality (XIV-XVI centuries)
© Levit S. Ya., 2015
© Revyakina N. V., Kudryavtsev O. F., 2015
© Center for Humanitarian Initiatives, 2015
Introductory article
The Renaissance is a bright cultural period in the history of Europe, falling on the XIV - beginning of the XVII century. From other stages in the development of culture, it is distinguished by a huge interest in man, which is largely explained by the transitional nature of the Renaissance from the Middle Ages to the New Age, from feudalism to the bourgeois system. The destruction of feudal social structures and old forms of economic activity and the emergence of new ones put the individual in a special position - they demanded from her the development of personal initiative and energy, contributed to the development of self-awareness. The culture of the Renaissance largely reflects this process. But, aspiring to the future, she has and his vision of this future, and his vision of man. She offers her own image of a person to the era, her system of education is purposeful, her ideals turn out to be broader, loftier, nobler than the era required. Therefore, the culture of this period turned out to be understandable to future generations, and its ideas, teachings and artistic values retain their significance today.
The Renaissance shows us a truly grandiose work of human self-consciousness, carried out carefully and with interest in all spheres of cultural life - literature and philosophy, art and science. This exceptional interest in man gave the name to the leading ideological trend in the Renaissance - humanism (from Latin homo, humanus - man, humane) - and outlined its content. Humanism arises in the sphere of philological culture, which was understood more broadly than in the Middle Ages, and included, along with the traditional disciplines of the Middle Ages (primarily grammar and rhetoric), history, moral philosophy, and poetry. These studia humanitatis - the sciences of man - form the basis of humanistic culture, although they do not exhaust it and are constantly enriched, absorbing natural science ideas. In the field of human sciences, a new understanding of man is born, the influence of which is felt in all areas of cultural life.
Humanism was inspired antiquity, it was she who became one of his main cultural sources. The humanists enthusiastically searched for the works of ancient authors throughout Europe and Byzantium, lovingly revived them, bringing them to the light of God, like prisoners from a dungeon (the image of Poggio Bracciolini), carefully rewrote and distributed, translated (first into Latin from Greek, later into national languages) and, when printing appeared, they published vigorously. Such a peculiar attitude towards antiquity, with the help of which the humanists wanted to recreate culture after the dark, as they believed, centuries of decline in the Middle Ages, and gave the name to the entire cultural era - the Renaissance (Renaissance - fr.). Humanists turned to Antiquity (first to the Latin heritage, later to the Greek) both in order to substantiate their own ideas and in order to polemic with the medieval tradition that was becoming obsolete. Cicero and Seneca, Terence and Plautus, Virgil and Lucian, Aristotle, Plato, Epicurus, Titus Livius, Thucydides and other Roman and Greek poets, philosophers, and historians each attracted them in their own way. But the humanists never set themselves the goal of restoring in all its completeness and accuracy this or that ancient teaching, they included antique ideas into their ideas and teachings, they built their own house from a variety of bricks of antiquity. In addition, the thinkers of antiquity were often interpreted in their own way, connected with each other, intricately coordinated with Christianity.
Christianity, mostly early, was another important source of humanism. It was also revived, searching for the writings of the Church Fathers and Christian writers (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius, the Greek Fathers of the Church), sometimes forgotten in the Middle Ages. However, Christianity among the humanists is not reducible to references to the Bible and the Fathers of the Church, its influence is deeper. The Christian tradition that stood behind the humanists enriched humanistic thought with spirituality and attention to psychology, made the ideal of man more sublime, deepened the interest in individuality, in the “I”, in self-knowledge, outlined by life itself, and strengthened the moral principle. In northern humanism, where the influence of Christianity was stronger, this led to the emergence of "Christian humanism", with which the names of Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More and others are associated.
In humanism makes itself felt and medieval tradition, it existed anonymously in it, since the humanists, as a rule, did not refer to medieval authors, although the most remarkable of the writers of the Middle Ages, such as Dante, were known to the humanists and aroused their deep respect. The greatest influence of medieval tradition, and in particular folk culture, is felt in the humanism of Germany and France.
The birth of humanism, as well as the beginning of the Renaissance, was associated with Italy - a country of city-states with their rapid economic activity, which, in terms of scale and forms of organization, went beyond the Middle Ages; with their no less intense political life, diversity and dynamism of forms of government; with the development of secular culture, the demand for which in connection with secularization has greatly increased. The intense life of the Italian cities brought to the historical arena energetic and enterprising people who think, feel and act differently than their medieval counterparts. A merchant who came from a populan or peasant environment, a condottiere of humble origin who became the ruler of a city or a major military leader, a humanist who comes from any stratum of society, sometimes from the very bottom - they all achieve a high position and good luck thanks to their own personal qualities, work, knowledge. An atmosphere arises in society in which the individual, incentives and motives for his actions begin to be highly valued, and new norms of behavior are understood. This new psychological atmosphere and cultural shifts in the cities became a favorable environment in which the humanist ideology was born. New sentiments were reflected in the writings of the humanists, and, raising them to the level of theory, transforming them into teachings and concepts, the humanists acted as ideologists of new strata in society. But they themselves were “new people”, they represented the secular intelligentsia that appeared in society for the first time, marking the first stage of its development, and therefore needed self-affirmation, in justification and exaltation of one's own activity. As cultural figures, they developed, based on rich mental material, their own ideas about man and the world, about morality and education, and sought to introduce them into the public consciousness. Humanism from the very beginning declared itself as an active, life-related and life-influencing ideology.
Francesco Petrarch is rightfully considered the first humanist, his role in the development of humanism is recognized by his contemporaries and descendants. Like Socrates, he brought philosophy down from heaven to earth and, in a polemic with scholasticism, proclaimed man the main object of knowledge of philosophy and all sciences. The most important knowledge for a person, says Petrarch, is knowledge about himself: what is he, why does he exist, where is he going? He also offers a way of knowing a person - self-knowledge, the brilliant experience of which he revealed to the world with his treatises, letters, poetry. But self-knowledge for him is not only the knowledge of himself by a particular person, although this task is the most important for Petrarch, for a person for him is a reflection of divine light on earth, and the riches of his soul are inexhaustible. Self-knowledge of man for Petrarch, as far as can be understood from his polemic with the scholastics, is the knowledge of man within the boundaries of his humanity, in all his human specificity, with all his complex and rich spiritual life, and not in the way animals are known (“two-legged quadrupeds” - he ironically over the scholastics).
With his reflections on man as the main subject of knowledge, Petrarch undoubtedly increased interest in man and raised the importance of the sciences that study man. What is important in his approach is, first of all, the position he has taken, anthropocentrism, i.e., the idea of the central place of man in the universe; in humanism before Montaigne this approach would be the leading one.
Anthropocentrism, in essence, is not a new approach, it is characteristic of Christianity: the domination of man in the world is eloquently stated in the Bible. According to Christian teaching, man, endowed with reason and an immortal soul, differs thereby from other creatures over which he has been given the right to rule. However, the sin of the forefathers - Adam and Eve, transmitted by them to the human race, led to a perversion of the will of man, deprived him of the ability to do good deeds - this is what Augustine and other early Christian writers said; in medieval theology, when interpreting original sin, the emphasis was shifted to the body - the conductor of sin, because with its help at the time of conception, sin is transmitted to people. By virtue of the fall, a person cannot achieve salvation on his own, without the help of divine grace, and find the right path in earthly deeds. This is how a person's place and path in the world looks dramatic internally.
The Renaissance is an era in the history of European culture of the XIII-XVI centuries, which marked the onset of the New Age. The Renaissance is one of the most striking phenomena in the history of European culture. The ideological roots of the Renaissance went back to antiquity, but also to the secular traditions of medieval culture. Here, the work of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) can be considered a kind of starting point. His "Divine Comedy" became the herald of a new era.
Starting from the XIV-XV centuries. in the countries of Western Europe, a number of changes are taking place, marking the beginning of a new era, which went down in history under the name of the Renaissance. These changes were associated primarily with the process of secularization (liberation from religion and church institutions) that took place in all areas of cultural and social life. Independence in relation to the church acquires not only economic and political life, but also science, art, philosophy. True, this process is carried out very slowly at first and proceeds differently in different countries of Europe.
The new era recognizes itself as a renaissance ancient culture, an ancient way of life, a way of thinking and feeling, from where the very name Renaissance comes, i.e. Renaissance. In reality, however, the Renaissance man and the Renaissance culture and philosophy are essentially different from the ancient one. Although the Renaissance opposes itself to medieval Christianity, it arose as a result of the development of medieval culture, and therefore bears such features that were not characteristic of antiquity.
It would be wrong to assume that the Middle Ages did not know antiquity at all or completely rejected it. It has already been said what a great influence on medieval philosophy had at first Platonism, and later - Aristotelianism. In the Middle Ages in Western Europe they read Virgil, quoted Cicero, Pliny the Elder, and loved Seneca. But at the same time there was a strong difference in attitude towards antiquity in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance. The Middle Ages treated antiquity as an authority, the Renaissance as an ideal. Authority is taken seriously, it is followed without a distance; the ideal is admired, but admired aesthetically, with a constant sense of distance between it and reality.
The most important distinguishing feature of the Renaissance worldview is its focus on art: if the Middle Ages can be called a religious era, then the Renaissance is an artistic and aesthetic era par excellence. And if the focus of antiquity was natural-cosmic life, in the Middle Ages - God and the idea of salvation associated with him, then in the Renaissance, the focus is on man. Therefore, the philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.
Humanism is a moral position that expresses recognition of the value of a person as a person, respect for his dignity, striving for his good as the goal of the social process.
In medieval society, corporate and class ties between people were very strong, so even prominent people acted, as a rule, as representatives of the corporation, the system they headed, like the heads of the feudal state and the church. In the Renaissance, on the contrary, the individual acquires much greater independence, he increasingly represents not this or that union, but himself. From here grow a new self-consciousness of a person and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, consciousness of one's own strength and talent become the distinctive qualities of a person. In contrast to the consciousness of the medieval man, who considered himself wholly indebted to tradition - even when he, as an artist, scientist or philosopher, made a significant contribution to it - the individual of the Renaissance is inclined to attribute all his merits to himself.
It was the Renaissance that gave the world a number of outstanding individuals with a bright temperament, comprehensive education, who stood out from the rest with their will, determination, and tremendous energy.
Versatility is the ideal of a renaissance man. The theory of architecture, painting and sculpture, mathematics, mechanics, cartography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy - this is the circle of studies, for example, of the Florentine artist and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). In contrast to the medieval master, who belonged to his corporation, workshop, etc. and achieved mastery in this area, the Renaissance master, freed from the corporation and forced to defend his honor and his interests, sees the highest merit precisely in the comprehensiveness of his knowledge and skills.
Here, however, one more point must be taken into account. We now know well how many all kinds of practical skills and abilities any peasant must have - both in the Middle Ages and in any other era - in order to properly manage his economy, and his knowledge applies not only to agriculture, but also to the masses. other areas: after all, he builds his own house, puts simple equipment in order, breeds livestock, plows, sews, weaves, etc. etc. But all this knowledge and skills do not become an end in itself for the peasant, as, indeed, for the artisan, and therefore do not become the subject of special reflection, and even more so of demonstration. The desire to become an outstanding master - an artist, a poet, a scientist, etc. - the general atmosphere that surrounds gifted people with literally religious worship contributes: they are now a little like heroes in antiquity, and saints in the Middle Ages.
This atmosphere is especially characteristic of the circles of the so-called humanists. These circles originated earlier in Italy - in Florence, Naples, Rome. Their feature was an oppositional attitude both to the church and to the universities, these traditional centers of medieval learning.
Let us now see how the Renaissance understanding of humanism differs from the ancient one. Let us turn to the reasoning of one of the Italian humanists, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), in his famous Oration on the Dignity of Man. Having created man and “placed him at the center of the world,” God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with these words: “We do not give you, O Adam, either a certain place, or your own image, or a special obligation, so that both face and duty you had of your own free will, according to your will and your decision. The image of other creations is determined within the limits of the laws we have established. But you, not constrained by any limits, will determine your image according to your decision, in the power of which I leave you.
This is not an ancient idea of a person at all. In antiquity, man was a natural being in the sense that his boundaries were determined by nature and it depended on him only whether he followed nature or deviated from it. Hence the intellectualistic, rationalistic character of ancient Greek ethics. Knowledge, according to Socrates, is necessary for moral action; a person must know what good consists in, and having known this, he will certainly follow good. Figuratively speaking, ancient man recognizes nature as his mistress, and not himself as the master of nature.
In Pico, we hear echoes of the teaching about a person to whom God has given free will and who himself must decide his fate, determine his place in the world. Man here is not just a natural being, he is the creator of himself and this distinguishes him from other natural beings. He is master of all nature. This biblical motif has now been significantly transformed: in the Renaissance, the belief characteristic of the Middle Ages in the sinfulness of man and the depravity of human nature gradually weakens, and as a result, man no longer needs divine grace for his salvation. To the extent that a person realizes himself as the creator of his own life and destiny, he also turns out to be an unlimited master over nature.
Man did not feel such power, such power over everything that exists, including himself, either in antiquity or in the Middle Ages. He no longer needs the grace of God, without which, due to his sinfulness, he, as they believed in the Middle Ages, could not cope with the shortcomings of his own "damaged" nature. He himself is the creator, and therefore the figure of the artist-creator becomes, as it were, a symbol of the Renaissance.
Any activity - be it the activity of a painter, sculptor, architect or engineer, navigator or poet - is now perceived differently than in antiquity and in the Middle Ages. Among the ancient Greeks, contemplation was placed above activity (the only exception was state activity). This is understandable: contemplation (in Greek - "theory") introduces a person to what is eternal, that is, to the very essence of nature, while activity immerses him in the transient, vain world of "opinion". In the Middle Ages, the attitude to activity changed somewhat. Christianity considers labor as a kind of atonement for sins (“in the sweat of your face you will eat your bread”) and no longer considers labor, including physical labor, to be a slave occupation. However, the highest form of activity is recognized here as that which leads to the salvation of the soul, and it is in many ways akin to contemplation: it is prayer, liturgical ritual, reading sacred books. And only in the Renaissance, creative activity acquires a kind of sacred (sacred) character. With its help, a person not only satisfies his purely earthly needs, he creates a new world, creates beauty, creates the highest thing in the world - himself.
And it is no coincidence that it was in the Renaissance that the line that previously existed between science (as the comprehension of being), practical and technical activity, which was called "art", and artistic fantasy was blurred for the first time. Now an engineer and an artist is not just a “craftsman”, “technician”, as he was for antiquity and the Middle Ages, but a creator. From now on, the artist imitates not just the creations of God, but the very divine creativity. In the creation of God, that is, in natural things, he seeks to see the law of their construction.
It is clear that such an understanding of man is very far from the ancient, although humanists are aware of themselves reviving antiquity. The dividing line between the Renaissance and antiquity was drawn by Christianity, which tore man out of the cosmic element, linking him with the transcendent Creator of the world. A personal, freedom-based union with the Creator took the place of the former - pagan - rootedness of man in the cosmos. The human person ("inner man") has acquired a value never seen before. But all this value of the individual in the Middle Ages rested on the union of man with God, i.e. was not autonomous: by itself, apart from God, man had no value.
The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism, and it is not by chance that painting, depicting, first of all, a beautiful human face and human body, becomes the dominant art form in this era. In the great artists - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, the worldview of the Renaissance receives the highest expression. humanism renaissance human personality
In the Renaissance, as never before, the value of the individual increased. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in the human being in all the diversity of its manifestations. Above all, in this era, the originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed. A sophisticated artistic taste everywhere knows how to recognize and emphasize this originality; originality and dissimilarity to others becomes the most important sign of a great personality.
Often, therefore, one can come across the assertion that it was in the Renaissance that the concept of personality as such was first formed in general. Indeed, if we identify the concept of personality with the concept of individuality, then such a statement will be quite legitimate. However, in reality, the concept of personality and individuality should be distinguished. Individuality is an aesthetic category, while personality is a moral and ethical category. If we consider a person from the point of view of how and in what way he differs from all people, then we look at him as if from the outside, with the eye of an artist; in this case, we apply only one criterion to human actions - the criterion of originality. As for the personality, the main thing in it is different: the ability to distinguish between good and evil and act in accordance with such a distinction. Along with this, the second most important definition of personality appears - the ability to bear responsibility for one's actions. And the enrichment of individuality does not always coincide with the development and deepening of the personality: the aesthetic and moral and ethical aspects of development can differ significantly from each other. So, the rich development of individuality in the XIV-XVI centuries. often accompanied by extremes of individualism; the intrinsic value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to man.
The Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (circa 1469-1536), a Catholic writer, theologian, biblical scholar, philologist, was not a philosopher in the strict sense of the word, but made a huge impact on his contemporaries. “He is amazed, praised and extolled,” Camerarius wrote, “everyone who does not want to be considered a stranger in the realm of the Muses.” As a writer, Erasmus of Rotterdam began to gain fame when he was already in his thirties. This fame grew steadily, and his writings deservedly brought him the glory of the best Latin writer of his century. Better than all other humanists, Erasmus appreciated the mighty power of printing, and his activities are inextricably linked with such famous printers of the 16th century as Aldus Manutius in Venice, Johann Froben in Basel, Badius Ascensius in Paris, who immediately published everything that came out from under his pen. Thus, Erasmus of Rotterdam was the first to publish the full text of the Bible in Greek and Latin on the basis of numerous ancient manuscripts at his disposal. Then, under pressure from the church, he was forced to make significant changes to the original printed text of the Bible in subsequent editions. The third edition of the Bible of Erasmus of Rotterdam later became the basis of the so-called "Textus Receprus" (Generally Accepted Text), which practically formed the basis of the canonical text of the Bible approved at the Council of Trent in 1565 by the Catholic Church, the basis of all translations of the Bible into national languages. Also his famous work"Praise of Stupidity" was translated into European languages and sold in tens of thousands of copies, a figure unheard of at that time. Before the prohibition of his works in 1559 by the Council of Trent, Erasmus was perhaps the most published European author. Via printing press- "almost a divine instrument", as Erasmus called it - he published one work after another and led, thanks to living connections with the humanists of all countries (as eleven volumes of his correspondence testify), a kind of "republic of the humanities", just as in the 18th century, Voltaire led the enlightenment movement. Tens of thousands of copies of Erasmus' books were his weapons in the fight against a whole army of monks and theologians who tirelessly preached against him and sent his followers to the stake.
Such success, such wide recognition was due not only to the talent and exceptional ability to work of Erasmus of Rotterdam, but also to the cause to which he served and devoted his whole life. It was a great cultural movement that marked the Renaissance and only relatively recently, only in the last century, received the exact name "humanism". Having arisen on the basis of fundamental economic and social changes in the life of medieval Europe, this movement was associated with the development of a new worldview, which, in contrast to religious theocentrism, placed in the center of its attention a person, his diverse, by no means otherworldly, interests and needs, revealing the wealth inherent in him. opportunities and affirmation of its dignity.
A prominent German humanist was Ulrich von Guten (1488-1523). Comparing his time with the previous Middle Ages, he exclaimed: "The mind has awakened! Life has become a pleasure!!" Addressing religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants, he threw: "Eat each other until you yourself are eaten!"
The French humanist Peter Ramus was murdered by Catholic assassins during the infamous St. Bartholomew's Night in 1592. Ramus was a follower of Calvin and fell victim to religious fanaticism. Even at the beginning of his scientific career, Ramus made a bold thesis: "Everything that Aristotle says is fictitious." He tried to prove the groundlessness of the general foundations of Aristotelian logic, challenged the teachings of the Stagirite .. Ramus rejected both ontology and epistemology, and the ethics of Aristotle. It is characteristic that the criticism of Aristotle's teachings by Peter Ramus did not find support even from the Platonist Giordano Bruno, who called him a "French archipedant" who "understood Aristotle, but understood him poorly."
Also, a certain contribution to the development of humanism in the Renaissance was made by the New Latin poet Hessus, who was born in 1488 in Hesse, which is why he called himself Hessus. He also gave himself the name Helius, because he was born on a Sunday. His real name is Eoban Koch. He enjoyed great fame as a humanist, a friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam and Ulrich von Guten. He was a professor of Latin in Erfurt, a teacher of rhetoric and poetry in Nuremberg and a professor in Marburg. Possessing a great improvisational talent and a thorough knowledge of the Latin language, he did not create anything lasting; she was a stormy, unstable nature, incapable of either energetic work or sincere and lasting devotion to ideas; even the turbulent era of the Reformation attracted him more with its outward side than with the struggle for cherished ideals. Excesses, selfishness and selfish protection of their interests eventually alienated him from the humanists. Of his poetic works, collected in "Eobani Hessi operum farragines duae", more significant are "Sylvae" - a collection of idylls, epigrams and poems, and "Her o lden" - letters from saints from Mary to Kunigunda, where a direct imitation of Ovid is felt. Of his translations, the Psalms (Marburg, 1537, more than 40 editions) and the Iliad (Basel, 1540) are especially famous.
The famous philosopher, orator, scientist, humanist and poet Aeneas Pico de la Mirandola (1463-1494) also contributed to the development of humanism. He knew perfectly all the Romano-Germanic and Slavic languages and besides - ancient Greek, Latin, Old Hebrew (Biblical Gibrim), Chaldean (Babylonian) and Arabic. With his knowledge, Mirandola amazed others at the age of ten. The Spanish inquisitors began to persecute him from this childhood, arguing that "such a great depth of knowledge at such an early age cannot appear otherwise than with the help of a pact with the devil." In a speech prepared for the failed debate on the topic: “On the Dignity of Man” (De hominis dignitate), he wrote: “I put you in the middle of the world,” the Creator said to the first person, “so that you could look around and see everything that surrounds you the more easily, I did not create you as either a heavenly or a gross earthly being, neither mortal nor immortal, only so that you - by your own will and to your honor - become your own sculptor and creator. You can descend to an animal and rise to a god-like being, beasts they carry out of the mother's womb everything that they should have, while the higher spirits at first, or shortly after their birth, are what they remain forever. . Mirandola owns a beautiful and meaningful expression: "Man is the blacksmith of his own happiness" (Homo - fortunae suae ipse faber). Following the figures of the Renaissance, we still call humanitarian education that education that gives a person knowledge of languages (including at least one of the ancient ones: Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit or Pali), philosophy, history, art.
Marsilio Ficino exalted a lot in the development of humanism. On his philosophical views the magico-theurgical works of Trismegistus, Zoroaster and Orpheus had a strong effect. He personally believed that it was they who formed the views of Plato. The meaning of philosophical activity for him is to prepare the soul in such a way that the intellect is able to perceive the light of divine revelation, in this respect philosophy for him coincides with religion. Ficino conceives metaphysical reality according to the Neoplatonist scheme, in the form of a descending succession of perfections. He has five of them: God, angel, soul, quality (= form) and matter. The soul acts as a "connection node" of the first two and the last two steps. With more features high world, it is able to revive the lower levels of being. As a Neoplatonist, Ficino distinguishes between the soul of the world, the soul of the heavenly spheres and the soul of living creatures, but his interests are most of all connected with the soul of a thinking person. In the sequence indicated above, the soul either ascends towards the higher levels, or vice versa descends to the lower ones. On this occasion, Ficino writes: “It (the soul) is that which exists among mortal things, without itself being mortal, since it enters and completes, but is not divided into parts, and when it is connected, it is not scattered, as it is concluded about it. And since, while she governs the body, she also adjoins the divine, she is the mistress of the body, and not a companion. She is the supreme miracle of nature. Other things under God, each in itself, are separate objects: it is at the same time all things. It contains the images of divine things on which it depends; it is also the cause and pattern for all things of a lower order, which it produces in a certain way. Being the mediator of all things, she penetrates everything. And if this is so, it penetrates everything ... therefore it can rightly be called the center of nature, the mediator of all things, the cohesion of the world, the face of everything, the knot and bundle of the world. The theme of the soul in Ficino is closely related to the concept of “platonic love”, which he understands as love for God in all its manifestations.
The humanist of the English Renaissance was W. Shakespeare. He, too, depicted a human person who steps up to fight the feudal world. His "Romeo and Juliet" is the most prominent anthem of love. Their love is not only a passionate feeling that does not recognize any obstacles, but, like any high love, it is a feeling that endlessly enriches the soul. Renaissance humanists argued that reality is the person himself, and not his nickname or some artificial label (according to origin or place in society). In the person himself, his positive qualities and shortcomings are paramount, everything else, including family retellings and family responsibilities, is secondary. "What is a Montague?" - thinks thirteen-year-old Juliet, who, thanks to her feelings, has risen to the understanding of important, inevitable truths. - Is that what the face and shoulders, legs, chest and arms are called? The love of Romeo and Juliet - an irresistible, pure and heroic feeling - lasts only a few days. Power and strength are not on the side of the lovers, but on the side of the old forms of life, where the fate of a person is determined not by feelings, but by money, false notions of family honor. But, despite the fact that the heroes die, light and truth, goodness and love triumph in tragedy.
Representatives of the so-called civil humanism - Leonardo Bruni and Matteo Palmieri, who asserted the ideal of an active civil life and the principles of republicanism. In Praise of the City of Florence, History of the Florentine People, and other writings, Leonardo Bruni (1370/74--1444) presents the republic on the Arno as an example of popolan democracy, although he notes aristocratic tendencies in its development. He is convinced that only in conditions of freedom, equality and justice is it possible to realize the ideal of humanistic ethics - the formation of a perfect citizen who serves his native commune, is proud of it and finds happiness in economic success, family prosperity and personal prowess. Freedom, equality and justice here meant freedom from tyranny, the equality of all citizens before the law and the observance of law in all spheres of public life. Bruni attached particular importance to moral upbringing and education, he saw in moral philosophy and pedagogy the practical "science of life" necessary for everyone to achieve earthly happiness. Leonardo Bruni is a humanist and politician, who for many years was the chancellor of the Florentine Republic, an excellent connoisseur of Latin and Greek, who made a new translation of Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Politics", a brilliant historian, who first turned to a serious study of documents about the medieval past of Florence, - Bruni, highly revered by his fellow citizens, did extremely much for the development of Renaissance culture in the first decades of the 15th century. Under the influence of his ideas, civil humanism was formed, the main center of which throughout the 15th century. remained Florence.
In the works of Bruni's younger contemporary, Matteo Palmieri (1400--1475), especially in the dialogue "Civil Life", the ideological principles of this trend found a detailed exposition and further development. The moral philosophy of Palmieri is based on the concept of “natural sociality” of a person, hence the ethical maxim of subordinating personal interests to collective ones, “serving the common good”.
Humanism had a huge impact on the entire culture of the Renaissance, becoming its ideological core. The humanistic ideal of a harmonious, endowed with the talent of creation, heroized person was reflected with particular completeness in the Renaissance art of the 15th century, which in turn enriched this ideal with artistic means. Painting, sculpture, architecture, which entered the first decades of the XV century. on the path of radical transformation, innovation, creative discoveries, developed in a secular direction. In the architecture of this time, a new type of building is being formed - an urban dwelling (palazzo), a country residence (villa), improved different kinds public buildings. The functionality of the new architecture is in harmony with its aesthetic principles. The use of the order system established on the ancient basis emphasized the majesty of the buildings and at the same time their proportionality to a person. In contrast to medieval architecture, the external appearance of the buildings was organically combined with the interior. The severity and solemn simplicity of the facades are combined with spacious, richly decorated interiors. Renaissance architecture, creating a human habitat, did not suppress, but elevated it, strengthening self-confidence. In sculpture, Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the Rossellino brothers, Benedetto da Maiano, the Della Robbia family, Verrocchio pass from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. The art of relief reaches a high level, marked by harmonious proportions, plasticity of figures, secular interpretation of religious subjects. An important conquest of the Renaissance sculpture of the XV century. there was a separation from architecture, the removal of a free-standing statue to the square (monuments to the condottieri in Padua and Venice). The art of sculptural portraiture is developing rapidly. The painting of the Italian Renaissance took shape primarily in Florence. Its founder was Masaccio. In his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, the glorification of images is inseparable from their life reality and plastic expressiveness (the figures of Adam and Eve expelled from paradise). Titanism manifested itself in art and life. Suffice it to recall the poet, the heroic images created by Michelangelo, and their very creator, the artist, the sculptor. People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man. Thus, we see that the humanists yearned, sought to be heard, expounding their opinion, “clarifying” the situation, because the man of the 15th century got lost in himself, fell out of one system of beliefs and has not yet established himself in another. Each figure of Humanism embodied or tried to bring his theories to life. Humanists not only believed in a renewed happy intellectual society, but also tried to build this society on their own, organizing schools and giving lectures, explaining their theories. ordinary people. Humanism covered almost all spheres of human life.
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